american academy of arts & sciences

mrcnaaeyo rs&sciences & arts of academy american winter 2011 Bulletin vol. lxiv, no. 2 Academy Welcomes 230th Class of Members Induction 2010 Weekend Celebrates the Arts, the Humanities, and the Sciences

Technology and the Public Good A Free Press for a Global Society Lee C. Bollinger Technology and Culture Paul Sagan, Robert Darnton, David S. Ferriero, and Marjorie M. Scardino ultnwne 2011 winter bulletin Cybersecurity and the Cloud Tom Leighton, Vinton G. Cerf, Raymond E. Ozzie, and Richard Hale

ALSO INSIDE: Commission on the Humanities & Social Sciences The Academy Around the Country Condoleezza Rice on Public Service Calendar of Events

Thursday, Thursday, April 14, 2011 May 5, 2011 Symposium–Cambridge Annual Meeting and Founders’ Day Contents in collaboration with the National Academy Celebration–Cambridge of Engineering, Institute of Medicine, and An Evening of Chamber Music Academy News Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Location: House of the Academy Academy Inducts 230th Class Sciences of Members 1 Privacy, Autonomy and Personal Genetic Commission on the Humanities Information in the Digital Age SAVE THE DATE & Social Sciences 2 Location: House of the Academy Induction Weekend 2011 Induction Ceremony: Challenges September 30 – October 2, 2011 Facing Our Global Society 9 Thursday, Induction Symposium April 14, 2011 For information and reservations, contact the Events Of½ce (phone: 617-576-5032; A Free Press for a Global Society Stated Meeting–Cambridge email: [email protected]). Lee C. Bollinger 17 in collaboration with the National Academy Technology and Culture of Engineering, Institute of Medicine, and Paul Sagan, Robert Darnton, Harvard School of Engineering and Applied David S. Ferriero, and Sciences Marjorie M. Scardino 22 Making America More Competitive, Cybersecurity and the Cloud Innovative, and Healthy Tom Leighton, Vinton G. Cerf, Speakers: Harvey V. Fineberg, Institute Richard Hale, and Raymond Ozzie 32 of Medicine; Cherry A. Murray, Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences; Charles M. Vest, National Around the Country 43 Academy of Engineering

Science and the Educated American 48 Location: House of the Academy

Academy Projects 49

Academy Meeting Torture, Privacy, and Presidential Power in the Age of Terror Charles Fried and Gregory Fried 64

Noteworthy 71

Remembrance 75

Condoleezza Rice at the Academy 76 Academy News

Academy Inducts 230th Class of Members

Top: Liev Schreiber ’10 (New York, NY); Middle: Alan Alda ’06 (New York, NY) and James Leach ’10 (National Endowment for the Humanities); Bottom: Council Cochairs Gerald John Lithgow (Los Angeles, California) and Mary Yeager (ucla), after Early (Washington Univer- reading from the letters of John and Abigail Adams sity in St. Louis) and Neal Lane (Rice University) The American Academy of Arts and Sciences inducted 228 distinguished scholars, artists, and institutional and public leaders on Saturday, October 9, 2010. Among the new members are winners of the Nobel, Shaw, and Pulitzer prizes; recipients of MacArthur and Guggenheim fellowships; and winners of Academy, Grammy, Tony, and Emmy awards.

“The men and women we elect Angeles. Lithgow introduced today are true pathbreakers who the letters with an impassioned have made unique contributions appeal for the support of the to their ½elds and to the world,” humanities: “No nation, no said Academy Chair Louis W. matter how vulnerable or em- Cabot. “The Academy honors battled, no matter how much them and their work, and they, its health is in jeopardy, can af- in turn, honor us.” ford to turn its back on the arts. In fact, those are the moments The 2010 Induction weekend when the arts are the most vital, began with an evening celebra- the most important, and the tion of the arts and the humani- most in need of support.” ties and included a reading from the letters of John and Abigail The evening celebration of the Adams by new Fellow John Lith- arts and the humanities also gow, actor, author, and record- featured musical performances. ing artist, and his wife, Mary Conductor, pianist, and Fellow Yeager, professor of history at Dennis Russell Davies and the University of California, Los Continued on page 5

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 1 Commission on the Humanities & Social Sciences

Academy Launches National Commission on the Humanities & Social Sciences

On February 17, 2011, Academy President Leslie Berlowitz announced the creation of “Our nation’s long tradition a national commission to bolster teaching of research and scholarship and research in the humanities and social in humanities and social sci- sciences–½elds that are critical to culture, education, and America’s economic com- ence has been the basis for an petitiveness. The Commission on the Humani- informed citizenry that comes ties and Social Sciences is chaired by Fellows from many countries, races, Richard H. Brodhead, President of Duke Richard H. Brodhead religions, and cultures, but University, and John W. Rowe, Chairman and Chief Executive Of½cer of Exelon Cor- shares a common set of ideals, poration, and includes prominent Americans such as liberty, equal opportunity, and the rule of law. from the humanities, the social sciences, I am pleased that the American Academy is creating this the physical and life sciences, business, law, Commission to provide recommendations on the best philanthropy, the arts, and the media. ways to maintain our nation’s excellence in humanities Answering a bipartisan request from United and social science education, from grade-school history States Senators Lamar Alexander (R-Ten- classes to graduate-level economic research.” nessee) and Mark Warner (D-Virginia) and –Senator Lamar Alexander (R-Tennessee) Representatives Tom Petri (R-Wisconsin) John W. Rowe and David Price (D-North Carolina), the Academy created the Commission on the Humanities and Social Sciences to respond to the following charge: “I look forward to learning more about how we can What are the top ten actions that Congress, state governments, further strengthen the arts, universities, foundations, educators, individual benefactors, and others should take now to maintain national excellence in humanities, and social sci- humanities and social scienti½c scholarship and education, and ences throughout the country. to achieve long-term national goals for our intellectual and eco- Understanding where we are, nomic well-being; for a stronger, more vibrant civil society; and where we have been, and for the success of cultural diplomacy in the twenty-½rst century? where we need to go is so im- “The humanities and social sciences provide the intellectual frame- portant, and I am pleased that the Academy is tackling work for the nation’s economic, political, and governing institu- tions,” said Commission Cochair Richard H. Brodhead. “They this challenge.” enrich our lives and our understanding. Americans already appre- –Senator Mark Warner (D-Virginia) ciate the importance of math and science to our future; this Com- mission will remind Americans of the long-term importance of the liberal arts as well.”

2 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Commission Cochair John W. Rowe added: “Knowledge of his- tory, an understanding of civic institutions, the ability to use evidence and to think creatively, an aptitude for cross-cultural “To preserve and build on communication–these are all vital attributes of a twenty-½rst- America’s traditions and century citizen.” principles, we must have a “The American Academy, with its long record of stewardship and ½rm understanding of our support for the humanities and social sciences, is well-suited to lead unique history, culture, and this effort,” said Leslie Berlowitz. “Scholarship and education in heritage. Our humanities and these disciplines enable our citizens and our government to adapt to evolving circumstances at home and abroad. They are critical to social science institutions our ability to compete in a global economy.” help to foster that understand- ing, and the results of this report will guide us as we work The initial ½ndings of the Commission on the Humanities and Social Sciences will serve as a companion to a National Academies forth- to strengthen those institutions.” coming report on the future of the research university and ways to –Representative Tom Petri (R-Wisconsin) strengthen the American scienti½c enterprise.

On March 7, 2011, in a speech at the annual meeting of the National Humanities Alliance in Washington, DC, Leslie Berlowitz described “As our world becomes more the goals of the Commission: “We have witnessed crises in the past, interconnected, building a but too often our responses have been episodic and defensive. It is solid foundation in the hu- time to stop talking about a crisis. What we need is a sustained, long- manities is of vital national term, deeply collaborative effort to af½rm the importance of the importance. It is the humani- humanities and social sciences to the cultural, political, and econom- ic well-being of the nation.” (The full text of her remarks may be ties that ground, inform, and found on the Academy website at www.amacad.org.) shape our civic, cultural, and

The American Academy Commission will draw on past research intellectual lives. Maintain- efforts, data from its Humanities Indicators, and the experience and ing a robust capacity for teaching and research in these expertise of a multidisciplinary group of national leaders to rec- ½elds will help provide a context and a framework for ommend speci½c, actionable steps to maintain the nation’s excel- the most current and urgent policy debates. I look for- lence in the humanities and the social sciences. The Commission will focus on education, research, and the institutions critical to ward to receiving the Commission’s recommendations.” advancing the humanities and social sciences in the nation. The –Representative David Price (D-North Carolina) Commission expects to complete its work over the next eighteen to twenty-four months.

The Academy is grateful to the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation for helping to launch the work of the Commission.

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 3 Commission on the Humanities and Social Sciences

Members of the American Academy Commission on the Humanities and Social Sciences

Leslie C. Berlowitz, President, American Academy of Arts Emmylou Harris, Musician/Songwriter and Sciences Robert M. Hauser, Professor of Sociology; Director, Center Richard H. Brodhead, President, Duke University, Cochair for Demography of Health and Aging, University of Wisconsin- Madison John W. Rowe, Chairman and Chief Executive Of½cer, Exelon Corporation, Cochair F. Warren Hellman, Co-Founder, Hellman & Friedman llc John L. Hennessy, President, Stanford University Danielle S. Allen, Professor of Political Science, Institute Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Professor of Communications; Director, for Advanced Study Annenberg Public Policy Center, University of Pennsylvania Kwame Anthony Appiah, Professor of Philosophy, Princeton John I. Jenkins, President, University of Notre Dame University John Lithgow, Actor Norman R. Augustine, Chairman and Chief Executive Of½cer (Retired), Lockheed Martin Corporation George Lucas, Producer, Screenwriter, Director, Founder, and Chairman, Lucas½lm Ltd. Robert M. Berdahl, President, Association of American Universities Yo-Yo Ma, Musician Phil Bredesen, Jr., Former Governor of Tennessee Carolyn “Biddy” Martin, Chancellor, University of Wisconsin- Madison David Brooks, Journalist, The New York Times Anthony W. Marx, President, Amherst College; President- Louise H. Bryson, Chair Emerita, J. Paul Getty Trust Designate, New York Public Library Ken Burns, Director and Producer, Florentine Films James McNerney, Chairman, President, and Chief Executive Tom Campbell, Dean, School of Law, Chapman University; Of½cer, Boeing Company Former United States Representative Carl H. Pforzheimer III, Managing Partner, Carl H. Pforzheimer G. Wayne Clough, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution and Co. James Cuno, President and Director, Art Institute of Chicago Earl A. Powell III, Director, National Gallery of Art Gerald Early, Professor of Modern Letters; Director, Center for John Sexton, President, New York University the Humanities, Washington University in St. Louis Donna E. Shalala, President, University of Miami John Engler, President, Business Roundtable; Former Governor David J. Skorton, President, Cornell University of Michigan David Souter, Former Associate Justice, Supreme Court of the Drew Gilpin Faust, President, Harvard University United States Roger W. Ferguson, Jr., President and Chief Executive Of½cer, tiaa-cref Eric Sundquist, Professor of English, Johns Hopkins University Billie Tsien, Architect, Tod Williams Billie Tsien Architects Richard B. Freeman, Professor of Economics, Harvard University Charles M. Vest, President, National Academy of Engineering Annette Gordon-Reed, Professor of Law, Professor of History, Harvard University John E. Warnock, Chairman of the Board, Adobe Systems, Inc. Anthony Grafton, Professor of History, Princeton University Diane P. Wood, Federal Judge, United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit Amy Gutmann, President, University of Pennsylvania Pauline Yu, President, American Council of Learned Societies

4 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Induction 2010

Induction: continued from page 1 pianist Maki Namekawa performed “Four Movements for Two Pianos” written by Fellow Philip Glass. Violinist and new Fellow Arnold Steinhardt, accompanied by pianist Maki Namekawa, performed Mendelssohn’s “Sonata for Violin and Piano in F major” (movement 2).

The program also included readings by new Fellows Henri Cole, poet and Professor of English at Ohio State University, and Marilyn Robinson, novelist and professor at the Writers’ Workshop at the University of Iowa, as well as by longtime Fellow Denis Donoghue, University Professor and Henry James Professor of English and American Letters at New York University, who discussed “The Blue Swallows” written by the late Fellow Howard Nemerov. James Leach (National Endowment for the Humanities), Roger Fergu- tiaa-cref During the Induction Ceremony, actor, director, screenwriter, son, Jr. ( ), Susan Desmond-Hellmann (University of Cali- fornia, San Francisco), G. Wayne Clough (Smithsonian Institution), and new Fellow Liev Schreiber read a selection of acceptance let- and Robert Gallucci (John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation) ters written by Academy members George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, John Stuart Mill, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Mary Leakey. The ceremony also included presenta- tions by ½ve new members. G. Wayne Clough, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, spoke on the need for improved scienti½c literacy; Susan Desmond-Hellmann, Chancellor of the University of California, San Francisco, discussed translating scienti½c break- throughs for clinical gains; Robert L. Gallucci, President of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, spoke about the bene½ts of an interdisciplinary approach to problem-solving; James Leach, Chairman of the National Endowment for the Humanities, alerted members to the looming crisis in the humanities; and Roger W. Ferguson, Jr., President and Chief Executive Of½cer of tiaa- cref, explained how business should serve society.

In his address, Robert Gallucci shared his vision for America: Henri Cole (Ohio State University), Marilyn Robinson (University of “America and the world face challenges that demand our best in- Iowa), and Denis Donoghue (New York University) tellectual efforts. My aspiration is for shared intelligence, an on- going exchange between our best conceptual thinkers, sharpest researchers, and most accomplished policy-makers.”

Susan Desmond-Hellmann spoke about the challenges to improv- ing human health: “Our goal of improving human health cannot be achieved solely through disease prevention. We must do every- thing we can to capitalize on the ongoing explosion of scienti½c knowledge in order to innovate and, ultimately, to decrease pain and suffering.”

The Induction weekend concluded with a program on Technology and the Public Good. Lee C. Bollinger, President of Columbia University, gave a keynote address on “A Free Press for a Global Society.” He noted: “The world is undergoing momentous changes through the forces of globalization. We need a free press that is Maki Namekawa and Dennis Russell Davies ’09 (Bruckner Orchestra suitable to this new world. To achieve that goal, we must change Linz and the Linz Opera; Basel Symphony Orchestra) our basic concepts and develop our laws and policies to deal with

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 5 Induction 2010

the serious issues of access, censorship, and the capacity of the press to provide the information we need. Only then can the press do its part to help shape a world that will work for ends we believe in.”

Bollinger’s address was followed by two panel discussions on technology. Fellow Paul Sagan, Chief Executive Of½cer of Akamai Technologies, moderated a conversation on “Technology and Cul- ture,” which included presentations by Fellow Robert Darnton, Carl H. Pforzheimer University Professor at Harvard University and Director of the Harvard University Library, new Fellow David Ferriero, Archivist of the United States, and new Fellow Marjorie Scardino, Chief Executive of Pearson PLC.

Tom Leighton, Professor of Applied Mathematics at mit, Co- founder and Chief Scientist at Akamai Technologies, and member Lee C. Bollinger (Columbia University) and Leslie Berlowitz of the Academy Trust, moderated the second panel discussion on “Cybersecurity and the Cloud.” The panelists included Fellow Vinton Cerf, Vice President and Chief Internet Evangelist at Google Inc., new Fellow Raymond Ozzie, Chief Software Architect at Microsoft Corporation, and Richard Hale, Chief Information Assurance Executive at the Defense Information Systems Agency at the U.S. Department of Defense.

Speaking on personal privacy and security on the Internet, Cerf said, “We are now in an environment where security is hard to come by and privacy is equally beleaguered. . . . In the end, I think we all have discovered that it is still the individual computer or programmed component that has to defend itself, because you can walk around the ½rewall with a virus-infected usb memory stick and thereby infect the interior of what should have been a protected perimeter. I think we have to build much more robust and resistant Panel on Technology and Culture: Robert Darnton (Harvard Univer- sity), David Ferriero (U.S. National Archives and Records Adminis- systems that are capable of protecting machines and their content. tration), Marjorie Scardino (Pearson plc), and Paul Sagan (Akamai We cannot rely strictly on any external defense that is not im- Technologies) plicit in the design of the devices themselves or their software.”

Moving from the discussion of individual to corporate security, Ozzie noted: “Our entire infrastructure is under constant attack by a number of different classes of actor; that is something we just have to deal with as the nature of the environment. We cannot de- lude ourselves into thinking that we can achieve perfection, and we will have to ½nd ways to channel resources systematically to keep the threat level down and to rally together to address emergencies as they come along.”

Video highlights of the 2010 Induction weekend are available on the Academy’s website at http://www.amacad.org/events/ Induction2010.

