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44 Estimation of Sediment Yield in Barat Daya Pulau

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44 Estimation of Sediment Yield in Barat Daya Pulau Sumayyah Aimi, International Journal of Environment, Society and Space, 2017, 5(1), 44-59 ESTIMATION OF SEDIMENT YIELD IN BARAT DAYA PULAU PINANG, MALAYSIA Sumayyah Aimi Mohd Najib1* 1Department of Geography & Environment, Faculty of Human Sciences, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 35900 Tanjong Malim, Perak. Abstract: Sediment yield estimation in rivers at the regional or local scale is very important especially in terms of managing the water resources in the catchment area. The sediment yield is usually calculated either from direct measurement of sediment concentration in rivers or from sediment transport equation at a particular outlet point in the catchment. A total of 19 rivers were selected as sampling sites located at the Barat Daya District of Pulau Pinang. The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) was used to estimate the sediment yield in the study area by integrating with the Geographic Information System (GIS) to generate maps of the USLE factors, which are rainfall erosivity (R), soil erodibility (K), slope length and steepness (LS), crop management (C), and conservation practice (P) factors. A sediment rating curves of the study area was developed to verify the accuracy as well as comparison to the sediment yield estimated by USLE. The results show good correlation between the sediment yield estimated by USLE and observed data (r2 is 0.62). The sediment yield estimated in the year 1974 was 1300 ton/km2/year, 1984 was 1921 ton/km2/year, 2004 was 1919 ton/km2/year and 2012 was 2336 ton/km2/year. Based on the land use analysis, agricultural activity was dominant in the Barat Daya area and contributes much of the sediment into the river system. Keywords: estimation sediment yield, USLE, Barat Daya Pulau Pinang, Malaysia Abstrak: Anggaran hasilan sedimen dalam sungai pada skala serantau atau tempatan adalah sangat penting terutama dari segi menguruskan sumber air di dalam kawasan tadahan. Hasilan sedimen biasanya dikira sama ada dari pengukuran langsung kepekatan sedimen di dalam sungai atau dari persamaan pengangkutan sedimen di tempat keluar khususnya di kawasan tadahan. Sebanyak 19 sungai telah dipilih sebagai kawasan persampelan yang terletak di Daerah Barat Daya Pulau Pinang. Persamaan Kehilangan Tanih Sejagat (USLE) telah digunakan untuk menganggarkan hasilan sedimen di kawasan kajian dengan mengintegrasikannya menggunakan Sistem Maklumat Geografi (GIS) untuk menjana peta faktor USLE, iaitu faktor erosiviti hujan (R), erodibiliti tanih (K) , panjang cerun dan kecuraman (LS), pengurusan tanaman (C), dan amalan pemuliharaan (P). Kaedah keluk sedimen kawasan kajian telah dibangunkan untuk mengesahkan ketepatan dan juga perbandingan dengan hasilan sedimen yang dianggarkan oleh USLE. Hasil kajian menunjukkan korelasi yang baik antara hasilan sedimen yang dianggarkan oleh USLE dan data yang dicerap (r2 adalah 0.62). Hasil sedimen dianggarkan pada tahun 1974 adalah 1300 tan/km2/tahun, 1984 adalah 1921 tan/km2/tahun, tahun 2004 adalah 1919 tan/km2/tahun dan tahun 2012 adalah 2336 tan/km2/tahun. Berdasarkan analisis guna tanah, aktiviti pertanian adalah dominan di kawasan Barat Daya dan dianggap sumbangan terbesar bagi nilai sedimen ke dalam sistem sungai. Kata kunci: Anggaran hasilan sedimen, USLE, Barat Daya Pulau Pinang, Malaysia * E-mail: [email protected] 44 Sumayyah Aimi, International Journal of Environment, Society and Space, 2017, 5(1), 44-59 INTRODUCTION Soil erosion is a worldwide problem because of its economic and environmental impacts. Many human-induced activities, such as mining, construction, and agricultural activities disturb land surface, resulting in accelerated erosion (Lim et al., 2005). Over the past 40 years, 30 per cent of the world’s arable land has become unproductive. Erosion also reduces the ability of the soil to store water and support plant growth, thereby reducing its ability to support biodiversity (Lal, 1990). Sediment yield is the amount of sediment load passing the outlet of a catchment and is the net result of erosion and deposition processes within a basin. It can be expressed in absolute terms (t yr−1) or per unit area (t km−2 yr−1) (Jain, Mishra and Shah, 2010). The amount of sediment yield generated within a catchment is a function of a number of anthropogenic and physical factors including farming, mining, construction, slope, basin area and rainfall intensity. Information on sediment yield of a river basin is an important requirement for water resources development and management (Akrasi, 2011), because high sediment loads affect water quality, water supply, flood control, reservoir lifespan, irrigation, navigation, fishing, tourism, hydro-power generation, river channel morphology and stability (Schwartz and Greenbaum, 2009). During the last decades, many different models have been proposed to describe and predict soil erosion by water and associated sediment yield, varying considerably in their objectives, time and spatial scale involved, as well as in their conceptual basis (De Vente and Poesen, 