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Aspects of Salience in Natural Language Generation / by T ASPECTS OF SALIENCE IN NATURAL LANGUAGE GENERATION T. Pattabhiraman B.Tech., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, 1982 M. S., University of Kentucky, Lexington, 1984 A THESISSUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOROF PHILOSOPHY in the School of Computing Science @ T. Pattabhiraman 1992 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY August 1992 All rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. APPROVAL Name: T. Pattabhiraman Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Title of Thesis: Aspects of Salience in Natural Language Gen- eration Examining Committee: Dr. Bill Havens, Chairman Dr. Nicholas J. ~erkone,Senior Supervisor vy fi.,j$. Hadley, Supervisor wR&mond E. Jennings, Supervisor Dr. Frederick P. Popowich, Examiner Dr. David D. McDonald, Professor, Computer Science, Brandeis University, External Examiner Date Approved: PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICENSE I hereby grant to Simon Fraser University the right to lend my thesis, project or extended essay (the title of which is shown below) to users of the Simon Fraser University Library, and to make partial or single copies only for such users or in response to a request from the library of any other university, or other educational institution, on its own behalf or for one of its users. I further agree that permission for multiple copying of this work for scholarly purposes may be granted by me or the Dean of Graduate Studies. It is understood that copying or publication of this work for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Title of Thesis/Project/Extended Essay Aspects of Salience in Natural Language Generat ion. Author: (signature) Thiyagaraj asarma Pat tabhiraman (name) August 11, 1992 (date) Abstract This dissertation examines the role of salience in natural language generation (NLG). The salience of an entity, in intuitive terms, refers to its prominence, and is interpreted as a measure of how well an entity stands out from other entities and biases the preference of the generator in selecting words and com- plex constructs. Through an analysis of previous work in diverse disciplines, we show the variety of salience effects in NLG. Next, we classify several impor- tant determinants of salience, corresponding to different factors contributing to salience. We then delineate two theoretically-significant categories: canonical salience and instantial salience. The former is characterized as a built-in preference in the general conceptual- and linguistic knowledge of the speaker. The latter refers to the salience of specific objects in the context of NLG, and may accrue through such determinants as vividness and recency of mention. Psycholinguis- tic results of Osgood and Bock are highlighted to suggest the multiplicative interaction between canonical salience and instantial salience. This interac- tion is captured in a decision-theoretic formalization which models canonical salience as probabilities, instantial salience as utilities, and the selection crite- rion as maximization of expected utility. Next we consider the phenomena of basic level- and entry level preference in naming objects. We argue that basic level preference in taxonomic concept knowledge is a form of canonical salience. By establishing the stark similarity of the conclusions of the psychological experiments of Jolicoeur et al. to those of Osgood and Bock, the dynamics of preferring names for objects is concep- tualized as an interaction between canonical salience and instantial salience. We demonstrate the suitability of decision theory to model this interaction. Our model of salience interactions is further reinforced in a study of simile generation. We model property salience as information-theoretic redundancy and equivalently, as expected utility. To avert miscommunication and anomaly, we propose two different cost measures (antipodal to utility) using probabilis- tic knowledge and intrinsicness, and develop net expected utility as a decision criterion for selecting objects of comparison in similes. We conclude in this thesis that the multi-aspect notion of salience pro- vides subtle, quantitative control in language generation decisions, and cap- tures interesting and significant effects such as graded judgments and relative frequencies of linguistic constructs. To Amma and Appa Acknowledgments I acknowledge with gratitude the support, help and encouragement I received from many individuals in conducting my graduate studies at SFU and com- pleting this dissertation. First and foremost, my thanks are due to my Senior Supervisor Dr. Nick Cercone for providing individualized and patient supervision, constant encour- agement and opportunities for all-round development, and most