Panel on Cybersecurity and the Cloud: Raymond Ozzie (Microsoft Corporation), Vinton Cerf (Google Inc.), Tom Leighton (mit and Akamai Technologies), and Richard Hale (U.S. Department of Defense)

6 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Induction 2010

Top: Andrea Bertozzi ’10 (University of California, Los Angeles) and Laurence Senelick ’10 (Tufts University); Howard Fields ’10 (University of California, San Francisco) and Ronald Hoy ’10 (Cornell University); Bottom: Martin Gruebele ’10 (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign), Yitzhak Apeloig ’10 (Technion-Israel Institute of Technology), William Goddard III ’10 (California Institute of Technology), Samuel Gell- man ’10 (University of Wisconsin-Madison), Joseph Francisco ’10 (Purdue University; American Chemical Society), Jerrold Meinwald ’70 (Cornell University)

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 7 Induction 2010

Top: Louise Bryson ’10 (J. Paul Getty Trust) and James Jackson ’10 (University of Michigan); Bruce Walker ’10 (Harvard Medical School; Massa- chusetts General Hospital) and Brian Stock ’10 (University of Toronto); Middle: Robert Darnton ’80 (Harvard University), Carl Pforzheimer ’02 (Carl H. Pforzheimer and Co.), and David Ferriero ’10 (U.S. National Archives and Records Administration); Joseph Polisi ’09 (The Juilliard School) and David Robertson ’10 (St. Louis Symphony Orchestra); Bottom: Christiane Amanpour ’10 (ABC News) and David Brooks ’10 (New York Times Company); Arnold Steinhardt ’10 (New York, NY)

8 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Induction 2010 Challenges Facing Our Global Society

On October 9, 2010, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences inducted its 230th class of Fellows and Foreign Honorary Members at a ceremony held in Cambridge, Massachusetts. G. Wayne Clough, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution; Susan Desmond-Hellmann, Chancellor, University of California, San Francisco; Robert L. Gallucci, President, John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation; James A. Leach, Chairman, National Endowment for the Humanities; and Roger W. Ferguson, Jr., President and Chief Executive Of½cer, tiaa-cref, addressed the audience. Their remarks appear below.

time in and around 1780 was transformative, Scienti½c literacy has coinciding not only with the Revolutionary War but also with new ideas about individual become a major challenge, rights and the roles of government. Scien- ti½c and technological discovery was com- and the politicization of ing in waves. Indeed, the very changes that issues like evolution and were occurring in 1780 led to the philosoph- ical basis for the institutions that we love climate change further and that support us today–institutions like this Academy, our great universities, and our lessens the possibility museums. What is even more important, I for constructive action. think, is that such institutions have a vital role to play in our nation’s future–especially when it comes to the notion of scienti½c time, he sought to force his alma mater, Wil- literacy for the general public. liam and Mary, to include more science in its curriculum. He didn’t succeed, but he got Unlike the eighteenth century, today it is no his revenge by creating the University of longer possible for one person, as Thomas G. Wayne Clough Virginia two decades later. Within a three- Jefferson could, to comprehend the whole year period around 1780, Jefferson wrote Secretary, Smithsonian Institution of scienti½c knowledge. We live in an era of the Virginia Statute of Religious Freedom, exponential expansion of scienti½c special- which he later used in the design of his Improving Scienti½c Literacy ties. Research and development is a world- university and which predicates how we wide enterprise now funded to the tune of operate public universities today. He also As I was thinking about what I might say $1 trillion. It is estimated that 1,200 exobytes completed Notes on Virginia, the ½rst natu- on this auspicious occasion, the phrase “we of data are being created each year. (If you ral history document to be published in live in a time of rapid change” kept coming don’t know what an exobyte is, it’s a lot.) the United States. into my mind. I kept batting it away, trying This situation has signi½cant implications to get it out of my mind, but I came to a point that we need to think about, and to its credit, And of course, as I mentioned, John Adams, of inertia. So I did what I do these days: I the Academy is doing just that. James Bowdoin, and John Hancock forged went to Google. I typed “we live in a time of the idea for the Academy during the Amer- In 1780, as the colonies fought for their in- ican Revolution. They wanted to provide rapid change” into the search ½eld, and in dependence, Benjamin Franklin worked 0.29 seconds, Google returned 7,520,000 the right forum for scholars to exchange feverishly as our top diplomat to engage our views on the arts and sciences. examples of recent speeches and publica- allies to help. But as the foremost American tions in which that phrase has been used. scientist, he also found time to invent bifo- At the same time, in England and Europe, And so my mind turned elsewhere for an- cals and discover the Gulf Stream. Earlier, science and technology entered an age of other topic. It took me to the year 1780–230 he had created the American Philosophical expansion, the age of wonder. William Her- years ago–when this institution was found- Society, the ½rst organization designed to shel developed a new kind of telescope and ed by John Adams, James Bowdoin, John disseminate scienti½c ½ndings. saw the vastness of the Milky Way and be- yond. Scientists traveling with Captain Cook Hancock, and others. I don’t know of any Another of our founding fathers who I men- way to compare precisely the pace of change on his voyages discovered botanical and tioned earlier, Thomas Jefferson, was serv- geologic wonders. The ½rst human flight between centuries, but we do know that the ing as governor of Virginia in 1780. At that

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 9 Induction Ceremony occurred in balloons, the steam engine was be turned into a potent tool to help us solve invented, and the ½rst flush toilet was de- our problems. No one can or needs to know signed. Science was changing life in all its it all. Rather, we should be able to access aspects, in ways citizens could still under- what we need when we need it. stand. What is required is a rethinking of our in- Out of this exciting time not only was our stitutions within the context of our time. nation born, but also came the rise of pub- The primary values from the 1780s are still lic universities, public museums, and scien- valid, but the way institutions serve the ti½c societies. The great Smithsonian Insti- public and how they deliver information tution is a child of this period, arising from must change. While we are very good at a gift made by an eccentric English scien- delivering speci½c knowledge to people tist, James Smithson, who never set foot in who gather in our buildings, how do we this country. All the new institutions of this address the gap in general knowledge for time share the principles of knowledge and those who do not come to us? This is a discovery and embrace the importance of question for our time, and it will take a co- the scienti½c method. They reinforce the ordinated national effort from all of us to Jeffersonian ideal that for the new republic answer it. to succeed, education should be widely Susan Desmond-Hellmann The Smithsonian looks forward to joining available, and that a complete education Chancellor, University of California, includes a working knowledge of science. all of you in addressing this issue. It is a challenge worthy of great minds, and one San Francisco The very power of digital that is critical to our nation’s future. Imagine What’s Possible communications that threat- © 2011 by G. Wayne Clough I want to talk about a topic I’m very pas- sionate about: the unprecedented opportu- ens to overwhelm us with in- nity that we have today to better utilize our formation should be turned rapidly expanding knowledge of human bi- ology to improve human health. The health into a potent tool to help us care dialogue that we are having in this coun- try today is especially resonant for those of solve our problems. us who have chosen careers as physicians. Health care is a right. Access to care, espe- As opposed to a few scienti½c and engineer- cially preventive care, is essential. We cer- ing disciplines of those days, today’s hyper- tainly need to emphasize the adoption of specialization means scientists know more appropriately tested and proven prevention and more about smaller and smaller parts of modalities: childhood vaccinations, smok- our universe. We struggle to teach science ing cessation, exercise, and a healthy diet. in a compelling way to our students in k-12, But we cannot stop there. and too many of our students in universities and colleges take no science at all. Scienti½c Our goal of improving human health cannot literacy has become a major challenge, and be achieved solely through disease preven- the politicization of issues like evolution tion. We must continue to push ourselves and climate change further lessens the pos- to do everything we can to capitalize on the sibility for constructive action. ongoing explosion of scienti½c knowledge in order to innovate and, ultimately, to de- Fortunately, organizations like the Ameri- crease the pain and suffering of those who, can Academy are concerned about these despite best efforts, are diagnosed with mal- challenges. Others, too, are working on the adies for which we still do not know the problem, but I believe it is time for a con- cause or have an effective, preventive inter- certed, concentrated effort by all of us who vention. The list of such ailments is long and represent science institutions. The very pow- includes breast and prostate cancer, lupus, er of digital communications that threatens multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, to overwhelm us with information should Parkinson’s disease, and type I diabetes mellitus–I could go on. The suffering of those affected is substantial.

10 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 In the early 1990s, I spent several years work- No longer was cancer therapy solely de- The reality today is that it is ing as a community oncologist, or, as my pendent on drugs that broadly targeted the parents say, “a regular doctor.” My experi- most rapidly dividing cells in the body, in- more challenging than ever ence treating cancer patients at that time cluding both malignant cells as well as taught me that there were in fact some forms healthy human tissue, such as precursors to translate scienti½c break- of breast cancer that were too aggressive to of blood cells, hair follicles, and the lining throughs into transforma- cure and some forms of lymphoma for which of the gut and intestines. The substantially the toxicity of the therapy so greatly out- deeper understanding of the biological tional medicines with suf½- weighed the bene½ts that “watch and wait” basis of disease pathogenesis and cellular was the standard of care for many patients, biology had suddenly made several fatal cient evidence to allow for despite knowing that the disease would ul- conditions controllable, and even poten- the fda to approve these timately progress and debilitate that patient. tially curable. Every time I had to tell a patient, “I’m sorry, medicines. you have this disease, and we have nothing This hope of “personalizing” or targeting to treat it,” it felt like a personal failure. our cancer therapy using molecular bio- markers to select those patients most likely In the face of such challenges, it is essential to bene½t was becoming a reality. While for scientists at academic medical centers Our goal of improving human these therapies aimed against speci½c tar- to push ourselves to innovate in translational health cannot be achieved gets and cancer cells were not without side science by increasing our ability to predict effects, we were able to avoid common side what will happen in the clinic; to innovate solely through disease preven- effects often most feared by patients, includ- in clinical science by designing more ef½cient ing hair loss and nausea. We now had reme- and effective clinical trials to provide greater tion. We must do everything dies in our arsenal that allowed us to offer a con½dence in our ability to measure clinical we can to capitalize on the more promising future with less pain and bene½t; and to innovate in regulatory sci- suffering for patients and their families. ence by using novel approaches to ensure ongoing explosion of scienti½c that we have greater con½dence in safety and Where are we today, almost a decade later? ef½cacy and that we can more effectively knowledge in order to innovate Additional, dramatic scienti½c break- communicate our ½ndings to the public. In throughs continue to occur that further each of these areas, I want to challenge us and, ultimately, to decrease expand our knowledge of human biology. to set the bar high–to imagine what’s pos- However, potential barriers are also multi- sible, and then make it happen. pain and suffering. plying that can limit our ability to translate magni½cent scienti½c discoveries into ther- Ladies and gentlemen, patients are waiting. And then everything began to change. The apies that offer a greater bene½t without at- These patients and their families deserve a biotechnology industry was maturing, and tendant unacceptable risk. Concerns exist sense of urgency around using all our scien- molecules that had started as brilliant, early- about conflicts of interest between indus- ti½c and medical knowledge to allow each stage research experiments–conducted by try and academia, potentially increasing human being the best chance possible to visionary scientists in the 1970s and 1980s barriers to bene½cial and necessary collab- live a full life without pain and suffering. who were determined to solve the myster- orations. Required clinical trials for regula- ies of human biology–were now showing tory approval are growing in complexity © 2011 by Susan Desmond-Hellmann promise in a clinical setting. These mole- and expense. The increasingly high regula- cules ultimately–wondrously–provided tory hurdles create unpredictability in the hope for thousands of patients. approval process and engender frightening In the ½ve years between 1997 and 2001, labels for drug development–“the valley several breakthrough cancer therapies of death,” for example–that diminish in- were approved by the U.S. Food and Drug vestors’ willingness to ½nance new life-sci- Administration (fda). These therapies ences innovations. The reality today is that sprouted from our expanded comprehen- it is more challenging than ever to translate sion of certain biological puzzles, and they scienti½c breakthroughs into transforma- tional medicines with suf½cient evidence uniquely targeted speci½c protein or recep- fda tor abnormalities in cancer cells. Finally, to allow for the to approve these med- physicians were able to tell patients with icines. certain types of cancer, “You have this dis- These are the challenges that are faced every ease, and now we have something for it– day by those individuals we call transla- perhaps even hope for a cure.” tional, clinical, and regulatory scientists.

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 11 Induction Ceremony

work with one of the most profound think- sense for North Korea, a state which is weak ers in political science. But that predicament and failing, to seek the trump card of nu- has a way of concentrating and enlarging clear capability–as it makes sense for our the mind; it did mine. From Ken Waltz, I allies to accept American protection or a learned the power of theory, or, perhaps democratic South Africa to dismantle its better, “systematic thinking.” (He also made nuclear arsenal. me a member of the realist school of inter- national relations, but that is another nar- My aspiration is for “shared rative.) Systematic thinking about how hu- manity behaves has been the core contribu- intelligence,” an ongoing tion of the social sciences since economics emerged from ledger books and counting exchange between our best houses. The Physiocrats and political econ- conceptual thinkers, sharpest omists rose above everyday epiphenomena and found, among myriad transactions, rule- researchers, and most accom- governed patterns. It was a process of radi- cal simpli½cation and also of intellectual plished policy-makers. Robert L. Gallucci liberation. Having a clear mental image of a social system allows us to see and then to What does this all mean in practical terms? President, John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur isolate causes and variables, testing our mod- Simply, robust theory serves as a necessary Foundation el in the laboratory of history and events. corrective to the stridency of facts. If we do not have a clear grasp of what is likely to be Shared Intelligence the case, we may act on what is improbable. Effective security analysis Nowhere is this more important than in The trouble with weapons of mass de- depends on a dialogue between questions of national security. struction is that they occupy a space in the what seems to be empirically As I said at the start, intelligence can be data set somewhere between rumor, silence, cryptic–or plain wrong, as we have learned and apocalypse. Working on nuclear non- established and how we under- to our cost. Effective security analysis de- proliferation, as I have, one has to make hard pends on a dialogue between what seems decisions based on slender, incomplete, and stand the world to work. to be empirically established and how we often unreliable information. But to keep understand the world to work. When we the peace, decisions have to be made and How does that help us better grasp interna- are clear about our assumptions, we gain acted upon. It is a practical craft, and I think tional relations? In Man, the State, and War, clarity about the assumptions of those who an honorable one. What, you may ask, does Waltz directs us away from the nature of disagree with us. We can cultivate empathy that dilemma have to do with the social sci- the human subject or the internal organiza- as an aid to understanding. We are more ences? A great deal, in fact. Let me explain. tion of particular states. Instead, he advises able to guard against misperception and us to look at the internal dynamics of the Nation-states, understandably, have to take deflect the arguments of interested parties. international system in which nations in- a position on the most destructive force Clear assumptions can be challenged, tested, teract, to use a common analogy such as available to humanity. Their decisions to and debated. billiard balls. Their color does not matter; acquire, or dispose of, or renounce nuclear the force and direction they carry decide This conversation between theory and prac- weapons are also understandably at the the game. We have no world government. tice, deduction and induction, characterizes center of our global security concerns. There The international system is organized on any discipline or pursuit that is both mature are almost two hundred sovereign states, the principle of anarchy. And in that con- and complex. And those who are practiced each with its own aspirations, fears, inter- text, autonomous nation-states tend to in it develop what Aristotle called phronesis, nal politics, and regional relationships. It is make rational decisions: to survive, to deter or “practical judgment.” Practical judgment not possible for us to know enough about others from attacking them, to make alli- grasps the big theoretical picture, has an eye every country, about every leader, or about ances with stronger powers. for relevant detail, and has a developed in- every nuance of interstate rivalry to assess stinct for when either side of the equation how they are likely to act. We have to make Similarly powerful states will act in similar ussr should be called into question. We need assumptions–intelligent assumptions. In ways. The United States and the , more of it. We need it now in situations fes- short, we need theory. though quite different societies, built vast tering in the Middle East, Northeast Asia, armories, recruited client states, conducted For my ½rst job, I was Kenneth Waltz’s teach- and South Asia, in particular. covert operations in tandem throughout ing assistant as a graduate student at Bran- the Cold War. In this paradigm, it makes deis University, direly underprepared to

12 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Modern government could do with a large Digitization of myriad objects and billions dose of good social science. Politics, neces- of pages of books and manuscripts enables sarily, is governed by rhetoric and short- the application of scienti½c methods to term calculations. It should be balanced by vast amounts of social-science data. Just as policy discussion that is theoretically so- computers have accelerated the mapping of phisticated and empirically rigorous. the human genome, they allow humanities scholars to trace the changing meaning of When I left the State Department for written phrases over time, to see the evolu- Georgetown’s Walsh School of Foreign tion of a melody from a Greek chorus, and Service, I made it a priority to encourage even to build a virtual world that re-creates more interaction between academia and the Temple at Karnak. Likewise, digital government. At the MacArthur Founda- technology and the Internet give scientists tion, I was pleased to ½nd an institution an open window into the humanities. that had for decades valued research into persistent social problems, fostered inter- disciplinary research networks in neglect- From a methodological per- ed areas, and funded demonstration projects spective, the technological that had implications for government pol- icy. But we need to do more to close the gap. James A. Leach revolution that began with the It is time for more adventurous academic Chairman, National Endowment digital computer allows the programs for our students, with broader or for the Humanities permeable disciplinary boundaries, and an A Looming Crisis in the Humanities humanities and sciences to emphasis on developing practical judgment. share an increasing portion We need to rethink our system of tenure and academic incentives, giving credit not A half-century ago, the English physicist of common ground. only for specialized research in publications and novelist C. P. Snow delivered a contro- but also for engagement with policy-makers versial lecture at Cambridge University As a consequence, the social hallmark of and the public. called “The Two Cultures” in which he la- our times is the emergence of a New Digi- mented the gulf between scientists and a tal Class, characterized less by occupation, The MacArthur Foundation funds (and I group he described as “literary intellectu- birth, geographic location, and the science– participate in) a promising collaborative als.” He cited several examples: scientists humanities divide than by an individual’s adventure, the Tobin Project, “an alliance who had hardly read Dickens and human- degree of curiosity, diligence, and access to of the nation’s leading academics united by ists who couldn’t de½ne the second law of digital technology. The important division a belief in the power of ideas and a shared thermodynamics. in the new communications age is no longer commitment to using ideas to improve the the one between science and the humani- At the risk of exaggeration, the gulf might lives of their fellow citizens.” It is based ties. It is in the ½rst instance the growing be described as illiteracy matching innumer- right here in Cambridge, Massachusetts. gulf between those who have crossed the acy in the citadels of academia. But however America and the world face challenges that digital divide and those who by choice, lack de½ned, Snow held that the breakdown of demand our best intellectual efforts. My of access, or capacity have not; and in the communication between the sciences and aspiration is for “shared intelligence,” an second, between those who seek informa- the humanities hindered solutions to social ongoing exchange between our best con- tion from diverse sources with an open- problems. Assuming some legitimacy to ceptual thinkers, sharpest researchers, and minded perspective and those who choose Snow’s contention, what is the situation most accomplished policy-makers. to rely on single-dimensioned purveyors of ½ve decades later? views. But in this I am preaching to the choir. The In many ways the science–humanities di- American Academy has helped pioneer inter- The question of whether a Twittering world vision is more extreme today, as physics has disciplinary thinking, links between policy will cause greater understanding and social become more math dependent, biology and and research, and attention to large social is- integration at the community and interna- chemistry more complex, and scienti½c in- sues. That is one reason, among many, that tional level or lead to greater intolerance and quiries more abstract. Nevertheless, from I feel honored to be admitted to the Academy social splintering is yet to be resolved. What a methodological perspective, the techno- with the other inductees in this class today. is clear is that few revolutions in history can logical revolution that began with the digi- This is a choir I am glad to sing in. match the democratizing consequences for tal computer allows the humanities and individual learning of the development and sciences to share an increasing portion of spread of digital communication devices. © 2011 by Robert L. Gallucci common ground.

