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Open Boes Final Dissertation.Pdf The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of the Liberal Arts DEFENDING DARFUR: THE PROBLEMS AND POTENTIAL OF SPEAKING FOR OTHERS A Dissertation in Communication Arts and Sciences by Cynthia D. Boes Copyright 2010 Cynthia D. Boes Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2010 ii The dissertation of Cynthia D. Boes was reviewed and approved* by the following: Thomas W. Benson Edwin Erle Sparks Professor of Rhetoric Head of the Department of Communication Arts and Sciences Thesis Adviser Chair of Committee J. Michael Hogan Professor of Communication Arts and Sciences Jeremy Engels Assistant Professor of Communication Arts and Sciences Linda Selzer Associate Professor of English and American Studies *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School. iii Abstract Since Linda Alcoff wrote ―The Problem of Speaking for Others‖ in 1991, the literature of speaking for others has developed slowly and sporadically. Theorists and critics in various disciplines have used her conclusions as well as those of Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak to create a broader understanding of various ways of ―speaking‖ and the ways in which a speaker can help and hurt the spoken-for while speaking. In this dissertation, I analyze the literature of speaking for others along with other relevant scholarly literature to help make clearer what it means to speak for others and why and how such an act could benefit the spoken-for. One of the major concerns in speaking for others is the way the speakers‘ identity affect the message. Identity theories and whiteness studies help to explain what it is about the speakers‘ identity that is significant for their message and possible ways to overcome potential problems that identities might place on the message. Rhetorical theory also directly relates to speaking for others, showing what it means to speak and how the message can be most effective. In this dissertation, I synthesize speaking for others, identity, and rhetorical literature to create a stronger understanding of the benefits and problems inherent in the act of speaking for others. In order to understand how these conclusions affect speaking, I apply them to ten popular culture texts which speak for Darfur and their speakers. I analyze the identities of the speaker, spoken-for, and audience to show how identities affect the messages. I also analyze the messages to demonstrate ways that speakers for Darfur are able to help the Darfurian victims as well as ways in which their messages might hinder an audience from taking action to help the Darfurian people. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1. Why Speak for Others? ..................................................................................... 1 The origin of scholarship on speaking for others............................................................ 5 Speaking for others: Theories and case studies .............................................................. 9 The importance of rhetoric: Identification and silence ................................................. 20 The importance of identity: Concepts ........................................................................... 28 The lack of dialogue: A case study ............................................................................... 36 Defining speaking for others ......................................................................................... 44 Chapter preview ............................................................................................................ 49 Chapter 2. A Framework for a Criticism of Speaking for Others ..................................... 52 The spoken-for as subaltern and silenced ..................................................................... 52 Identifying the speaker .................................................................................................. 64 Identifying the speaking act .......................................................................................... 67 Rhetorical criticism of speaking for others ................................................................... 71 Chapter 3. The Situation for Speakers for Darfur ............................................................. 74 The conflict ................................................................................................................... 75 The Darfuri people ........................................................................................................ 96 Speakers‘ identities ..................................................................................................... 104 The audience ............................................................................................................... 128 Chapter 4. A Rhetorical Criticism of Speaking for Darfur ............................................. 134 What it means to speak for Darfur .............................................................................. 134 Being for Darfur .......................................................................................................... 161 Darfurians as Others ................................................................................................... 172 Chapter 5. Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 182 Notes ............................................................................................................................... 191 Bibliography……………………...…………………………………………………….205 1 Chapter 1. Why Speak for Others? In 1994, the African country of Rwanda found itself in the midst of chaos. Between April and July the Hutu militia murdered between eight hundred thousand and one million Rwandans. Despite the enormity of the massacre, most people not directly affected by the civil war either did not care enough about the genocide to pressure legislators into taking action or did not know how to help the Rwandan people. Human rights organizations such as Human Rights Watch and the Red Cross along with missionaries to Rwanda who had been evacuated from Rwanda in early April spoke out about the genocide occurring in Rwanda, but their words did not persuade those in a position to act to help the Rwandans.1 Samantha Power, in her analysis of genocide in the twenty-first century, found that the world was aware that genocide was occurring but had no will to change it. Citizens did not place political pressure on the government and so the government chose the safer route of talking about genocide rather than acting to stop it.2 During the Rwandan genocide, the Clinton administration heard updates about the atrocities that were occurring, but ―no group or groups in the United States made Clinton administration decisionmakers feel or fear that they would pay a political price for doing nothing to save Rwandans. Indeed, all the signals told them to steer clear.‖3 As a result of this world-wide inaction, those innocent men, women, and children were murdered without anyone stepping in to help them. When people do not speak out against genocide or other problems such as war, famine, discrimination, or environmental degradation, the outside world is less likely to learn about the problem and to have an opportunity to aid the victims. 2 When people do speak out about the problems of the world, if they are unable to make those in positions of power care, the problems persist. In 2000, a conflict emerged with similarities to the devastation of the Rwandan Civil War. Rebels in Darfur, the western region of Sudan, began to protest their lack of representation in Khartoum. In 2003, the Sudanese government sent militia into Darfur to fight against rebel fighters who were attacking government posts. The militia, called the Janjaweed, began to systematically destroy the civilian population in Darfur.4 They burned villages, raped women, and murdered men, women, and children throughout the region. For the first year of the Darfur conflict, the world outside Sudan ignored information regarding the attacks on the civilian population just as they ignored the situation in Rwanda. However, in 2004 people in the United States as well as countries throughout the world began to use public forums to inform the United Nations (UN) and their own governments and citizens about the plight of the people of Darfur. Since that time, humanitarian aid has been sent to the people throughout the region to lessen their suffering somewhat, but the violence has not ended. The problem is not that people are not speaking out about the issue but that the government has not instituted polices to lead to permanent change to end the conflict. Because the situation has continued for six years, a closer look at the rhetorical choices the advocates of Darfur are making is warranted to see if those choices have failed to persuade the audience to pressure the government to take action. The potential problems that emerge when a person from one social group represents the interests of a group to which s/he does not belong have led scholars from a variety of disciplinary backgrounds to evaluate the phenomenon they have entitled ―speaking for others.‖5 Scholars of rhetoric, philosophy, women‘s studies, intercultural 3 studies, English, whiteness studies, and media have all studied speaking for others and taken multiple stances regarding the concept. Some merely describe what speaking for others involves, without passing judgment; some analyze who should speak and who should not;
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