of all, for creating an intellectually liberal and open-minded environment for conducting research. I thank Dr. Ray Jennings for the many fruitful discussions, and for inspiring creativity ('Never do a safe thesis'), and Dr. Bob Hadley for encouraging me to seek psychological clues. I also thank Dr. Veronica Dahl for introducing me to computational linguistics and to natural language gen- eration (NLG), and Dr. Romas Aleliunas for the many fascinating discussions we had at the incipient stages of this research. Drs. Fred Popowich, Dan Fass and Jim Delgrande helped with literature search. Drs. Binay Bhattacharya and Art Liestman provided moral support and good counsel. Kersti Jaager helped in numerous ways and showed a personal interest in my progress. Tim, Stephen, Honman, Frank, Peter, Steve and Ed helped with the use of the computing facilities at the Centre for Systems Science and the School of Computing Science. SFU library was very responsive to my suggestions for book acquisition. Generous financial support for sustaining my studies and travelling to con- ferences was provided by Simon Fraser University (several graduate research fellowships), the Natural Sciences and Engineering ~esearchCouncil of Canada and Centre for Systems Science (thanks to Dr. Nick Cercone), the British Columbia Advanced Systems Foundation (graduate scholarship) and IJCAII (conference travel award). Valuable initial experience for NLG research was gained through participation in the project supported by IBM Canada and conducted by Dr. Veronica Dahl. My special thanks are due to the members of the international NLG re- search community (the list is too long to enumerate here!) who have helped me immensely by obliging literature requests, discussing research issues over e-mail, and providing feedback and encouragement at conferences. Sanjay and Sumathi, Mahesh and Pathmini, Ram, Ramesh, Rao, Ekam and their families, Param and Kalpagam and innumerable other friends and colleagues have made my stay at SFU pleasant, and have helped me in countless ways. I thank them all. Special thanks to Bob and Audrey who provided a home away from home. I am greatly indebted to my parents, grandparents, brother, sisters, teach- ers, friends and relatives for their role in shaping and supporting my interests and instilling in me a zest for life. vii Contents ... Abstract 111 Acknowledgments vi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Overview of the Thesis ....................... 3 2 Salience Effects in NLG 7 2.1 Studying Salience in NLG ..................... 8 2.2 Salience and NLG Decisions .................... 9 2.2.1 Content Selection ...................... 9 2.2.2 Content Ordering ...................... 11 2.2.3 Lexical Selection ...................... 11 2.2.4 Linearization ........................ 14 2.2.5 Generating Referring Expressions ............. 17 2.3 Synthesis ............................... 21 3 Determinants of Salience 23 3.1 Bearers of Salience ......................... 24 3.1.1 Propagation ......................... 25 3.2 Salience Determinants ....................... 26 3.2.1 Vividness and Imageability ................. 27 3.2.2 Uniqueness ..........................28 3.2.3 Pervasiveness ........................ 29 ... Vlll 3.2.4 Property Salience in Cognitive Psychology ........ 30 3.2.5 Perspectives from Cognitive Linguistics .......... 34 3.2.6 Association, Conventionality and Entrenchment ..... 36 3.2.7 Concreteness ........................ 37 3.2.8 Speaker Motivation ..................... 37 3.2.9 Humanness and Animacy ................. 40 3.2.10 Processual Determinants .................. 41 4 Canonical Salience 44 4.1 Built-in Preference ......................... 46 4.2 Canonical Salience and Instantial Salience ............ 46 4.2.1 Instantial Salience ..................... 47 4.2.2 Remarks ........................... 48 4.3 Naturalness and the Perceptual Connection ........... 49 4.3.1 Evidence for Naturalness .................. 49 4.3.2 Discussion .......................... 52 4.4 Sridhar's Perceptual Hypotheses .................. 52 4.5 Herskovits on Spatial Prepositions ................. 54 4.5.1 Figure/Ground Asymmetry ................ 54 4.5.2 Remarks ........................... 56 4.6 Langacker's Analysis ........................ 56 4.7 Clues from Formal Linguistics ................... 57 4.8 Discussion .............................. 59 4.8.1 Forms of Statement of Canonical Salience ........ 59 4.8.2 Computationally Relevant Characteristics of Canonical Salience ........................... 60 4.8.3 Difficult Issues ....................... 60 5 Salience Interactions in Phrase Choice 63 5.1 Interactions between Canonical Salience and Instantial Salience 63 5.1.1 Two Major Types of Interactions ............. 64 5.2 Evidence on the Canonical-Instantial
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