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 13 Induction Ceremony

Since the Enlightenment, the issue of equal- What is so sobering about Einstein’s warn- The humanities are obligated ity has been looked upon as a political ideal ing is the reminder that our way of think- tied to techniques of social organization ing may be a stubborn constant in a world to embrace the challenges that and governmental policies of the moment. of unprecedented change. If the most re- But in the modern world, access to knowl- cent century, the bloodiest on record and emerge from science and ad- edge is becoming as central to advancing the one wracked by unprecedented “isms” vance a fuller understanding social equality and opportunity across the of hate, is a guide, human nature has a du- globe as access to the ballot box has proven eling rational and irrational dimension: a of our times and a deeper to be the key to advancing political rights. vulnerability to self-centered Hobbesian beastliness and a contrasting selfless capac- grasp of human nature. Unfortunately, mastery of certain kinds ity to stand up for shared values and the of knowledge involves the most sobering common good. quandary ever presented: whether the re- of the universe or the extending of human sults of scienti½c inquiry will serve the in- The power of a few to commit acts of soci- life. Yet in the end, dark matter and dark terests of man or jeopardize the existence of etal destruction as well as the power of a energy may be easier to understand in the mankind. After all, for the ½rst time in his- committed few to bring about uplifting physical sciences than dark motives are in tory the capacity exists not only to wage war change in the world has been underesti- the social arena. but to destroy life on the planet. As Einstein mated throughout history. Today, civiliza- Impelled by the implications of what Ruth- so presciently warned, splitting the atom tion is on trial from two extremes: the erford once described as the “heroic” age has changed everything except our way of possibility that proliferating weapons of of science, the humanities are obligated to thinking. mass destruction could be unleashed, and embrace the challenges that emerge from the reality that the more advanced and science and advance a fuller understanding Whatever differences may open a society, the more vulnerable it is to of our times and a deeper grasp of human global terrorism. In this context, mutual nature. There is no rational option except exist between the capacity understanding–the bridging of cultures, to change our way of thinking, beginning of scientists to explore the near and far–is the requirement of our with greater tolerance. What is required is age. Civilization may be embellished by a greater willingness to consider–respect- unknown in nature and science, but it requires civility to survive. fully–diverse views, recognizing that we the ability of scholars in Whether violence is an integral element of all are connected and rely on each other. the human condition or a learned response Seldom is there only one proper path deter- the humanities to address is a matter of conjecture. But non-violence minable by one individual, one country, or is almost certainly a practice that must be one political party. Public decision-making life’s enduring questions, learned. From an academic perspective, the does not lend itself to certitude. Everyone science and the humanities most relevant disciplines for developing can learn from somebody else. That is why social perspective are the humanities: his- humility is a valued character trait and civil- are unalterably entangled. tory, literature, philosophy, linguistics, ity a central ingredient of a free society and comparative religion. a safer world. The sciences cannot ignore the humanities Today America leads the world in almost any more than the humanities can ignore every academic ½eld, but a crisis is looming © 2011 by James A. Leach what science has wrought. Whatever dif- in the humanities. This crisis is reflected in ferences may exist between the capacity of federal programming where research dollars scientists to explore the unknown in nature for the natural sciences have tripled since and the ability of scholars in the humani- the mid-1990s but have been held in check ties to address life’s enduring questions in in the social sciences. More consequentially, tandem or in the wake of scienti½c advances, in an increasing number of American uni- science and the humanities are unalterably versities the disciplines that are most asso- entangled. ciated with giving an individual the imagi- Just as scienti½c endeavor is changing life on native capacity to put himself or herself in the planet and affecting the course of man’s another’s shoes are under pressure relative relationship to man, so studies in the human- to disciplines perceived to be more vocation- ities and the creative arts are reference points, oriented. stimulating the imagination and providing There is every reason to honor the sciences contextual and ethical perspective to sci- and support investigations into the un- enti½c inquiry and its consequences. known, be they related to the beginnings

14 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 de½nition of social bene½t–and the belief The opportunities for busi- that a company, because of its ability to harness and direct resources, can and should nesses to drive ambitious make productive contributions to society beyond the bottom line. social advances are endless In the past two or three decades, a theory of because businesses have the business has emerged which holds that com- panies should maximize value not just to capacity to join entrepreneur- shareholders, but also to stakeholders, includ- ing employees, suppliers, neighbors in the ial thinking and capital. communities in which businesses operate, and other members of society who are af- In the aftermath of a ½nancial crisis and fected by decisions companies may make. years of corporate governance scandals, As business has become more globalized, companies have been spurred to rebuild these questions have taken on even greater trust with customers, employees, commu- signi½cance. What allegiance does a com- nities, policy-makers, and other stakehold- pany owe to the country in which it is head- ers. I believe that one way to rebuild trust Roger W. Ferguson, Jr. quartered? Should it keep all its jobs at is for companies to reignite their sense of home? What responsibility does a company public mission by using their resources President and Chief Executive Of½cer, and expertise to make headway in solving TIAA-CREF have for improving working and living con- ditions in the many places it operates? How pressing social problems. My own company, which is in many ways your company, tiaa- Leadership in the Public and Private should it think about its so-called supply cref chain? , is focused on helping individuals Sectors during a Time of Crisis achieve a safe and secure retirement, a mis- Efforts to reconcile the traditional view of sion that involves not only providing prod- Leadership, in any organization, requires a shareholder-focused company with the ucts and services but also promoting ½nan- a clear understanding of the purpose of the more modern idea of a stakeholder-focused cial literacy. company are rooted in the notion that max- organization, importantly de½ned as the mis- We work with many nonpro½t organiza- sion it serves in society. Government agen- imizing shareholder value depends on ef- forts to maximize stakeholder value. By tions–some of which are represented here cies, philanthropic institutions, and most today–that are contributing to the long- nonpro½ts have written into their dna a this formulation, serving society serves shareholders. term ½nancial security of their employees, requirement to improve society, whether which is itself a laudable social purpose through advancement of education, allevi- that should be a priority for all employers. ation of poverty, treatment of disease, or I believe that one way to re- Other companies and institutions are en- another noble purpose. But what is the pur- build trust is for companies gaged in market-driven projects that will pose of business in today’s society? In par- have signi½cant long-term implications for ticular, what is the purpose of for-pro½t to reignite their sense of public the way that we live: increasing the fuel business? ef½ciency of automobiles, ½guring out how Traditionally, the role of business is to max- mission by using their resources to bring alternative energy sources to mar- imize pro½t and shareholder returns. This and expertise to make head- ket, developing lifesaving advances in formulation indicates that the drive to max- health sciences, and using technology to imize pro½ts tends to maximize ef½ciency. way in solving pressing social deliver education in exciting new ways to Scarce resources are allocated to their most problems. a diverse student population. economically productive purposes. In turn, The opportunities for businesses to drive this produces tangible bene½ts to individu- ambitious social advances are endless be- als and society in the form of jobs, wealth, In recent years, we have seen companies that fail to take this broader view of their cause businesses have the capacity to join and tax revenue. By this formulation, serv- entrepreneurial thinking and capital. The ing shareholders equals serving society. social responsibility lose substantial share- holder value. Some, such as British Petro- ½nancial crisis, and many that came before, Yet there has long been a tension between leum, may have an opportunity to rectify taught us that companies that pursue short- the bottom-line values of for-pro½t busi- their mistakes, but at a great cost. Others term gains without considering a broader nesses–along with a strictly economic failed and can never make amends. set of social perspectives may ultimately

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 15 Induction Ceremony destroy the shareholder value they are try- ing to create. Therefore, all business lead- ers must make decisions with the broader interest of stakeholders, not just share- holders, in mind. As members of the Academy, and as social- ly responsible leaders in our nonpro½t and for-pro½t endeavors, we in Class V can cul- tivate and advance these efforts. Working within our specialties, and collaboratively, we can identify ways for businesses to en- rich the life of the nation, while also deliv- ering bottom-line returns. We can enhance business leaders’ abilities to recognize the broader implications of their decisions–and make clear that the health of the economic, political, and cul- tural environments in which a business exists is essential to its ability to thrive. By helping advance a broad social purpose for companies, we can help shape how business is conducted in the twenty-½rst century, and thereby reflect well the founding ideals of this Academy.

© 2011 by Roger W. Ferguson, Jr.

New Fellows Sign the Book of the Academy Row 1: Samuel J. Palmisano (International Business Machines Corporation); Kimberly Prather (University of California, San Diego); Row 2: Robert Gibbons (mit); Nicholas Lemann (Columbia University); Row 3: Karla Kirkegaard (Stanford University); Deepak Srivastava (University of Califor- nia, San Francisco; Gladstone Institute of Cardiovascular Disease); Row 4: William Rawn (William Rawn Associates, Architects, Inc.); Luis Ubiñas (Ford Foundation)

16 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Induction Symposium: Technology and the Public Good A Free Press for a Global Society

Lee C. Bollinger Introduction by Neal Lane The 1960th Stated Meeting, held at the House of the Academy on October 10, 2010

Introduction by Neal Lane Malcolm Gillis University Professor, Professor of Physics and Astronomy, and Senior Fellow of the James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy at Rice University. A Fellow of the American Academy since 1995, he currently serves as Cochair of the Academy’s Council. The American Academy’s Induction weekend is a powerful reminder of the Academy’s potential as an intellectual force and of the respon- sibility we all share to participate actively in its work. Our program this morning is an example of the Academy’s capacity to enhance understanding of tough societal issues and advance pragmatic solutions. Today, a group of distinguished Academy members will speak to us about Technology and the Public Good. (It is worth noting that today’s date, 10/10/10, only occurs once a century and reflects the binary code on which the Internet is based.) It should be no surprise that at two-and-a-half centuries old, the Academy is examining issues at the forefront of new technology. It is my great honor to introduce our ½rst speaker, Columbia University President Lee Bollinger. After earning his law degree from Columbia, he served as clerk for Judge Wilfred Feinberg of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit and for Chief Justice Warren Burger of the U.S. Supreme Court. He later joined the faculty at the University of Michigan Law School, becoming Dean in 1987. He served as Provost of Dartmouth College in 1994, and then returned to the University of Michigan in 1996 to become President. In 2002, he was named the nineteenth President of Columbia, an institution that, like the Academy, was established before the founding of the country. While presiding over these large and complex academic institutions, Lee has remained an active scholar of the First Amendment and free- dom of press issues. He has authored numerous articles and four books, including his newest, Uninhibited, Robust, and Wide-Open: A Free Press for a New Century. This morning he will discuss the formation of a free press for a global society.

Presentation

The need to build a system of free press ety. Perhaps its greatest contribution lies that is suitable (from both U.S. and global in its capacity for calibration: that is, the perspectives) to the conditions of global- ability to judge what is important and why. ization is a subject of intrinsic importance. In the twentieth century, the nation became It is also an example of how the extraordi- less an assemblage of states and regions and nary forces of globalization are reshaping more a national entity. The structure and intellectual ½elds. (Universities, in my view, institutions of the society shifted accord- should be thinking much more systemati- ingly. The growth of the economy; the rise cally about this challenge, but that’s a larger of issues with national scope, such as civil subject for another day.) Today, the system rights; and the development of new com- of free press that prevails in the United States munications technology–broadcasting, in blends constitutional law, public policy, the particular–that enhanced national discus- speci½c conditions of markets–with respect sion: all contributed to the need for a free to daily newspapers, in particular–and the press that could function on a national level development of journalism as a profession. and was appropriate for a rising, robust, and All these elements emerged in the twentieth dynamic national society. To that end, a century. Like universities, the press is one Lee C. Bollinger complex ecology of First Amendment pub- of the central institutions of a democratic lic policy and journalism evolved. The Su- Lee C. Bollinger is President of Columbia Uni- society. At its best, the press serves the pub- preme Court initiated a series of landmark versity and Professor of Law at Columbia Law lic good by disseminating information and decisions that ultimately provided a uni½ed School. He has been a Fellow of the American analysis and by functioning as a public forum national approach. Those decisions pushed Academy since 1992. for discussing issues of importance to soci-

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 17 A Free Press for a Global Society the boundaries of free speech and press be- the Internet and satellite broadcasting are At the moment we need more yond what any nation in history had done especially influential. It is a world that moves before. They also articulated the important with extraordinary rapidity and that often and better international press public role performed by the press, locat- resists the sunshine provided by a responsi- ing the rationales for extraordinary protec- ble press. It is a world in desperate need of coverage; the current ½nancial tion in the political and social interests of the kind of information that only institu- crisis has caused budgets for democracy, reason, and tolerance. tions of journalism can provide. We there- fore need a system of free press suitable to foreign bureaus and correspon- Meanwhile, public policy intervened in the this new world. new broadcast media. With the Supreme dents to contract. Court’s blessing, the federal government I fear that the United States does not grasp organized a blend of private ownership and the full degree to which we are becoming Second, to design this system of free press public-interest regulation to expand the integrated and interdependent with other on a global scale, our basic perspectives and range of voices. It also launched a public countries. Half of the revenues of s&p 500 assumptions must change. To the extent broadcasting system with guarantees of companies are generated outside the United that we need information about what is hap- editorial autonomy. Finally, the print media States. Half the goods consumed by wealthy pening in the world, the working distinc- used its revenues, especially the monopo- nations are manufactured in emerging tion in our minds between domestic and listic pro½ts of daily newspapers, to deepen economies. Half of U.S. government debt foreign press must recede; indeed, much of and expand its expertise to cover the news. is in foreign hands. What happens to this what we need to know will come from the Journalism began to look more and more world? How does it evolve? What choices foreign or international press. This reality like a profession, with standards of behav- do we need to make to create the best of all has implications for policy. For example, ior that transcended interest, pro½t, and possible worlds? At the least, we should access for members of the press is crucial. partisanship. Private enterprise, market think carefully and systematically about Restrictions on foreign journalists that exist conditions, state policy, and constitutional what kind of press system will provide us today in virtually all countries, including the cases–none of which could have given rise and others with the journalism we need to United States, and are justi½ed on grounds to a free press all on its own–combined to address these questions. As form is some- of foreign policy or sovereignty become create the best press in the world. times said to follow function, so free press problematic. Visa and travel restrictions on follows issues–and the issues are increas- international journalists, or decisions by *** ingly global. cable companies not to carry certain inter- national media, will need rethinking. In our current century, the conditions un- Three major areas require particular atten- dergirding the system have shifted. Free tion. First, the balance of interests that pro- Censorship on a global scale is a third mat- markets have gone global, driving changes duced our First Amendment jurisprudence ter of enormous concern. Nations through- of enormous signi½cance throughout the is starting to shift. For example, when The out the world have very different ideas about world. Some changes are good, such as im- Washington Post obtains classi½ed documents the role of the press and the scope of free- or information, we can count on its jour- dom it should be afforded. In a world of Perhaps the press’s greatest con- nalists and editors to feel the force of patri- global communication, the reality increas- otic considerations in deciding what to ingly is that censorship anywhere is censor- tribution lies in its capacity for publish; this is not the case for those be- ship everywhere. In the United States during calibration: that is, the ability hind WikiLeaks. Today, when an unknown the twentieth century, state laws restricting pastor in Florida threatens to burn the Koran, speech and press eventually gave way to a to judge what is important the hostile audience that will be aroused, set of national norms, with New York Times and the violence that might ensue, is not Co. v. Sullivan being the primary case in point. and why. within the same control, or on the same A similar transformation must unfold glob- scale, as the threatening mob in Illinois ally. A speech or essay in the United States proved standards of living and better health that prompted one of the Supreme Court can get its speaker or writer in trouble in for hundreds of millions of people; others cases of the last century. For these reasons, Italy, Turkey, China, or Britain. Again, our are bad, like climate change, or problem- the Pentagon Papers case may not look quite fundamental perspective must change. This atic, like the fragility of the international the same today. One thing is for sure: the is no longer a matter of nobly securing hu- economy, the tensions of multiculturalism, Secretary of Defense’s call list will get very man rights for the rest of the world; rather, or conflicts between modernity and other long. My point is not that the case law should it is a practical matter of securing the basic ways of life. Ours is a world driven by busi- change, but rather that the resolution we flow of information and ideas required to ness and ½nance, aided as always by new have reached will to some extent need to be accompany and complement the free flow communication technologies; in this case, reconsidered. of goods and services.

18 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 “It is worth noting that today’s date, 10/10/10, only occurs once a century and reflects the binary code on which the Internet is based.”