2005). Hence, the main objective of this study is to estimate sediment yield using USLE and Rating Curve Method and to estimate past sediment yield for the year of 1974, 1984, 2004 and 2012, for 19 catchments in the Barat Daya District, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia. LITERATURE REVIEW The soil erosion involves the processes of detachment, transportation and deposition (Brady & Weil, 1999). Sediment which is separated from the soil surface was due to impact of raindrop and shear forces of flowing water. Then, the sediment will be transported down the slope of the hill particularly by the flowing water, although there are a small number caused by splashing rain (Walling, 1988). Soil erosion is one of the most serious and challenging environmental issues related to land management all over the world. It is a complex natural process altered by anthropogenic activities such as clearing of lands, agricultural practices, surface mining, construction and urbanization. It is reported that seventy five billion metric tons of soil are removed from land annually by wind and water erosion (Pimentel, 1995). Water erosion which accelerated by anthropogenic activities is the key process that has been taking place in humid and tropical regions. The detached sediments from hillslopes by sheet, rill and gully erosion are exported to the river systems, a significant portion of that is silted into many inland reservoirs, and the rest is being transferred to the ocean. Many studies have revealed that sediment loads in the rivers of Asia have been rapidly increasing as a result of increased rate of inland soil erosion. Increasing pressure on land and fragile ecosystems by rapidly growing population is the main reason for accelerated soil erosion Transportation of suspended sediments in rivers is very complex, non-linear, dynamic and widely scattered due to the influence of physical processes involved and variability in space and time. Therefore, studying the behaviour of suspended sediment transportation in rivers is also an elusive task in hydrology (Diyabalanage et al., 2017). Similarly, estimation of suspended sediment loads in rivers is a major concern since information on sediment loads of rivers can be used for many studies such as evaluation of contaminant transport, reservoir sedimentation, environmental impact assessment, sediment transport to oceans, channel and harbour siltation, soil erosion and ecological impacts (Horowitz, 2003; Syvitski, et al., 2000). 45 Sumayyah Aimi, International Journal of Environment, Society and Space, 2017, 5(1), 44-59 Soil Erosion Processes In the tropics, the process of soil erosion occur more actively than in temperate climates and it has already brought pressure and contribute to environmental problems (Yang et al., 2003). Asia is reported the highest erosion rates with the loss of sediment by an annual average of about 166 tons/km2 compared to 47.43 and 93 tons/km2 for Africa, Europe and South America (El-Swaify et al., 1982; Doughlas, 1994). Soil erosion is a two-phase process consisting of removal of particles from the mass of soil and transported by agents that cause erosion such as running water (Morgan, 1986). Both phases are closely related to the hydrological cycle and both are influenced by various factors, then it also varies through space and time (Thornes, 1980). The detachment of soil particles from the soil surface is from rainfall intensity and flow of surface runoff. Strong local shear stress in the ground by the impact of raindrops, leading to fragmentation of interstitial holding soil particles (Loch & Silburn, 1996). When rainfall exceeds the infiltration rate of the soil surface and storage capacity began to slip, surface runoff occurs, which consists of a very thin layer of water (Bridges & Oldeman, 1999). Surface flow causes shear stress on the surface where if it exceeds the strength of the soil cohesion, it will give a decision on the removal of sediment (Meritt et al., 2003). The number particles of soil eroded and transported is controlled by splashing water capacity and water flow, thus bringing the particles of soil sliding down the slope (Lal, 1990). Therefore, the deposition of eroded soil particles may occur depending on the surface area of the organization, capacity and transport flows in the event of a reduction in water velocity, suspended sediment deposition may occur. Four main processes of erosion control is erosivity (erosion), erodibility of soil, the protection of plants and soil surface gradient (Foster, 1981; Morgan, 1986). MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGIES Study area Barat Daya District of Pulau Pinang was selected as the study area, which consists of 19 river catchments. Figure 2 and Figure 3 show the location and land uses of each catchment, and the morphological characteristic of the respective catchment is shown in Table 1. The list of the selected rivers are the Upstream and Downstream of Relau River, Upstream and Downstream of Ara River, and Bayan Lepas River. The area is categorized as an built up area of development. The second area is the area that includes rivers in the western part of the study area, namely Sg. Pulau Betong, Sg.
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