We seem hardly prepared for this new world, We would bene½t from a more bene½t from more American-style journal- and our shortcomings will not be corrected ism and I have suggested the formation of by advances in technology alone. Those of focused discussion of the role an American World Service modeled on us who believe in the virtues of a very open the bbc. and free press system must develop new ra- public policy might play in tionales and arguments to persuade those bringing more independent At present, the United States has a dual sys- who do not share our intuition. For exam- tem of publicly supported broadcasting. ple, we might emphasize the relationship and objective journalism to On the one hand, there is an editorially in- dependent press with a domestic mission, between openness and sustainable and sta- the world–and more of it npr pbs ble economic growth, the latter being some- namely and . On the other is a thing nearly all societies now seem to want. back home to us. government press with an international We will have to work toward stronger inter- mission, which includes Voice of America, Radio Free Europe, Radio Free Asia, and national legal norms. Texts such as Article bene½t from a more focused discussion of several other news organizations. In yet 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human the role public policy might play in bring- another example of how the world has Rights, the International Covenant on Civil ing more independent and objective jour- changed while our policies lag behind, a and Political Rights, World Trade Organiza- nalism to the world–and more of it back 1947 statute bars these government propa- tion guidelines, and other regional treaties home to us. provide a place to begin. ganda outlets in the international arena *** from rebroadcasting back into the United Finally, besides problems of access and cen- States. Whatever one thinks of these media, sorship, we must focus on the capacity of the The American population must be better they will always be viewed as the voice of press to cover the dynamic, fast-moving, and educated than we are about global issues. the American government. The best of free somewhat secretive forces of globalization. Other nations, certainly, are engaged in and independent American journalism It is unfortunate that at the moment we need international events. New public service needs to join these and other institutions, more and better international press cover- broadcast systems are reaching out to the many of them private, in the new global age; the current ½nancial crisis has caused world from France, Russia, the Middle East, public forum. A good method to achieve and China, joining the traditional institu- budgets for foreign bureaus and correspon- bbc bbc such integration, for example, would be to dents to contract. Even without this trou- tions such as the World News and augment the funding and mission of npr. bling state of affairs, however, we would World Service. I believe the world would

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 19 A Free Press for a Global Society

For Americans who are skeptical about pub- basis. That is the domain of journalism. Nations throughout the world lic support for the press, I should reiterate While it is typically thought that the citizen that neither theory nor experience suggests journalist is one of the great new advances have very different ideas about that a free market alone can create the con- of the Internet age–a view that I share–I ditions necessary for an independent, global do not think it replaces the need for large the role of the press and the press to arise. Certainly, editorial autonomy organizations that have a unique range of scope of freedom it should be is essential to any free press. There are ways capacities to go out and report on the world. to establish that reality in practice and in afforded. I think the other point to be made, which First Amendment law. By comparison, at I offer up tentatively, is that the type of universities, where we care as much about knowledge of the society. Perhaps ½ve or “journalism” that is not of the traditional academic freedom as journalists do about six journalists have a sense of how China media tends to contain more opinion than editorial freedom, we have long maintained evolved, what is going on in China, what objective reporting. Journalism is a profes- our autonomy in spite of signi½cant state the leadership is really like, and China’s sion, just as scholarship is a profession, and federal funding. Journalism, I believe, views on topics we care about, such as open- meaning that professional journalists are can do the same. ness. Do they believe that the emergence of committed to certain norms in the way a free press is inevitable, or do they believe The world is undergoing momentous chang- they pursue information and truth. By the that a closed society is consistent with sus- es through the forces of globalization. We same token, we might ask, could the cours- tained economic wealth? need a free press that is suitable to this new es, discussions, or sources of information world. To achieve that goal, we must change that we have access to at universities be re- Those kinds of questions are immensely our basic concepts and develop our laws and placed by Internet alternatives? Taking a signi½cant to the United States and the policies to deal with the serious issues of basic economics course online does not con- world. It seems that we would want to have access, censorship, and the capacity of the nect a student to an institution devoted to many more journalists trying to understand press to provide the information we need. the development of knowledge about eco- them, as well as more university faculty and Only then can the press do its part to help nomics or laws. I think that is a huge loss. student investigators. We in the universities shape a world that will work for ends we have not adjusted our ½elds and our array of believe in. Question expertise to really try to understand what is going on in the world, China being a partic- Visa and travel restrictions Previously, newspapers could hire robust ular example. Again, I would use public editorial staffs because they had the revenue. funding. on international journalists, How will we replace that capacity in the Internet age? How will we accrete enough I have followed the press for many decades, or decisions by cable compa- mass, gravitas, and editorial staf½ng to sup- and I have asked editors of major daily news- nies not to carry certain inter- plement at least the blogosphere? papers to give me a sense of the history of the press in this country. Leading newspa- national media, will need Lee Bollinger pers started making substantial pro½ts in the late 1970s and early 1980s, when they rethinking. The answer I’m giving in op-eds, essays, came to dominate the market. That’s when speeches, and my book is: through public they hired economists, lawyers, scientists, Question funding. We have a mix that balances pri- and other experts to cover subjects like the vate institutions, publicly funded media, Could you comment on online journalism court or the economy. Today, newspapers and hybrids that incorporate some public and whether you believe that a robust, open, are in the process of losing a good deal of policy. I would shift the nature of that bal- and balanced forum could be Internet-based? that range of expertise. Allowing it to unfold ance to devote more public funding to jour- without a careful public policy review is a Lee Bollinger nalism, in part to make up for the econom- mistake. ic losses we are experiencing. This is a very large subject. The Internet is Where we are is completely unsatisfactory. Question bringing enormous amounts of new infor- From informal conversations with members mation, opinion, and analysis to discussion My impression is that the First Amendment of the American press, I understand that, of global and national issues. I think this was originally intended to provide freedom apart from the ½nancial press employed by development is a huge plus. However, the of speech to the press so that it could criti- Bloomberg News, we may have only two Internet will not replace the institutions that cize the government. But in the course of dozen full-time foreign correspondents are devoted to the spread of information and the last two hundred years, it seems we have covering all of China. A handful has been analysis on an independent and objective morphed that right into the freedom for in- there long enough to have acquired a deep

20 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 dividuals to express themselves in a variety acy, the government must be allowed to While it is typically thought of ways. The Internet offers a megaphone take action. for a good deal of objectionable speech. Is that the citizen journalist is one In the 1960s, everything changed again, with it your sense that the intent has morphed, cases like New York Times Co. v. Sullivan and of the great new advances of or do you believe that freedom of speech Brandenburg v. Ohio. Our current jurispru- originally was meant to apply not only to the Internet age, I do not think dence really derives from that period, rooted the press but also to individuals? in some ½ne decisions of the 1920s and 1930s. it replaces the need for large or- Lee Bollinger None of those cases is based on an under- standing of what the framers wanted, large- ganizations that have a unique I think the provision was intended to apply ly because, as I mentioned, there has been range of capacities to go out to individuals, but we know stunningly little virtually no historical analysis of what the about how the First Amendment was inter- framers’ exact vision might have been. Yet and report on the world. preted by the people who drafted it. There we should not readily accept the idea that has been very little effort to unravel that the framers had a vision that we have altered We are now in a global discussion about mystery. The ½rst Supreme Court case to over time. de½ning the parameters of free speech on interpret the First Amendment was in 1919. an international scale. Thus, freedom of speech and press as we Why do we take freedom of speech so far know them today are an invention of the in the United States? Why were neo-Nazi Question twentieth century. speakers allowed to march in Skokie, Illinois, in 1977? Four thousand Holocaust survivors Liberty is inseparable from responsibility. And as I point out in many places, it was not lived in that community, and half the popu- How can we institutionalize responsibility an auspicious beginning. Oliver Wendell lation was Jewish. We take free speech fur- and protect the citizen from slander and Holmes wrote for a unanimous court in ther than any other society in the world, and libel? three early decisions, upholding convictions that includes neighbors such as Canada and against people who had protested for vari- Britain. We are now in a position where our Lee Bollinger ous reasons prior to World War I. One of exercise of free speech rights are not just I think we look to universities. Quality jour- the individuals whose conviction was up- domestic issues; they are published global- nalism is a major responsibility of universi- ly, and an American can end up being pros- ties and journalism schools. Under Nick Besides problems of access ecuted, as has happened, in Italy or Turkey. Lemann, Dean of the Graduate School of and censorship, we must focus This is the beginning of a whole new era, a Journalism, Columbia is working closely on whole new century. New York Times Co. v. Sul- these projects and others, strengthening on the capacity of the press to livan was pivotal in recognizing that Alabama the journalism school as a place for profes- cover the dynamic, fast-mov- could not have a rule that allowed people to sional development. I also think the partic- sue freely for libel; it undermined The New ipation of people who exhibit the best qual- ing, and somewhat secretive York Times’ ability to publish a national edi- ities of a professional journalist, to serve forces of globalization. tion because it could face libel cases in the as a kind of model or example for how we least protective areas of the country. Now, should speak and behave, is extremely im- portant. held by the Supreme Court was presiden- we are facing that problem on a global scale. tial candidate Eugene Debs. He gave a speech For most of my professional career, I have We should value enormously the quality in Ohio in which he praised people who re- struggled with the question of why we have of the free press that has been achieved in sisted the draft. That was held to be a crime such extreme protection. I think it is rooted this country; it’s an astonishing institution. suf½cient for a presidential candidate to go in a strategy to test our limits of tolerance in Nurturing it, helping reshape it through this to jail. While he was there, he received a mil- the area of speech as a lesson or symbol of dif½cult period, and building a free press on lion votes for president in the 1920 election. the need to bring tolerance to every area of a global scale are great goals. In these efforts, we can work toward a culture in which de- Then the law changed. Holmes oversaw a social interaction. I think we bend over back- bate is conducted on the highest possible ruling on the First Amendment and religion ward to be tolerant because that’s the kind levels. that resulted in strong protections for indi- of character we want to have. But other soci- viduals. During the McCarthy period, how- eties have reached very different judgments ever, as people were jailed for speaking about about what individuals can say publicly. © 2011 by Neal Lane and Lee C. Bollinger, respectively overthrowing the government, the court fell Germany, for example, does not allow neo- victim to the traditional notion that in a new Nazi speech; we can understand why cer- period, threatened by international conspir- tain societies might establish different rules.

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 21 Induction Symposium: Technology and the Public Good Technology and Culture

Robert Darnton, David S. Ferriero, and Marjorie M. Scardino Paul Sagan, Moderator Introduction by Neal Lane The 1960th Stated Meeting, held at the House of the Academy on October 10, 2010

Introduction by Neal Lane Malcolm Gillis University Professor, Professor of Physics and Astronomy, and Senior Fellow of the James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy at Rice University. A Fellow of the American Academy since 1995, he is Cochair of the Academy’s Council.

The ½rst of two panels this morning will consider Technology and Culture. Leading this panel is Paul Sagan, Chief Executive Of½cer of Akamai Technologies. Before joining Akamai in 1998, he served as Senior Advisor to the World Economic Forum and was President and Editor of New Media at Time, Inc. He also was founder of two successful high-tech start-ups: Road Runnner, the world’s ½rst broadband cable modem service, and Path½nder, one of the pioneers of Internet advertising. Mr. Sagan began his career in television news, and is a three-time Emmy Award winner for broadcast journalism. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy in 2008.

the tension between maintaining broad ac- More than a billion people around the globe cess to information sources and commercial access the Internet on a regular basis. As we interests that seek to monetize that access. think about the impact of technology on Bob has been outspoken about the impact of culture, and perhaps about the impact of Google’s plan to digitize books. He became culture on technology, there are a few de- a Fellow of the American Academy in 1980. velopments to keep in mind. If websites and countries were ranked by population, then David Ferriero, our second panelist, is the Archivist of the United States. He will speak Soon, Internet use via mobile on how digital technology affects our abil- ity to archive history and, in turn, what hap- devices will outpace use by pens to our collective memory in a digitized personal computers. This shift world. He was inducted into the Academy yesterday. indicates that access to informa- Our ½nal panelist, Marjorie Scardino, is the tion is about to expand globally plc Chief Executive of Pearson , an inter- to levels that have never before national media company with leading busi- nesses in education, business information, been seen in human history. Paul Sagan and consumer publishing. The Pearson media empire spans from the Penguin brand Facebook, with about ½ve hundred million Paul Sagan is Chief Executive Of½cer of Akamai to the Financial Times, which is noteworthy users worldwide, would be third, behind Technologies. He has been a Fellow of the Amer- for its success online as well as in print. She China and India and ahead of the United ican Academy since 2008. will share her thoughts on how digital tech- States. E-book sales represent only about 1 nology has affected the media in general, percent of book sales worldwide, but Ama- It is a pleasure to help coordinate this panel and publishing speci½cally, and how shifts zon recently reported that its e-book sales on Technology and Culture and to be here in media brought about by digitization are now lead hardcover book sales in the United with our distinguished panelists. Our ½rst changing the way the information needs of States. Fifteen years after the introduction speaker is Robert Darnton, Director of the a democracy in the Internet era are being of consumer broadband services, video Harvard University Library. He will address served. She, too, was inducted into the consumption over the Internet is about 1 the future of the book in a digital age and Academy yesterday. percent of video viewing in the home. But

22 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 only in the past few years has the average changing our lives in ways we cannot easily home in almost every developed part of the foresee, and as dramatic as the impacts have world been able to access the Internet at been already, they are just beginning. The speeds capable of supporting video quality digital age is creating an information and equal to that of television. Just this summer, communication renaissance, but it is not for example, the bbc reported that 5 per- serving all people–certainly not all Ameri- cent of World Cup viewing on television in cans–and communities in an equal way. It Britain was done over the Internet–½ve is not serving the democratic process fully. times the average–even though the event How we react individually and collectively was free to watch on television in every to this democratic shortfall will affect the pub, not to mention every home, in the quality of our lives and the very nature of country. our communities.

As humans, we have some habits that are The digital age is creating an hard to break. Some are useful because they information and communica- create patterns that we can recognize and that help us sort out our world. As we turn tion renaissance, but it is not to Bob Darnton, we should consider how serving all people and com- the digitization of information affects our trust in what we see, read, and hear. It is Robert Darnton munities in an equal way. one thing to examine a scienti½c text, for Robert Darnton is the Carl H. Pforzheimer Uni- example, or to hold a researcher’s log book versity Professor and Director of the University We will discuss the risks of having all con- in our hands, but what happens when that Library at Harvard University. He has been a tent digitized and controlled by a few cen- authoritative work is transformed into bits Fellow of the American Academy since 1980. tralized entities, public or private. But it is that can disappear online or perhaps be also true that digitization of records and changed without our knowledge? What In preparing for this panel discussion, we Web access have made more information happens not just to our notion of the library were instructed to think of three wishes that, available to more people than at any other in the digital future, but to our notion of if granted, would in some way improve the time, at least for now. Soon, even if that ac- access to information? current situation with regard to technology, cess becomes limited in some ways, Inter- culture, and the public good. My top wish is net use via mobile devices will outpace use for the creation of a national digital library. by personal computers. This shift indicates I think this country needs a digital library that access to information is about to ex- that would be the equivalent of or greater pand globally to levels that have never be- than the Library of Congress. This resource fore been seen in human history. would take our entire cultural heritage into At the same time, this flood of digital infor- living rooms, community colleges, and small mation is not washing across the landscape institutions, everywhere in the country and in an even manner. A year ago, I served as a everywhere in the world. member of the Knight Commission on the The basic idea is straightforward: to give Information Needs of Communities in a people access to our cultural heritage and Democracy. We held hearings across the to close a gap that has existed, certainly, country, heard testimony from a very wide since the invention of the printing press– array of groups and individuals, and con- that is, the gap between those who have ac- cluded that the time had come for new think- cess to books and knowledge and those who ing and aggressive action to improve the do not. This is not a utopian fantasy; a con- information opportunities available to the ference held at Harvard last weekend dis- American people. We wrote that America is cussed the real possibilities and modalities at a critical juncture in the history of com- for creating a national digital library. We munications. Information technology is can get the job done. A coalition of founda- tions could easily cover the costs; a coalition

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 23 Technology and Culture

My number-one wish is that a yearly subscription to the chemistry jour- nal Tetrahedron is $40,000. The economic all the material in all our imbalance is simply impossible for libraries libraries (and not just print to sustain. We have a major crisis, not just in library budgets, but a crisis that rever- materials, but other forms berates throughout the world of learning. It affects university presses in particular as well) would be made avail- because libraries are cutting back on the able to American people purchase of monographs in order to main- tain expensive journal subscriptions. The everywhere. result is that postdoctoral scholars cannot get their work printed in some subjects. of research libraries could provide the ma- terial; and a coalition of leaders from our Open access publishing of scholarly jour- cultural institutions, especially in Washing- nals is a way to correct this basic imbalance. ton, could mobilize support. Thus, my num- At Harvard, we passed an open access reso- ber-one wish is that all the material in all lution whereby all Harvard professors are our libraries (and not just print materials, committed to making their scholarly articles but other forms as well) would be made available in an online, open access reposi- available to American people everywhere. tory. They can opt out; nevertheless, the David S. Ferriero scholarly production coming out of Har- David S. Ferriero is Archivist of the United States Wish number two is for open access. It is vard is now available free of charge around at the U.S. National Archives and Records Admin- easy to say that we are in favor of the democ- the world. We are also subsidizing profes- istration. He has been a Fellow of the American ratization of knowledge, but the fact is that sors’ publication costs up to $1,000 a year. Academy since 2010. knowledge is very unevenly distributed We hope to create a new kind of journal, throughout the country. An ideal handed whose expenses will be paid at the produc- down to us from our founding fathers (grant- any of you may not know what the tion end rather than at the consumption or M ed, we don’t know what their exact inten- Archivist of the United States does, so I subscription end. We want to change the tions were when they developed the Bill of will start by telling you exactly what my equilibrium in scholarly publishing, certain- Rights and the Constitution) is to create a responsibilities are. The Archivist is the ly for journals, and maybe even for books. republic of letters. In this republic, every- record keeper of the government and has one would have access to the printed word, I have a third wish that may in part be fan- been performing that function since F.D.R. and everyone would exchange ideas with- tasy. For many disciplines, our Ph.D. pro- out inhibition. grams are broken. It no longer makes sense Attempts to save our collec- to follow the nineteenth-century model we tions, and thus our history, In my view, Ph.D. theses inherited from Germany, which requires Ph.D. candidates to publish a dissertation have a checkered past. should be published online as a book. In Germany, scholars are still rather than as books. digging into their pockets to publish books created the National Archives. The Archives that sit unread on shelves in German librar- are located in forty-four facilities around Open access is a way to make that ideal ies. We have a similar system here, and it the country, from Anchorage, Alaska, to possible. In the current system, we face a needs rethinking. In my view, Ph.D. theses Atlanta, Georgia, and include the thirteen major problem: we, the scholars, produce should be published online rather than as presidential libraries. We have a collection the research. We write it; we serve on the books. University presses should not be of more than ten billion pages of paper, forty editorial boards of journals that publish it; making de facto tenure decisions; in fact, million photographs, miles and miles of we act as referees for those journals; and the tenure system needs to be restructured ½lm, and growing terabytes of electronic then we buy back the product of our own as well. By reimagining Ph.D. programs, we information. We are governed by the Fed- labor at ruinous prices. Of course, we don’t might open up career possibilities to younger eral Records Act and the Presidential Rec- pay for it ourselves–our libraries do. But scholars in a way that is no longer feasible ords Act, which determine exactly what the result is a tremendous disequilibrium given the economic and institutional reali- kinds of materials come into the Archives. in the world of knowledge. Many journal ties of academic life today. subscriptions cost libraries $20,000 a year;

24 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Attempts to save our collections, and thus As of 1996, the Presidential Records Act has person in the position is poorly trained; our history, have a checkered past. At the recognized electronic information as record. there is a lot of turnover. In other words, end of the Continental Congress, Jeremiah Since then, we have collected all the email not much attention is paid to the records. Clark of New York was one of a number of messages from the White House, including, In the federal government, there is no job delegates who suggested that the journals for instance, 220 million messages from the description for a records manager. The Rec- of the Congress be destroyed, lest they fall George W. Bush administration. The Fed- ords Management Council–the poor folks into the wrong hands. Wiser minds pre- eral Records Act, however, has not acknowl- saddled with this responsibility–have never vailed and left the decision up to General edged electronic information. The ½rst bill met with their counterparts on the informa- Washington, who decided that we should to do so, introduced into the House in 2010, tion technology side, the Chief Information preserve those journals for posterity. But it is dead. For all 254 agencies within the fed- Of½cer (cio) Council. The Records Man- was not until F.D.R. came into of½ce that the eral government, if you can believe it, the agement Council and the cio Council might Archives was established as an institution. current guideline for preserving records is as well be in two different cities. Roosevelt appointed Robert Connor, a his- “print and save.” Electronic mail and elec- The very ½rst joint meeting of those groups, torian at the University of North Carolina tronic records systems are utilized, of course, to take place on October 20, 2010, at the at Chapel Hill, to be the ½rst Archivist of the but the legislation is not in place to require National Archives, is a collaboration be- United States. their use. tween the Chief Information Of½cer of the Connor’s job was to create the National Ar- Every agency in the govern- United States and me. I am con½dent that chives. He assessed the situation in Wash- we will make progress. That said, a report ington and discovered that the records ment, along with the White the Archives released at the end of Septem- around the government had not been well House, is using electronic ber, which was based on a self-assessment preserved. They had been stored in deposi- by government agencies, showed dismal tories fraught with hazards and exposed to records in a variety of modes, results. Of 254 agencies asked to respond to dirt, rain, sunlight, theft, and ½re. Some a set of questions about where they are in were infested with silver½sh, cockroaches, leading me to wonder whether terms of electronic records development, rats, mice, and other vermin. In one depos- we are losing our memory. 80 percent reported that they are at moder- itory crowded with government archives, ate to high risk of not being able to save Connor described the most prominent ob- At the National Archives, we are creating electronic records adequately. ject in the room: the skull of a dead cat pro- the Electronic Records Archive. This facil- truding from under a pile of valuable records. ity will ingest all of the electronic records If a cat with nine lives to risk could not sur- and email messages from government agen- vive the conditions of research in the depos- cies and the White House. It will make those itories of our National Archives, Connor records available in perpetuity, just as the remarked, surely the poor historian with paper collection is, and open and available only one life to give to his country might to the public twenty-four hours a day, from be excused if he declined to take the risk. anywhere in the world. It is being tested now by thirty-½ve agencies and will be in full use I am happy to report that when I took over by those agencies next year. My wish is for in November 2009, I did not face the same the agencies to recognize the importance of scenario. But I would posit that I am in a both the records they are creating and the very similar position with regard to the mi- systems by which that information will be gration to electronic records. Every agency saved. in the government, along with the White House, is using electronic records in a vari- Having grown up in university environments, ety of modes, leading me to wonder whether I can tell you that the situation in the agen- we are losing our memory. I think it is safe cies is very similar to the situation on cam- to say that we are, just as Connor inherited puses, where records management is usually a situation where much of our national assigned to the most junior person in a de- memory had been lost. partment. It’s a part-time job, or it’s tacked on to a full set of other responsibilities. The

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 25 Technology and Culture

But if you try not to call it a newspaper, if in- often see this kind of experimentation by stead of calling it the pejorative “newspaper,” citizens today. you call it “a report of everything that has But is this sort of news gathering adequate happened in the world and what it means to to inform citizenship? For that, I think they you today,” then that sounds pretty crucial. have a couple of problems being able to sus- In fact, it seems to me it’s never been more tain democracy, help construct a national important. It’s just that it has changed form. story, and provide information we can trust: It used to be said that freedom of the press belonged only to those who owned one. Now, We have to work hard to a large portion of the world does. With ac- cess to a computer hooked to a network, we ½gure out which sources to have virtual printing presses. We have the trust, and that requires either ability to create our own newspapers–our own reports of what is happening in the longitudinal experience with world that is meaningful to us. We can blog a source or a lot of digging. it. We can tweet it. We can put up our views for our thousand friends on Facebook. We 1) News in that form–with many voices and can make videos and podcast them or post Marjorie M. Scardino inconsistent protocols for reporting–leaves them on YouTube. We can send broadcast all the re½ning and authentication to us, the Marjorie M. Scardino is Chief Executive of email messages with curated links. There is individual consumers of news. We have to Pearson PLC. She has been a Fellow of the an astonishing number of ways for people work hard to ½gure out which sources to American Academy since 2010. to create their own newspapers. trust, and that requires either longitudinal experience with a source or a lot of digging. I believe we choose such a path for our news, It’s probably a good exercise for us as citizens iven that the more learned members of G as many people have, because we trust our to validate our own information. this panel have discussed the arc of history circles of friends, our informal networks, 2) But the fact is, most of us don’t have those and its preservation, I want to focus my re- and our particular sets of sources. We trust marks on what I see as history’s ½rst draft: skills, that kind of time, or the right perspec- our friends and acquaintances because we tive. For instance, almost all the reports and newspapers. Over the life of this republic, have experienced their level of expertise and analysis we can gather are pure opinion, not newspapers have played an important part can take a bead on what they do or do not fact. Democracy is based on the idea that all in educating us as citizens. The impact the know. We trust some bloggers we have read opinions have equal weight. But the ones digital world is having on citizenship re- for a while because we know they aren’t rav- that generally enlighten us, that underpin lates to the way newspapers themselves are ing loons. In short, we have chosen who to and convince us to approve of those opin- transforming. trust and who interests us. ions, are based on facts, which are much harder to come by than opinions. Individually created networks and aggrega- It used to be said that freedom a) First of all we have to ½nd them, and tions can be effective. They can give us a then con½rm them, often at their pri- of the press belonged only to multidimensional view of the world that mary sources. those who owned one. Now, a might not be available to us otherwise. They are arguably much better than having just b) Then we have to look for the patterns in large portion of the world does. one source, even if that source is The New that kaleidoscope of information. The York Times or the Financial Times. They also facts may be nothing more than amuse- The last couple of years have witnessed a force us to roam around and test views. ments if they can’t be mapped into a con- feverish amount of talk about the death of cept–a useful context–to help us solve the newspaper. Though possibly a little Yesterday I was speaking with Jim Leach, problems or take action. Chairman of the National Endowment for premature, I think that prediction is pretty c) Then there’s the publishing piece–dis- the Humanities, who mentioned a study solid. If you are referring to that thing on seminating our conclusions to others, be- showing that people who create their own paper that’s folded and presented to you cause networks demand to be fed as well news services by looking at various sources every morning without fail, then I agree with as to be consumed. At one time, distri- click on not only the sources sympathetic the prediction. But if you mean the function bution was costly. But getting material to their views, say, the right-leaning web- of the newspaper, the idea of a newspaper, out to others has become very easy to do. is becoming obsolete, then I can’t agree. sites, but also the left-leaning ones. We don’t

26 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Independent news-gathering works if we sit-in knew it would be physically, emotion- Information and understand- take seriously the job of con½rming what is ally, and intellectually dangerous, but they trustworthy, and if we take the time to dis- also could be certain that they would sup- ing about the world is what cern meaningful patterns. But there is a port each other. They had strong ties and provokes us to sacri½ce. Public higher hurdle to clear, and a much more knew they all were committed to the con- complicated one. That is, are the individual cept; therefore, they were able to bring journalism exists to help people networks that we create and that de½ne our about the sort of change that took courage. who themselves can’t scrutinize news able to achieve their task? Are they Gladwell interviewed many of the people able to scrutinize the power structure and who had participated in the movement. power structures with much the people who inhabit it? Can they goad Roughly 25 percent had joined merely be- us into action and help us bring reforms to cause they heard about the idea, and that 25 effect. our society and our government–the type percent generally checked out of the move- of reforms that have taken us along as a ment fairly early. His point was that while that all the world needs is a little buf½ng democracy for so many years? That is the social networks are good at creating partic- around the edges, this should not trouble fundamental task because that, most of all, ipation, they do not create the strong, cohe- you. But if you think that there are still is the power of citizenship: to be free, able, sive motivation needed to drive an important lunch counters out there that need inte- and willing to start a movement that fun- movement. grating it ought to give you pause.” damentally changes the premises of a gov- Gladwell’s article also talked about recent Information and understanding about the ernment. network-based political movements in Mol- world is what provokes us to sacri½ce. Pub- Independent news-gathering dova and Iran that reportedly were sparked lic journalism exists to help people who by online or mobile Internet connections. themselves can’t scrutinize power struc- works if we take seriously the According to his work and to others who tures with much effect. job of con½rming what is have reported on the topic, what happened I was not told to have three wishes; I was in those movements, particularly in the told I had to have three solutions. But what trustworthy, and if we take Iranian movement, was that American and I have are merely a few general suggestions: English-speaking journalists sorted through 1) First, information and understanding the time to discern meaning- the blogs and tweet posts, most of which about the state of the world–the world of were in English, and picked out what was ful patterns. our immediate circumstances–mostly going on. However, if the movement’s co- provokes us to sacri½ce, and it ought to be In a recent article in The New Yorker, Malcolm ordinators were using Twitter to mobilize, considered when we think about citizen- Gladwell posed the question: can Internet- the posts should have been written in Farsi. ship. We must educate people to be citizens. devised services help create a political move- Gladwell concluded that the movement In Britain, the schools teach citizenship as ment? He concluded that the loose ties made within Iran in fact had little to do with social part of the required curriculum. Perhaps through Internet sources are not strong media. citizenship learning should start in earnest enough to inspire social movements that Gladwell’s message, and the message I pro- in the sixth grade. It should be aligned to truly change governments and policies. He pose, is that when the status quo absolutely history; it should talk about the effects of centered his story on the 1960 lunch counter must be changed, loose connections don’t citizenship on history; and it should address sit-ins in North Carolina, which began when work very well. Members of these kinds of the rights and responsibilities of citizen- four good friends decided in their student networks don’t have the real motivation to ship, tell how citizens can get help and in- dorm room one night that they were going put their lives and livelihoods on the line. formation, and how they can connect with to create a movement for civil rights; they There are enough ties to pass the word, but other citizens to create a movement. We were going to sit in at the Woolworths in those ties are not strong enough to get peo- rarely refer to ourselves as citizens, yet we Greensboro until they were served. ple to mount the barricades. should begin to believe that of all the goals That protest started a monumental change we have in life, being a good citizen is near Gladwell stated it this way: “The instru- around the country. Within two weeks, the top of the list. Talk about it, use the ments of social media are well suited to those four young people had inspired simi- word, exalt it. making the existing social order more lar sit-ins by seventy thousand people, pri- ef½cient. They are not a natural enemy of 2) Second, we should teach technology ed- marily in the South. Gladwell’s premise was the status quo. If you are of the opinion ucation for older citizens. Some people who that the four people who undertook the ½rst are over a certain age tend to be defensive

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 27 Technology and Culture

Discussion

Paul Sagan

David, you talked about losing our cultural memory. On the other hand, in a world of social media, almost everything we do seems to be recorded and may never go away. Legal scholar Jeffrey Rosen wrote recently in The New York Times Magazine on the fear of the end of privacy. How do you reconcile those two sides?

David Ferriero

I am often asked this question, especially with regard to presidential email. The the- ory is that only those email messages that are declared records–the of½cial business of the White House–are true records that The world of professional news- gathering is changed. We need to look for ways to authenti- cate that news-gathering, for newspapers, which are not im- mune to prejudice and subjec- tivity, as well as for all the

Image © Lester Lefkowitz/Corbis sources we ½nd on the Internet. about the fact that they are not on Facebook, United Kingdom, we have the Media Stan- should be saved. I would argue that we or that they don’t want to use a BlackBerry. dards Trust, a small organization that has should save all email messages. Everyone The statement “I don’t use a computer” is been funded by a couple of the founda- who uses email knows that it combines generally stated in a righteous tone, and I tions represented in this room. The web- personal and business correspondence. hear many people say it. But we need to site journalisted.com, a project of the Why force a human, or a machine, to make boost those people over the digital divide, Trust, posts journalists’ stories by point of decisions about what should and should because there are bene½ts. It is not always a view and topic to make transparent jour- not be considered a record? divide between the rich and the poor; it is a nalists’ outlooks or prejudices. The Trust I am concerned about the research scholar digital divide among the generations. Help- is also authenticating stories with its own one hundred years from now who wants to ing citizens access all of the available tech- version of the Good Housekeeping Seal of know how technology was being used in the nology, and helping them use it better, will Approval. If we hope to make sense of all White House during past administrations. make it more useful for everyone. available information, we need to have this If we do not have access to all that content, kind of help in sifting through the many 3) Finally, the world of professional news- then we will not be able to provide an answer. sources of news. Teaching citizenship; ini- gathering is changed. We need to look for We should keep as much as we can. ways to authenticate that news-gathering, tiating technology education for citizens; for newspapers, which are not immune to and developing means to determine quality prejudice and subjectivity, as well as for all and objectivity: those are my three, if not the sources we ½nd on the Internet. In the solutions, then at least wishes.

28 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Paul Sagan found one about to be born in Mongolia. Certainly, a digital library Digitization is a major development; it is We have a different method in Massachu- not, as I put it, a utopian fantasy. could be ½nanced. The tech- setts. All executive branch email messages are kept, and what happens in the legisla- Meanwhile, of course, the ground is being nology is there; the money is ture is not subject to disclosure and can be occupied by commercial enterprises. Pub- there. Is the will there? That is deleted. The legislature voted and decided lic and commercial fronts do coexist, but there is indeed a risk that the commercial the major question we face. I would argue that we should enterprises will simply take over. They have the money, the technological skill, and some Marjorie Scardino save all email messages. Every- wonderful enterprises, but the basic goal and responsibility of, for example, Google Let me start with what I know best. The Econ- one who uses email knows that Book Search is to make money for its share- omist and the Financial Times share one basic it combines personal and busi- holders. If you look carefully at the settle- belief: that is, simply, the reader’s money ment that was developed between Google should always be balanced with the adver- ness correspondence. Why force on the one hand, and the authors and pub- tiser’s money. We should never be more de- a human, or a machine, to lishers who sued Google on the other, you pendent on advertisers than we are on the will ½nd that it is full of all kinds of clauses people who read the publication. That pol- make decisions about what that are going to restrict access to informa- icy has given us a wide space in which to should and should not be con- tion. I’m a great admirer of Google, but I work. In a challenging environment for ad- simply do not think that Google Book Search vertising, we have found other ways to be sidered a record? adequately ful½lls the need of the citizenry more dependent on our readers. The prem- to be informed and to have access to its cul- ise is that if your news organization or blog that while the governor and the executive tural heritage. I think we need to digitize is something that people really want or need, branch should be held completely to task, texts ourselves. and you need money in order to sustain it, it is important for legislators to be able to then they will pay you for it. We’ve certainly What is striking is its feasibility. One great have private discussions. Be that as it may, found this business model to work with the thing about Google Book Search is that this arrangement may or may not be fair. Financial Times. Google has shown it can be done. Certainly, Bob, you have made a very bold proposal all the foundations that gathered at Harvard I don’t believe that public funding is a viable for creating access to everything. There are last week seem to agree that a digital library model. The government that we have is the others who would subsidize access through could be ½nanced. The technology is there; media’s main object of scrutiny. If the gov- advertising, or perhaps some other model the money is there. Is the will there? That ernment is funding journalism, I do not be- in the future. Can both initiatives evolve at is the major question we face. lieve the media will be able to preserve its the same time–and let the best one win– objectivity. Paul Sagan or, if we do not move more quickly on the Other models that have worked over time academic and the public initiatives, is there Marjorie, I’m sure, is concerned about re- are those that set up a trust. The Poynter a risk of being overtaken by commercial sponsibility to shareholders. In his talk on Institute, for example, owns controlling endeavors? “A Free Press for a Global Society,” Colum- stock of the St. Petersburg Times Company. bia University President Lee Bollinger re- The newspaper changes hands without any Robert Darnton ferred to the monopoly business model that kind of formal gain, and money is directed Certainly, academic and commercial digiti- subsidized much of journalism for ½fty toward training journalists at the Institute. zation projects can be developed simulta- years. Alex Jones at Harvard has referred The trust is a good model, but it’s not sus- neously. Every major research library has to it as the subsidy for journalism, which tainable if the newspaper doesn’t make important digital projects. Research at Har- has been shattered, if you look no further enough money to keep it going. Similarly, vard found that twenty-one countries are than Craigslist. What business models will The Economist has a trust so that no one can developing a national digital library that dominate the next period of journalism? ½re the editor–not the chief executive or is at least in its embryonic stage. We even the board. Only a few trustees who do not have any economic interest at stake can

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 29 Technology and Culture make that decision. That model works for One of the problems with newspapers and same message to maybe hundreds of thou- independence, but depends on the free mar- journalism is that monopoly proprietors sands of people. The other is that when you ket to sustain it. Those are the markets I’d took all of the margin they made; they did hit the reply button, you often send not bank on. not reinvest it in anticipation of the next only your message, but the preceding four wave of journalism. That said, there is plenty hundred messages. These exchanges make Paul Sagan of professional journalism to be had as long the idea of saving everything seem counter- as we can pay people to do it. productive. Is it feasible to ½nd a way to pre- Speaking as a former newspaper reporter, I serve only the nonredundant information? do not see the economics of traditional print journalism as sustainable. I think you agree, Question I think we are moving into a the blogosphere is wonderful in many ways, Marjorie, you mentioned that government but it lacks professionally trained reporters needs to be scrutinized by the media, but it digital world in which the who do investigative journalism. As much seems more and more that business, which as I admire the Financial Times and The Econ- often has a signi½cant role in government professional journalist is omist, I think we are moving into a digital activity, needs to be scrutinized as well. Yet (at risk of) becoming extinct. world in which the professional journalist it is business that, through advertisements, is (at risk of ) becoming extinct. At the same funds much of the press. How do you bal- Paul Sagan time, we need some form of investigative, ance this reality if you would prevent the independent journalism. How will the free government from helping fund journalism? Software actually solves that problem trade work, given that revenue-earners such through de-duplication technology. It as the want ads, which used to overwhelm- Marjorie Scardino keeps one copy of each thread because it is ingly ½nance newspapers, have now gone expensive to store things, despite decreases online? The journalist’s job has always been to af- in storage costs. It keeps the original pieces flict the affluent in one way or another, and and deletes the redundant pieces. If the government is funding I agree business is more often the target than government right now. But the basic David Ferriero journalism, I do not believe tenet of every great journalistic organiza- tion is to be indifferent to the reaction of The more complicating factor is email at- the media will be able to pre- advertising. I don’t know any great news- tachments. We started collecting email serve its objectivity. papers that have failed to stand by that tenet. messages in the Reagan White House, and A big ibm advertising spread in the middle the software to read those attachments doesn’t exist anymore. In the Electronic Marjorie Scardino of the newspaper doesn’t mean that the paper will refrain from criticizing ibm on Records Archive, we have created the facil- Our journalists do a lot of investigative work, the front page. ity for the system to recognize the nature of and some put their work on blogs as well as the attachment and use a plug-in that will Government has more power. Government on paper and online. We try to produce a translate the ½le into something that can has the power to strike your license; in the- dynamic paper that allows you not only to be read today. ory, it has the power to stop your delivery. read the summary in the paper but also to It has all kinds of powers that the law would read deeply into contributors’ blogs or other Question withhold from private business. In that way, sources. Everyone in the paper is involved I think that newspapers were initially set I have two questions for Bob Darnton re- in working on creating this, and then using up to scrutinize government, and I think garding academic publishing. The ½rst re- electronic means to disseminate it. Commer- that is still their largest and most dif½cult lates to quality. Today, there are two modes: cially, it would be preferable not to have to job. the open access mode and the traditional print a pink paper and deliver it to a half- pay-for-access mode. My experience with million people around the world every day. the latter is that some of the long-standing We certainly could sustain investigative Question journals commit a great deal of time and ef- journalism via electronic dissemination. Two factors seem to have led to the huge fort to upholding the quality of the journal growth of redundancy in email correspon- through heavy edits of articles and modern dence. One is the Listserv, which sends the authentication technology like CrossCheck to eliminate plagiarism. Plagiarism is be-

30 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 coming an increasingly important issue, as Newspapers were initially set plagiarists are able to download articles on- line, cut and paste from them, and submit up to scrutinize government, them to journals. We are seeing this phe- and I think that is still their nomenon on editorial boards. largest and most dif½cult job. Second, with regard to open access, you mentioned transferring the cost to publish the article from the consumer to the pro- Now, that may sound pious and far-fetched, ducer. For scholars who work at Harvard, but when we look at hit rates for open ac- that may be easy to do, but how would the cess journals, it becomes clear that they are system work at a university that is not well consulted so widely that the sheer prestige funded, or in a country where the cost of, attached to famous journals like Cell and say, $1,500 to publish an article in an Amer- Nature will not be enough to sustain them. ican journal may be prohibitive for some We have to address this problem as well, people? Can you address those issues? but the solution is not simply that such re- sources will be a luxury for the more well- Robert Darnton endowed universities. The collective effort that is already being made shows consider- The most successful open access journals, able promise. notably those in medicine, such as the ar- chive PubMed Central, have funds set aside As to quality, we need top experts to serve for contributors who cannot pay the pub- on the editorial boards of open access jour- lishing fees, including provisions for schol- nals. We need more advocates like Harold ars in other countries. The economic cost Varmus, who has led the way in obtaining varies from discipline to discipline. Many support from top scientists for open access scientists automatically receive a publish- journals. There is a ways to go, but it is hap- ing component in research grants. pening.

The basic tenet of every great © 2011 by Neal Lane, Paul Sagan, Robert Darnton, David S. Ferriero, and Marjorie journalistic organization is to M. Scardino, respectively be indifferent to the reaction of advertising.

The point is that this model should travel, and it is traveling. We’ve created an organi- zation known as core, to which quite a few universities now subscribe. The transi- tion cannot happen overnight, but as the number of open access journals increases, the center of gravity begins to shift. With a cooperative effort, we can cover the costs of subsidizing the production end, as is hap- pening in ½elds like physics and the health sciences. As this model becomes widespread, the whole terrain will likely shift so that monopolistic price gouging will gradually disappear.

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 31 Induction Symposium: Technology and the Public Good Cybersecurity and the Cloud

Vinton G. Cerf, Richard Hale, and Raymond E. Ozzie Tom Leighton, Moderator Introduction by Neal Lane The 1960th Stated Meeting, held at the House of the Academy on October 10, 2010

Introduction by Neal Lane Malcolm Gillis University Professor, Professor of Physics and Astronomy, and Senior Fellow of the James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy at Rice University. A Fellow of the American Academy since 1995, he is Cochair of the Academy’s Council.

Tom Leighton, Cofounder and Chief Scientist of Akamai Technologies, will lead our panel discussion on Cybersecurity and the Cloud. He is also Professor of Applied Mathematics at mit and has been a member of mit’s Computer Science and Arti½cial Intelligence Laboratory since its inception in 1996. A preeminent authority on algorithms for network applications, he holds numerous patents in- volving content delivery, Internet protocols, cryptography, and digital rights management. From 2003 to 2005, Dr. Leighton served on the President’s Information Technology Advisory Committee, during which time he chaired the Subcommittee on Cybersecurity. He is a Fellow of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Sciences, and he has been an active Fellow of the American Academy since his election in 2003. He serves as a member of the Academy’s Trust.

Here to discuss cybersecurity are senior dod communications and information re- leaders from three of the most powerful in- main secure against cyberattack. So when stitutions in the world: Google, Microsoft, the bad guys are trying to steal our country’s and the Pentagon. Both Al Gore and our ½rst secrets, Richard’s job is to make sure they are panelist, Vint Cerf, are Fellows of the Amer- not successful. This is obviously an enor- ican Academy; only one of them invented mous, and enormously important, task. the Internet. Vint is well-known as a father The third member of our panel, Ray Ozzie, of the Internet because of his pioneering has founded and led several successful high- work on the architecture and basic proto- tech companies, including Iris Associates, cols that make the Internet what it is today. where he created Lotus Notes and led the In recognition of his contributions, he has development team. He now serves as Chief received every possible prize, including the Software Architect at Microsoft, where he Turing Award, the National Medal of Tech- directs technical strategy, product architec- nology, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, ture, and development of the company’s and the Japan Prize. Vint is currently Vice next-generation software services platform. President at Google, where he also has the He was elected a member of the American title Chief Internet Evangelist. He was elected Academy in 2010. Tom Leighton a member of the American Academy in 1995. We have decided to divide our discussion Next to Vint is Richard Hale. When it comes Tom Leighton is Professor of Applied Mathemat- into two parts: the ½rst will deal with indi- to cybersecurity, Richard is ½ghting on the ics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology vidual privacy and security; the second will front lines. As the Chief Information Assur- and Cofounder and Chief Scientist of Akamai focus on corporate and government secu- ance Executive for the Defense Information Technologies. He has been a Fellow of the Amer- rity, with particular attention to military Systems Agency, Richard oversees cyberse- ican Academy since 2003 and serves as a member uses of the Internet, both offensive and curity for the agency that runs all the net- of the Academy’s Trust. defensive. We will start each topic with a works for the Department of Defense (dod) brief statement from the panelists, then we and the military. He is responsible for coor- will have a discussion with questions from dinating the design and implementation of the audience. a defense-in-depth strategy to ensure that

32 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Individual Privacy and Security defend itself, not unlike the telephone sys- tem, whereby any instrument can call any other instrument. I foresaw a similar system for computers on the Internet: any computer would be able to send traf½c to any other computer on the Internet, but if one com- puter did not want to communicate with another, then it did not have to. That view did not anticipate the denial-of-service at- tack, which is the classic problem of some- one overwhelming your computer, not with anything subtle but simply with too much traf½c. On the other hand, it seemed like a reasonable tactic that you could use crypto- graphic means to authenticate the origina- tor of the traf½c and then reject it on the grounds that it did not match anything you recognized. Richard Hale We have to build much more Vinton G. Cerf Richard Hale is Chief Information Assurance robust and resistant systems Executive at the Defense Information Systems Vinton G. Cerf is Vice President and Chief Inter- Agency of the U.S. Department of Defense. net Evangelist at Google Inc. He has been a Fel- that are capable of protecting low of the American Academy since 1995. machines and their content. I will begin by telling a quick story. My fa- We cannot rely strictly on any ther-in-law is retired from the military, so aybe I should start by reminding every- M my in-laws get their health care through one what Scott McNealy, cofounder of Sun external defense that is not im- the military health insurance program. Microsystems, said some time ago: there plicit in the design of the devices That also means they often receive health isn’t any privacy anymore; get over it. I hope care at military facilities. When they have that is not true. But I think we are now in an themselves or their software. problems, we can visit any military-run environment where security is hard to come hospital in the Washington area because by, and privacy is equally beleaguered. As the Internet evolved, and as it entered the military has put medical records into the enterprise environment, the notion of On the security side, I tend to think of the the cloud. We can go into any of these hos- ½rewalls and perimeter defenses came along. current Internet environment as compara- pitals, and all their test results over the last Yet in the end, I think we all have discovered ble to a very complex ecosystem. It is not ten years are graphed. This centralization that it is still the individual computer or pro- centrally controlled; it is made up of a wide of test data is a fantastic development for grammed component that has to defend it- range of organisms and institutions. The care because you can spot trends. self, because you can walk around the ½re- equivalent of dna, the software that allows wall with a virus-infected usb memory From a privacy point of view, I want the peo- the Internet and its components to inter- stick and thereby infect the interior of what ple who are caring for me to have access to work is also quite varied; it is not all stem- should have been a protected perimeter. I that kind of information. If we can broaden ming from the same source. As a conse- think we have to build much more robust access, then there is an incredible amount of quence, assuring any kind of security is and resistant systems that are capable of data for researchers to ½gure out what corre- dif½cult. protecting machines and their content. We lates with what, what works, and what does When Internet design was ½rst being for- cannot rely strictly on any external defense not. mulated, I was not thinking much about that is not implicit in the design of the de- the future enterprise use of it. At the time, vices themselves or their software. I thought every computer would have to

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 33 Cybersecurity and the Cloud

At the same time, one of my jobs, and of my functioning optimally, and even though colleagues at the dod, is to try to keep a every word you typed (if you were using our secret. It turns out, when everything is con- software) might have gone into Microsoft nected to everything else, keeping a secret Of½ce, we established a trust relationship is an extremely hard task. What we are try- that our software, even though it was con- ing to do is ½gure out how to keep informa- nected, was not monitoring your keystrokes. tion within some community that needs As a result, users did not have to worry about access to that information. Yet it is dif½cult what traf½c analysis we were performing on to de½ne community with any precision be- the desktop, or what leakage of data may cause, in the example of health care, that have been occurring. could be anyone involved in my care or any For some reason, that basic relationship legitimate researcher who needs access to changed in a services world. As an industry my health information. and as users, we made a conscious choice to throw all that out the window, even though It is very hard to guarantee we could have brought the privacy and se- that private data will not be curity norms from the earlier pc era into the service environment. Right now, we are exposed. The tension between Raymond E. Ozzie moving into a world where everything that access, privacy, and security is you believe you have exclusive custody of is Raymond E. Ozzie is former Chief Software being shared; indeed, you are putting it into a real challenge at the moment. Architect at Microsoft Corporation. He has been joint custody with a service provider. This a Fellow of the American Academy since 2010. Given the technology fertility that Vint men- Right now, we are moving into tioned, and given the large number of peo- Privacy and security are such nuanced ple involved, it is very hard to guarantee that topics, and in many cases, we become con- a world where everything that private data will not be exposed. And once fused as to whether we are talking about you believe you have exclusive exposed, whether by accident or maliciously, the privacy of data–the information that it is gone. The tension between access, pri- we create and that we consume–and traf½c custody of is being shared. vacy, and security is a real challenge at the analysis: looking at metadata or at the pat- moment. terns surrounding how we do things and development raises two questions: What what we do. Both aspects are extremely trust relationship do you want to have with valuable in different contexts and in differ- your service provider? What are the regu- ent forms. lations and who are the stakeholders that your service provider is subject to that you pc Many of us came into the industry be- may or may not like? fore there was all this information flowing around on wires. Early on, many of us were For example, many people are unaware of very idealistic about how personal comput- the fact that Microsoft, as a service provider, ing could lead to empowerment and how we is required to scan the images that are stored could use technology to help individuals. in our service. Even if we do not use the traf- ½c or the data, we are obligated to monitor pc In the early era, we brought norms from for such things as child pornography and to pc the physical world into the world. Wheth- act accordingly if discovered. However, once er it was Apple with Macintosh, Microsoft we have built these monitoring capabilities with Windows, or Linux, we brought the into our services in order to ful½ll one regu- feelings of trust and privacy from physical lation, other regulators can come along, any- ½le cabinets onto your desktop. So even where worldwide, and say, “Since you’ve though Windows Update connected to already built it, why don’t you use it for this Microsoft’s services to keep Windows other purpose?”

34 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 It is an interesting and different world that As an industry, service providers are being Vinton Cerf we are entering. For some reason, we feel required to put ports in our systems to im- The point here is that mechanisms that are that it is permissible in this world (right now, plement snooping as a service for a variety well-intentioned, but that may not have ad- at least) to allow service providers, such as of third parties. I would encourage open equate access control, can be used by others Microsoft, to change their terms of use by dialogue about how we implement such than those for which the devices were in- simply changing an end-user license agree- things, and conservatism in how quickly tended. The electronic cookie is a good il- ment on a Web page somewhere. We are in we race forward, because there are unin- lustration of how a tool can start out with only the early stages of creating the norms tended uses of these systems and tools. good intentions and then morph into some- that will take us forward for many, many Once they are integrated, insiders or other thing more threatening. years. In my opinion–and it is a very unusu- governments might use them. We do not yet al thing to say–we need to start thinking know exactly how these tools will be used Cookies, at least as used in the Internet con- at the metadata or data level. text, started out as a very practical business Whether as a business or an issue. When I was at mci in the early 1990s, Tom Leighton individual, you should be sus- we began to explore the use of the World The privacy conversation involves the needs Wide Web, and we built something called mci pect of putting all your data of the individual versus the needs of some the Mall (which ultimately was not a in one place or in one tool. collective, whether it is government or some commercial success). We approached Net- entity trying to sell you a product. We all scape Communications to license their like personalization; for example, the loca- servers and browser software, which we more about compartmentalization. Whether tion-based services on an Android phone, then distributed so that people could ac- as a business or an individual, you should be an iPhone, or a BlackBerry are very cool. cess this shopping mall service. suspect of putting all your data in one place The phone knows where you are, and it tries or in one tool, of putting all your data online to tell you about what is around you. Some- Snooping as a service, includ- versus in a collection of duplicated memo- times it tells those people around you about ries, such as usb memory devices. In our ing the business of wiretapping, you. In either case, the goal is to provide current situation, you cannot implicitly you with a better experience or to sell you stimulated a great deal of de- trust any emergent online service. something more ef½ciently. bate some years ago in terms I think we also need to become much more Snooping as a service, including the business aware as a society of what we are walking of whether the government of wiretapping, stimulated a great deal of into from a tracking perspective. Everyone debate some years ago in terms of whether ought to have a snooping port probably is beginning to realize that every the government ought to have a snooping website he or she visits is leaving a trail of in commercial cryptography. port in commercial cryptography. The tech- golden crumbs that entrepreneurs and busi- nology had been the old clipper chip that nesses want to monetize in one way or an- some of you will remember, but wiretapping I realized even then that I did not know how other. But I do not think that people have does not mean the same thing that it used to. many people would use the service, and I an understanding of the degree to which, Today when government or law enforce- was worried about the fact that the Web is at least in the United States, webcams or ment wants to ½gure out what a bad guy is a kind of stateless engine. I was concerned security cameras are monitoring them. Re- doing, it asks Microsoft to build monitor- that people would get partway through cently it was estimated that in the United ing into its system. Then, for a variety of transactions and then things would break, States, you are exposed to roughly two hun- reasons, that monitoring could be used by or they would abandon a transaction only dred recording cameras per day. someone else for some other purpose. That to come back later. I did not want to have my servers swell with huge amounts of in- People do not talk about the fact that Blue- other entity may not be a government, Mi- formation, some of which might have no tooth phones are being tracked. There are crosoft, or even a Microsoft insider; there longer been of any use. Instead, I wanted to many tools and sites in existence that track may be weaknesses that allow that monitor- store whatever the state of the transaction shoppers through malls, from store to store. ing to be used by almost anyone in the world. was on the machines that people were using These tools know when you are a repeat We need to consider what bounds we should in order to access the service. visitor just browsing. These new mecha- set in enabling these kinds of services. nisms are creeping up on us, and I think So John Klensin and I debated how to store we all could do society a favor by increas- the state of these transactions on the client’s ing the level of conversation about them. machine as an ef½ciency measure, because

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 35 Cybersecurity and the Cloud

numbers were called, how long each call lasted, when the call was made, and so on. Such details are treated as protected infor- mation, but that is a corporate decision (one that may be backed by legal precedent).

In the case of Google, we consider much of the information we have to be private, thus we do not share it with anyone. We certainly use it, but as I have often tried to point out to people, we do not care about who you are. We care about patterns and about trying to match the patterns we see with the adver- tisements that may be of interest. Our the- ory is that advertising that is actually of interest is more likely to be perceived as in- formation rather than annoying advertising. Mechanisms that are well- intentioned, but that may not have adequate access control, can be used by others than those for which the devices were intended.

A company has to make a decision about what to do with the information it accumu- lates. Google considers that information to Image © Lester Lefkowitz/Getty Images be private; therefore, we do not transfer it to third parties. Transparency–making sure everyone who came to the system brought of course, is not without its own power to that people know what kind of information with him a computer with memory, storage, collect information, and it does so for dif- is accumulated, what is done with it, and and communication capacity. That is where ferent reasons. As you made clear, there are what they can do about removing it–be- the idea of cookies came from. I certainly unanticipated consequences of these abili- comes a very important element in the de- did not anticipate the uses that we now see ties. How do we set up rules for use? More- bate, resulting in the privacy dashboards with various forms of cookies and tracking over, how do we set up rules in an interna- and similar tools that Google and others mechanisms. tional environment where other govern- are building. Emphasizing transparency is ments may have very different views about very important because it relates to the Tom Leighton what is permissible in this regard? question of trust. You cannot have this kind of business unless you can establish You raise a fascinating challenge, and I would Vinton Cerf a trust relationship. like to push you to suggest possible solutions. Ray and Vint represent companies that, be- One aspect that often does not receive much Raymond Ozzie cause of their pervasive software and ser- recognition in discussions like this is that vices, are capable of capturing a tremendous the decision to protect privacy is not merely The single biggest thing we can do is increase amount of knowledge and tracking by the a technical one; it is sometimes a decision transparency. We need to explain how the individual user. In some cases, they use these made as a corporate policy. For example, a tools we use work–how websites work in abilities for the purposes of advertising or telephone company collects a huge amount general–in terms that regular people can generating search results. The government, of information for billing purposes: which understand.

36 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 As an example of the challenge we face in Richard Hale Question improving transparency, consider Micro- A lot of money can be made by understand- My question is not about access to secure soft’s Internet Explorer 8. The group that ing us better as consumers and citizens, so data–data that are classi½ed or itar (Inter- built the browser put in a feature that we are being tracked like crazy. The develop- national Traf½c in Arms Regulations) re- showed, very plainly, all the entities that ments that allowed these tracking capabili- stricted data–but rather access to nonsecure had some degree of tracking ability when a ties to flourish have sprung up very rapidly, data for academic and similar researchers user visited a particular Web page. The and as yet there are no norms for them. working on 6.1 contracts with the dod. I user could bring up a page, and the browser would concurrently show you, for example, The dod is tiny on the scale of the Internet, multiple advertisers, an advertising net- but it is still a big place. As we try to keep Accountability involves ½rst work, a third-party tracking company, and secrets, we try also to have some notion of coming up with norms and an analytics company. The browser could accountability for access to information. provide this information for every page vis- Even though the dod is maybe four million methods to evaluate the trust- ited. This transparency is extremely scary people, our task is easier within our smaller worthiness of an organization because it overturns people’s view that when structure than in the vastness of the Internet. they go to a website, it is only the brand of But extending our scope to include even just or individual. Then it requires that website, and the site is taking responsi- coalition partners, we increase the chance transparency in order to hold bility for its actions. Instead, they see that that secrets will not be properly kept. there are many companies getting little gold- someone or some entity ac- en crumbs from them. Accountability, therefore, becomes imper- ative. It involves ½rst coming up with norms countable to those norms. Advertisers did not want this level of trans- and methods to evaluate the trustworthiness parency, so there ended up being a middle of an organization or individual. Then it re- have had a lot of experience with this in the ground, a private browsing mode that pro- quires transparency–being able to see ex- last ten years, and I ½nd that there is often vides some of this information and allows actly what is going on–in order to hold an internal political barrier in terms of ac- you to block things–but it is not the default someone or some entity accountable to cess to information. For example, jieddo setting. As this example makes clear, the those norms. For individuals, we have im- (Joint Improvised Explosive Device Defeat defaults and norms that we end up with re- plemented cryptographic identity creden- Organization) might own sets of data (his- garding transparency will always be decided tials that are much stronger than things like torical data) on insurgent activity, and it is through some combination of what citizens passwords so that we can hold individuals willing to give the data to researchers who want, what governments want, and so on. accountable for access to private or secret are directly connected to the organization. information. Without getting into argu- The Army Research Of½ce might be fund- There is a lot going on that people do not ments about national id cards and similar ing a project to study the same kinds of ac- understand, but much of it is not for ill will; measures, I do think we somehow need to tivity, but it cannot get access to the data to there are economic motivations, for exam- increase and improve accountability. put it in the hands of researchers it supports. ple, behind certain actions. Still, there is a I have seen this problem with the Defense lot of data being accumulated, and many of Vinton Cerf Threat Reduction Agency and the National the companies accumulating it are not as Geospatial Intelligence Agency. It is com- stable as, say, Microsoft or Google. When a However, I cannot help but observe that partmentalization of unclassi½ed data, and company is in ½nancial stress, suddenly it even agencies with the most secret of infor- the barriers that are set up are impediments can relicense, changing the terms on the mation run into the basic problem of need- to those of us trying to do basic research. data that it has already accumulated and ing to trust individuals. Some of the most Could you comment on that? doing things with it that might not have serious security breaches have been a con- been in the scope of their original intent. sequence of individuals choosing to release Richard Hale information: WikiLeaks, for example. No Vinton Cerf matter how hard you work on the technol- I have faced that problem as well, and it can ogy side, you still have to trust people, which be very situational. Often, data are thought Furthermore, when a company goes into sometimes does not work. to be somehow sensitive, and therefore are bankruptcy, some things are treated as as- not made entirely public. What happened sets that were not thought of as assets before. with the Internet is that everything began to be published by anyone in the world, with

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 37 Cybersecurity and the Cloud everyone seeing everything. We frequently Question Kindle, but if you highlight a given passage have debates about whether we would put as you are reading an electronic book, it You talked about the importance of estab- anyone at risk by revealing information. shows you that, say, thirty-½ve other people lishing a trust relationship with these large With some of the data we collect–as we highlighted the section. At ½rst, you won- companies and the role that transparency monitor the dod networks for people try- der why that little squiggly has shown up plays in that. I think that is only part of the ing to cause mischief, for example–we under the text. But after a while, you come story, however, because the consumer has simply do not have the authority to give to appreciate the feedback that it is giving very little power here. When you turn on that data to anyone. you. We are contributing that information the browser and have this scary experience and getting value out of it. I do not have a good answer for you except of discovering what is really happening, to say that the government (at least the times you have the choice as an individual to opt Ultimately, there are some I have been involved) struggles in good con- out of the game. But that has a tremendous science with the question of whether it can disadvantage: the individual has no bargain- personal bene½ts for individu- release information. We all want to get bet- ing power. It seems to me that if we care at als, not just advertisers, that ter eyes on our problems, and thus releasing all about this trust relationship, it is going information is generally in the government’s to take more than transparency. arise from tracking. interest. If you go to a site like dictionary.com and This is a balancing of equities, and I think look up a word, dictionary.com will tell the Vinton Cerf that transparency is step one. If people real- people trying to develop a behavioral model ize there is something going on, then they I want to make another related observation; of you what word you just looked up. That may become curious and want to know it is not speci½c to your problem, but it is is the degree to which you are being tracked more. For example, if people knew there related to the notion of privacy. We treat by what I will call this conspiracy of web- was as much Bluetooth tracking as there is, court records as public records, and there sites. Should we worry about this situation, would there be legislation dedicated to this are a number of other things that we treat and if so, how could the debate be institu- issue? I do not know the answer, but I think as public records. In my view, we have been tionalized, because we as individuals have a general awareness of something like this satis½ed to call them public records because, no bargaining power? would be the ½rst step in determining ac- in the past, it has not been all that easy to tions or outcomes. access them. You had to show up at a par- Vinton Cerf ticular building, get access to a ½ling cabi- net, and maybe get somebody to reproduce You mentioned one thing that I think is very Corporate and Government the public record. When you put records in helpful, and that is, it is not just the search Cybersecurity digital form and they are widely and instan- engine companies that do this kind of track- ing. Any website you go to is capable of put- taneously available on the Internet to two Tom Leighton ting a cookie on your machine and using it. Let’s move on to our second topic, corporate Our concept of “public record” The fact that Internet activity is tracked and government cybersecurity, with time does not necessarily translate into what is could easily morph, simply as for more questions at the end. This topic is being done with that information. I would important to each of our panelists because a consequence of the environ- respond by saying that maybe we need to every major corporation and branch in the think seriously about how users can say, “I ment in which those records military is the target of cyberattacks de- don’t want to be tracked.” Google is experi- signed to steal its con½dential information. menting with just that, with private brows- now exist. Perhaps even more frightening is the re- ing modes and tools of that nature. People cent Stuxnet virus, which affects control billion people, it is possible to argue that should not have to know so much in order systems for utilities–nuclear power plants maybe they should not be public records to remove their “trackability.” because, for example, court cases have per- in particular. It has been speculated in the sonal information in them, such as addresses Raymond Ozzie press recently that Israel and/or the United and phone numbers. Our concept of “pub- States may have been behind the Stuxnet Ultimately, there are some personal bene½ts lic record” could easily morph, simply as a virus in an attempt to derail Iran’s nuclear for individuals, not just advertisers, that consequence of the environment in which program. arise from tracking. I’m not sure how many those records now exist. of you have used the new version of the

38 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Every major corporation and us to protect our employees in countries so from an architectural perspective, we where they, their employers, or their fami- have our hands full in terms of coming up branch in the military is the lies could be threatened if they did not pro- with a solution. target of cyberattacks designed vide physical access to data to some local of½cial who desired access. Many of these Richard Hale challenges can be addressed–for example, to steal its con½dential infor- Having systems that we thought were dis- by using technology that makes data cen- connected but really were not goes back a mation. ters as disposable as possible or by using long time. Early computer viruses were encryption technology–but the fact is we passed around on floppy disks; the com- This speculation raises several interesting are in the early days of transition to these puters were not yet connected, but there questions. For example, is the offensive use kinds of models. of cyberattacks by governments legitimate was a channel between them. Puzzling out during peacetime? If so, what are the con- There are differences in regulations between what all those channels are, and trying to sequences? Are treaties and regulations various countries: in terms of where their ½gure out how to control them, is part of needed, or even technically possible? Per- citizens’ health records must be kept, where our problem today. haps more important, now that a virus that companies must keep their ½nancial records, affects control systems for nuclear power and so on. In many ways, this asymmetry Stuxnet is causing a number of plants has been unleashed, how comfortable resembles the asymmetry in crypto-regula- us to rethink the fact that every- can we be that utility operations in this tions that existed a number of years ago. country are safe? Is a devastating cyberat- Some of it will simply take time to iron out, thing really is connected: the tack against the United States now really but we need to have more conversations keyboard controllers in the key- around the issues. possible? If so, what can we do about it? boards, the systems themselves, Our entire infrastructure is under constant Raymond Ozzie attack by a number of different classes of the ½rmware that is in them. We are in the beginning of a signi½cant actor; that is something we just have to deal transformation for all organizations. As I with as the nature of the environment. We One of my jobs, and that of my colleagues said before, with regard to individuals, we cannot delude ourselves into thinking that in the dod who work on issues related to fairly rapidly brought the norms from the we can achieve perfection, and we will have cybersecurity, is to make business processes physical world, and a viewpoint of how we to ½nd ways to channel resources systemat- dependable in the face of those who want compartmentalize our information, to the ically to keep the threat level down and to to disrupt them. In other words, we want online environment. Businesses are just rally together to address emergencies as war-½ghting to work even when someone beginning to embrace the notion of cloud they come along. is trying to interfere with the information computing: that is, taking many of the or the information infrastructure. Some- The Stuxnet virus is a very interesting case. things they have done within their data times this means being able to carry on in The nature of the virus is such that it as- centers and putting it online, relying on spite of a problem; other times, it is work- sumes it is targeting systems that are not service providers to take care of it. They are ing very quickly to recover when a problem connected to the Internet. It assumes that putting their data in the custody of some occurs. Whether ½ghting a war or doing re- the infection will somehow get to the in- other entity. lief work in Haiti, where we collaborate tended device by someone casually taking with nontraditional partners (Cuba and usb Each time that you analyze the risk model something from a memory drive and China, for instance), I want people on dod associated with how to manage the data in then using it on a disconnected logic con- missions to be able to depend on informa- your systems, it becomes a bit more nuanced troller machine. Viruses are traveling by tion and on the information infrastructure when you involve more and more third that model, but as an industry, we have not when someone is interfering with it. I think parties or more jurisdictions. For example, conceptualized updating our software so that cybersecurity problems with industrial Microsoft, as a cloud computing provider, that it can transmit ½xes to patch the sys- control systems are closely related to this. was well aware of threat models related to tems by that same model. Stuxnet is causing people watching and snooping online when a number of us to rethink the fact that every- So I would suggest that dependability is an data were flowing among our data centers. thing really is connected: the keyboard con- important aspect of security. We talked In the initial designs of our data centers, trollers in the keyboards, the systems them- about trustworthiness earlier; now we are however, we were not thinking too much selves, the ½rmware that is in them. There trying to ½gure out if we can depend on the about the threat model that would require is no such thing as a disconnected system, systems that are exposed to this environ-

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 39 Cybersecurity and the Cloud ment. At the dod, we have a notion that The Web works by allowing browser soft- Internet did not consider that bad guys materials and supplies the dod buys for ware to go to a particular machine on the might exist in any deep way. This means war-½ghting need to work in a realistic op- Net, download a ½le, and then interpret and there is now a lot of opportunity for mis- erational environment: your tank has to be render it in some way. In the past, render- chief amidst the billions of people on the able to work properly even when people are ing involved only text and imagery, but to- Internet, facilitated by anonymity and a shooting at it; it needs to be designed to day it might include Java script, Java code, lack of accountability. I think we need to handle whatever the threat. In general sys- Python, or some other high-level language. increase accountability. tem design or application design, we do not The suf½ciently naive browser will simply yet have the notion that everything is hooked interpret the code and do whatever it says– We have to begin by making to everything else and that anyone can take which may be something like “take this lit- the Internet not as vulnerable a whack at us. Thus we have not gotten our tle piece of information, store it down here heads around the concept that we need to in the operating system, and change this as it is. build systems for a realistic operational en- ½le name to something else, and then do a vironment. Every computer science depart- few other little things.” In the process, it We also need to improve the notion of ment needs to teach realistic operational en- compromises the machine. identity. We can reduce cybercrime by vironment, all the time, or we are never going making it easier for me as an individual to Naive browsers and operating systems that to have the dependability we hope to have. ½gure out whether a person is someone allow browsers to operate at too high a level with whom I want to interact or trade The very basic issue here is our of privilege lead to a collection of infected credit card numbers. Right now, we get machines that become part of the BotNet precious few reliable cues in that regard, ability to design highly resilient armies. We have work to do to make these and we need to ½x that. We may not be able systems that can defend them- machines a lot less vulnerable to this kind to trace back to the individual, but our ef- of attack. Once you have a BotNet army forts may dampen the ease with which bad selves by recognizing what is available, then you can do a lot of fairly bad guys can make money from cybercrime. acceptable and what is not. things with it, including distributed denial- We will not eliminate cybercrime by devel- of-service attacks, which, independent of oping the appropriate social and technical Vinton Cerf any subtlety, simply overwhelm the target mechanisms to deal with it, but we will re- and render it useless. The very basic issue duce it to some manageable level. We will One way to characterize the problem is like here is our ability to design highly resilient drive some of the opportunity out of the this: the good thing about the Internet is systems that can defend themselves by rec- system. that everything is connected; the bad thing ognizing what is acceptable and what is not. about the Internet is that everything is con- Raymond Ozzie nected. Much of the horsepower behind var- Tom Leighton ious forms of attack comes from laptops, Many of the attacks going on right now are, One topic we have not covered yet is cyber- desktops, and personal computers that have at their roots, social engineering attacks. crime. It is a very big business today and been penetrated. In the early stages of the For example, people might be confused growing rapidly; it is estimated that indus- Internet, when laptops and desktops were about who has sent them an email mes- tries are losing billions of dollars a year be- less prevalent, attacks were typically against sage, but they click through anyway, get cause of it. For all the problems we have large time-sharing machines, and they were to a website, think that it is an authorized with privacy, many of the protocols on the fairly subtle attacks: a packet would be sent place to buy something (after all, it looks Internet protect the anonymity of cyber- that led to a buffer overflow, causing code like a valid website), and supply their credit criminals. Is it possible to make the Inter- to be executed that should not have been, at card information. The more successful the net safe, or are we stuck with cybercrime as a level of privilege that it did not deserve. Internet is in terms of how far it is embraced a large and growing problem? To make it Eventually, the operating system itself would in society for online commerce, the broader safe, do we face further loss of privacy on be penetrated. the attack area for criminals. the Internet? What is happening now in the evolution of There is a lot of technology that we can the Net is that we have several billion devices Richard Hale bring to bear that we have not even begun to do yet. One of the beauties of now hav- online. Many of them are laptops, desktops, We have to begin by making the Internet ing a critical mass social network on the pads, and, increasingly, mobile phones. They not as vulnerable as it is. In the ancient days Internet is that we can give you hints while use the World Wide Web as their principal of the Internet, everyone was a friend, and you are browsing as to whether the com- means of interaction and of gathering data. as a result, the basic underpinning of the munity believes this is a real website: infor-

40 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 mation on how many people have transacted whether you want to continue a transaction sure that everyone who is responsible for on this website, and how many of your if you do not have a stronger sense of what helping you recover from your health inci- friends or friends of friends have done is going on. I think of that as the analogue dent has access to all the information he or something on the website. We have ½gured of the software that tries to be more resis- she needs. But it is also fair to say that after out how to give people these sorts of cues tant in the face of a highly corrosive environ- that crisis is over, you probably do not want in real life, such as getting a recommenda- ment. I do not see any other paths available all those people to continue to have access tion from a friend. I do not think that we to us in such a rich ecosystem that incorpo- to all that information. It would be disap- have even scratched the surface yet in terms rates the general public, which is always go- pointing if it were the case that there were of the good things we can do with simple ing to have some element in it that is inter- no way to provide ephemeral rights to ac- cues in our normal browsing activities on ested in doing things that are in some ways cess information. the Internet. harmful to other citizens. The more successful the Inter- Vinton Cerf Question net is in terms of how far it is I still think it is important that we be able As a professional who is involved in chil- embraced in society for online to take actions and do things anonymously. dren’s health care issues and as a father, On the other hand, I think it is extremely one of the things that concerns me is the commerce, the broader the at- valuable to be able to demand strong au- issue of what I call social cybercrime, in- tack area for criminals. thenticity of a party, if you feel the need for volving bullying in the teenage years that it. Take, for instance, a scenario in which I children cannot get away from and that has Thinking about mechanical devices or me- encounter Ray on some website. We do not resulted in numerous suicides. In spite of chanical access control, what you want is know each other, but we begin to exchange the privacy that is necessary, I wonder if the ability to authorize access to some in- instant messages. Somewhere along the line, there is a better way, at least for the under formation, but not necessarily forever. In Ray says he would like to borrow $250,000. 18 age group, to track individuals who are the health care space, that would be another Pretending that I have $250,000 to loan Ray, involved in such social cybercrime: for ex- way to close down the potential for abuse. my ½rst reaction might be, I think I need to ample, by requiring some traceable log-in Credit cards have a similar character: they know a little bit more about you; who are method. expire. One of the good things about the you besides this bank account to which you expiration of a credit card is that if it is want me to wire money? Vinton Cerf being abused, it cannot be abused after it I think it is extremely valuable This sounds like a virtual cuff of some sort, has expired. akin to the ones we use for people on house Raymond Ozzie to be able to demand strong arrest that feature a gps receiver or a radio authenticity of a party, if you device to con½rm their whereabouts. Let me I do not have a solution to the problem that respond by retargeting the question just a you have stated, but the most effective tac- feel the need for it. bit. One of the things your question suggests tic that I have seen to address those issues, to me is the notion of auditing. This is dif- as opposed to logging and auditing after the I can imagine asking Ray to supply me with ferent from painting a big mark on some- fact, is to have proactive members of the a number of bona ½des. He might send me one’s forehead to indicate that he has been community identify and monitor the forums a digitally signed object stating that he has involved in cybercrime. But auditing could that are likely to be dangerous zones for kids. certain assets and that he is prepared to repay be very helpful, and a combination of au- It depends on the direct involvement of a me. At that point, I do not know for sure diting and strong authentication can help community participant, and it has been very whether the things that Ray digitally signed us, at least, detect that something has hap- effective in many of the online forums. are true, so I might turn to Richard, who, let’s pened that is not acceptable. I would argue say, runs a service that keeps track of people’s that we might ½nd some bene½t in that par- Vendors are in a very dif½cult position be- credentials. He can con½rm for me that Ray ticular tactic. cause, often, they create general-purpose has the assets that he claims to have. tools that are subsequently repurposed. For example, you are in a strange city and Furthermore, they cannot monitor every My suggestion is that, as tools become avail- you have a health problem that is acute. communication forum. In many cases, the able to enforce strong authentication, they When you get to the emergency center, you community needs to become much more do not necessarily need to be applied across are probably less worried at that moment involved. Vendors can and should make the board under all circumstances; but they about privacy than you are about making warning buttons that signal inappropriate need to be available so that you can decide

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 41 Cybersecurity and the Cloud content or that report offensive actions. It strikes me that some things may need to almost all of the time, there is something But I would suggest that the solution is 80 be done at the level of the isp in order to wrong, even though the party did not pur- percent social and community/20 percent facilitate government’s ability to obtain a posefully put anything on the page; it got technology, as opposed to vice versa. search warrant or to gain some sort of legit- there because security controls were not imate access. Could focusing on the isp adequate. There will continue to be all sorts of new help with the challenge that cybercrime types of communication and sharing tools, arises from a variety of places: sometimes A combination of auditing and there is not one mechanism to hit them at the website or the vendor level; some- all. For example, Chat Roulette, which was and strong authentication times through third parties? How do you a fad a short time ago, was built by one per- decide on the optimal place for controls? can help us detect that some- son and took off like wild½re. The inappro- priate things that happened in that environ- Vinton Cerf thing has happened that is ment could not have been controlled in the not acceptable. same way an online forum might have been. I have a very visceral reaction to the idea of trying to control behavior and content We have to stay on top of situations like this I think you have to be very thoughtful about issues at the low level of the isp. Down one and treat them as the community prob- where you apply some of these controls. In there, where the packets are flipping back lem that they are. some cases, the volume of things that go on and forth, the packets do not know what is so high that it is impossible to predeter- they are carrying or how they are carried; Technologies do exist for mine a solution. YouTube is a good example: the router has not a clue. If you care about twenty-four hours of video are uploaded to strong authentication if we content, you should be operating at a place YouTube per minute, and there is no way to in the architecture where content is visible. were to decide on that as the keep track of all that. Therefore, the idea of norm for dealing with a situa- Consider one approach that Google has warning buttons or notices, as well as take- tried. When Google crawls through the down, is extremely helpful, because if the tion like online bullying. World Wide Web to build our index, we use general population is capable of telling you a program that downloads each Web page there is a problem, then you can respond. Richard Hale and then scans it, trying to ½nd all the hyper- I would add only that technologies do exist links and words on the page in order to build Raymond Ozzie for strong authentication if we were to de- the index. Simultaneously, the program tries Google and Microsoft, as two vendors, clear- cide on that as the norm for dealing with a to detect whether there might be malware ly have scale issues that some service provid- situation like online bullying. Among other on the page. It is a program that is doing ers do not. The best suggestions that I have factors, our decision to pursue that norm this, and so it is only as smart as a program seen so far are, again, a combination of so- might be influenced by the fact that we know can be–which is often not terribly smart. cial, technical, and community mechanisms. bullying sometimes happens less when bul- But whenever we ½nd the possibility of mal- There are certain things that are black and lies know people are watching them and ware on a page, we make a note of that. white: you get a takedown request because know who they are. When someone is using our search engine, something is legally inappropriate, and we if he attempts to go to one such site, we put can take clear action in that case. But the Question up an interstitial Web page. It is bright red volume of requests that we get that we re- ally do not know what to do with is increas- It might be useful to think about the places and warns the user that he may not want to ing. There are photographs or materials where controls occur for cybercrime be- go to the page because we think it contains that, in one jurisdiction, in one country, in cause, in fact, there is a real variety of prob- malware. The user, though, is free to cut and one nation or culture, are perfectly appro- lems out there. There is the person on eBay paste the target into the browser address bar priate, but that in others are not. We are or Craigslist trying to sell you a Coach bag and go there anyway; we cannot stop that. projecting our services out to the world, so that turns out to be a piece of junk. In that We have worked to set up an organization dealing with takedown requests by various case, it is just a breach of contract in a sense. called StopBadware.org, which is a non- groups is a fairly challenging task. Then there is everything from the theft of pro½t spun out of the Berkman Center for credit card information, to people raiding Internet and Society at Harvard University. your bank account, to widespread Internet © 2011 by Neal Lane, Tom Leighton, Vinton If someone complains that his website has G. Cerf, Richard Hale, and Raymond E. Ozzie, fraud, to child pornography. been marked inappropriately, the StopBad- respectively ware folks will carry out an evaluation. And

42 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Around the Country

Stanford January 5, 2011–Stanford University Stated Meeting–The Future of Our Research Universities: Challenges and Opportunities Speaker: John Hennessy

John Hennessy (Stanford University) and Paul Brest (William George Shultz (Stanford University) and Persis Drell (Stanford and Flora Hewlett Foundation) Linear Accelerator Center)

San Francisco January 6, 2011–University of California, San Francisco Susan Desmond-Hellmann, Chancellor of the University of California, San Francisco, hosted a reception for Fellows.

Susan Desmond-Hellmann (University of California, San Randy Schekman (University of California, Berkeley) and Richard Francisco) and Arthur Rock (Arthur Rock & Company) Scheller (Genentech, Inc.)

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 43 Around the Country

Los Angeles January 11, 2011–UCLA Chancellor’s Residence Chancellor Gene Block and Mrs. Carol Block hosted a reception for Fellows from Southern California at their residence.

Fred Kavli (Kavli Foundation), Gene Block (University of California, Gene Block and Carol Block Los Angeles), Geoffrey Cowan (University of Southern California), and Louis W. Cabot (Cabot-Wellington, llc)

Los Angeles January 12, 2011–Residence of Aileen Adams and Geoffrey Cowan Aileen Adams and Geoffrey Cowan welcomed Chairman Louis Cabot and a group of Fellows to their home.

Louis W. Cabot (Cabot-Wellington, llc) and Geoffrey Gordon Davidson (Mabery Road Productions), Kent Kresa (Northrop Cowan (University of Southern California) Grumman Corporation), and Geoffrey Cowan

44 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Chicago November 13, 2010–Northwestern University School of Law Stated Meetings–Reproductive Rights and CENSORED!–The First Amendment, Sex, and Obscenity in collaboration with the Chicago Humanities Festival Speakers: Geoffrey Stone, Reva Siegel, Gerald Rosenberg, Christine Stansell, Martin Redish, and Amy Adler

Geoffrey Stone (University of Chicago Law School) and Reva Martin Redish (Northwestern University School of Law) and Amy Adler Siegel (Yale Law School) (New York University School of Law)

Midwest Regional Committee: Gerald Early (Washington University in St. Louis), Geoffrey Stone (University of Chicago Law School), Diane P. Wood (U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit), John Mark Hansen (University of Chicago), Leslie Berlowitz (American Academy), John Katzenellenbogen (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign), Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney (University of Wisconsin-Madison), Robert Wald (University of Chicago), François Abboud (University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine), and Robert Rosner (University of Chicago)

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 45 Around the Country

New York December 8, 2010–New York University School of Law Stated Meeting–The University and the City Speakers: John Sexton, Robert M. Berdahl, Jared L. Cohon, and Ruth J. Simmons

Robert M. Berdahl (Association of American Universities), Leslie Berlowitz (American Academy), John Sexton (New York University), Ruth J. Simmons (Brown University), Matthew Santirocco (New York University), Richard Revesz (New York University School of Law), and Jared L. Cohon (Carnegie Mellon University) Boston September 16, 2010–Boston University Stated Meeting–The Great American University Speaker: Jonathan Cole

Jonathan Cole (Columbia University) and Robert Brown (Boston Henry Rosovsky (Harvard University) and Jonathan Cole University)

46 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Cambridge September 27, 2010–House of the Academy December 15, 2010–House of the Academy Stated Meeting–Because It Is Wrong: Torture, Privacy, Stated Meeting–Holiday Concert: Celebrating the and Presidential Power in the Age of Terror Music of American Academy Composers Speakers: Charles Fried and Gregory Fried Performers: Yehudi Wyner and Richard Stoltzman

Gregory Fried (Suffolk University) and Charles Fried (Harvard Law School) Yehudi Wyner (Brandeis University) and Richard Stoltzman (New England Conservatory of Music) Cambridge November 10, 2010–House of the Academy Stated Meeting–The Financial Crisis & Economic Policy Speakers: Robert M. Solow and Benjamin M. Friedman

John Y. Campbell (Harvard University), Benjamin M. Friedman (Harvard University), Robert M. Solow (mit), and Peter Temin (mit)

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 47 New Publication Science and the Educated American

Are colleges and universities adequately preparing students to be engaged citizens in an increasingly technological world? While fewer than one-third of American undergraduates major in the natural sciences, mathematics, or engineering, nearly all students take at least one science-related course in college. These courses vary widely and often do not give students–science and non-sci- ence majors alike–the level of scienti½c literacy they will need to make informed decisions about scienti½c or technical problems. The essays in Science and the Educated American: A Core Component of Liberal Education describe speci½c courses and concrete strategies for curricular reform. They also offer spirited defenses of the value of science to the liberal arts curriculum. The articles in this volume identify several common themes: · Twenty-½rst-century citizens must have a sense that scienti½c literacy is fundamental to full participation in and enjoyment of contemporary life. · If members of the public do not have a basic level of scienti½c literacy, even the best science journalism and communication will not equip them with the ability to make informed decisions about science issues. · Science courses belong in the liberal arts curriculum for the Contributors to Science and the Educated American include: Jon Clardy bene½t of both science and non-science majors. (Harvard Medical School), Diane Ebert-May (Michigan State Uni- · The teaching of science to science and non-science majors should versity), Martha P. Haynes (Cornell University), Robert M. Hazen convey the limits of science and the dangers of misapplying it. (Carnegie Institution for Science and George Mason University), · Science and the humanities have much more in common than John G. Hildebrand (University of Arizona, Tucson), Sally G. is generally appreciated. Hoskins (City College of the City University of New York), Chris Impey (University of Arizona), Darcy B. Kelley (Columbia Uni- Science and the Educated American describes ways to help institutions versity), Eugene H. Levy (Rice University), David R. Liu (Harvard of higher learning instill a curiosity in students about science and University), Jerrold Meinwald (Cornell University), Jon D. Miller an appreciation for its profound impact on everyday life. The volume (University of Michigan), Jennifer L. Momsen (North Dakota examines the challenges of and opportunities for teaching science State University), Richard A. Muller (University of California, in a general education context and considers how to encourage non- Berkeley), Don M. Randel (Andrew W. Mellon Foundation), Frank science majors to gain a better grasp of science. H.T. Rhodes (Cornell University), Elena Bray Speth (Saint Louis This volume is edited by Jerrold Meinwald (Goldwin Smith Pro- University), James Tre½l (George Mason University), and Brian fessor of Chemistry Emeritus at Cornell University) and John G. N. Tse (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). Hildebrand (Regents Professor of Neurobiology at the University Science and the Educated American is available on the Academy’s web- of Arizona, Tucson). site at http://www.amacad.org/publications/scienceSLAC.aspx. As Meinwald and Hildebrand note in their introduction, “If properly The Academy is grateful to the Simons Foundation for supporting planned and taught, a curriculum enriched by a set of science courses the publication and dissemination of this important volume and that have been designed for all liberal arts students, independent of the Academy’s ongoing work in science, technology, engineering, their major interests, would go a long way toward producing the sci- and mathematics education. enti½cally literate, well-educated population that is essential for America to retain the leadership position it has enjoyed in the past.”

48 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Academy Projects

Initiative for Science, Another project flips on its head the much- of the journalism program at the University Engineering, and Technology studied topic of the public’s understanding of Southern California. By convening a of science. The Academy study considers group of scientists, science journalists, and the reverse: scientists’ understanding of public information of½cers, the Academy the public. The point, of course, is that the examined the sometimes conflicting cultures capacity of scientists to secure funding for of journalists, who value timeliness, speed, their research and to provide scienti½c ad- simplicity, and clarity, and scientists, who vice that policy-makers will pay attention grapple with and embrace nuance and evolv- to depends on an understanding of the so- ing states of knowledge. The project resulted cial implications and the likely public re- in an edited volume, Science and the Media, sponses to their work and to the policies which was published earlier this year; this that might result, in areas such as health volume and all other occasional papers pub- and medicine, for example. Through a se- lished by the Academy are available on the Academy’s website (www.amacad.org/ By drawing on experts from publications/occasional.aspx).

Neal Lane virtually all academic disci- Another project under the Initiative focuses Neal Lane is Malcolm Gillis University Professor, plines as well as leaders in the on the future of the Internet, and David Professor of Physics and Astronomy, and Senior Clark will talk more about it a bit later in Fellow of the James A. Baker III Institute for Pub- professions–public affairs, our program today. lic Policy at Rice University. He was elected a Fel- journalism, the arts, and The Academy is well suited to take on the low of the American Academy in 1995 and serves business–the Academy exam- work of these projects (and many others) as Cochair of the Academy’s Council. He also because of its independence, which gives it serves as Cochair of the Academy’s Initiative for ines issues from a multidisci- the latitude to explore issues that the Fel- Science, Engineering, and Technology. lows believe are important to pursue and plinary, cross-institutional that some other organizations might not be Charles Vest, of the National Academy of perspective. interested in or willing to take on. The sec- Engineering, and I are the cochairs of the ond distinctive feature of Academy studies Academy’s Initiative for Science, Engineer- ries of case studies, this project brings to- is their interdisciplinary nature. By draw- ing, and Technology, which is an umbrella gether scientists, journalists, policy-makers, ing on experts from virtually all academic for Academy projects in the area of science and others to explore these issues. This disciplines as well as leaders in the profes- and technology policy. One such project is summer, the Academy published Do Scien- sions–public affairs, journalism, the arts, an examination of how science is taught to tists Understand the Public?, a paper by author business–the Academy examines issues non-science majors at U.S. colleges and Chris Mooney that describes some of the from a multidisciplinary, cross-institutional universities, addressing such questions as, project ½ndings. It generated a great deal of perspective. what are the goals of the science curriculum press coverage and conversation in the sci- at liberal arts colleges? Are those goals ap- ence blogosphere and elsewhere. In 2008, the Academy organized just such a propriate? Are they being met? The study cross-disciplinary group to assess Alterna- committee, chaired by Jerrold Meinwald of A related, recently completed Academy tive Models for the Federal Funding of Sci- Cornell University and John G. Hildebrand project explored the role the media play in ence. It was chaired by Nobel Laureate and of the University of Arizona, has worked in informing the public about the scienti½c chemist Thomas Cech, who headed up the collaboration with provosts, deans, and fac- and technical components of pressing chal- Howard Hughes Medical Institute before ulty from institutions around the country. lenges facing society: climate change, en- returning to research and teaching at the Later this year the Academy will publish a ergy, national security, health and medicine, University of Colorado. There are regular volume, Science and the Educated American: A to name a few. This study was led by Don- calls from many quarters for more federal Core Component of Liberal Education, that will ald Kennedy, president emeritus of Stan- funding of research. The Academy commit- include examples of the best practices and ford University and former editor-in-chief tee began its work with a different question: recommendations for higher education of Science, and Geneva Overholser, director regardless of the size of the pie, what strate- leaders.

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 49 Academy Projects gies can we adopt to maximize the impact the nsf and nih, have been struggling The Impacts of Federal and of the government’s extensive investment with them for a very long time. But it is Industry Funding of Science, in research? After twelve months of work, clear that the arise report helped get the the Academy produced a report, Advancing attention of top-level policy-makers. Engineering, and Medicine Research In Science and Engineering, which has on American Universities– In carrying out the study that led to the come to be known as the arise report. arise ii: Overview arise report, we recognized that there In answering the question of how to make were important matters we were not able federal support for science more effective, to address. Thus, the Academy has orga- the committee chose to focus on just two nized a second phase of the arise project, primary issues: support for early-career in- which Venkatesh Narayanamurti will de- vestigators and support for high-risk, high- scribe. reward (sometimes called transformative) research. There isn’t time this morning to © 2011 by Neal Lane give a detailed summary of our ½ndings and recommendations, but I encourage you to have a look at the report on the Academy’s website. (There are hard copies available, too.) The signi½cant thing about this report was the enormous impact it had in Wash- Venkatesh Narayanamurti ington. And not all such reports–many of you know this from personal experience– Venkatesh Narayanamurti is Director of the Sci- can boast having had such impact. ence, Technology, and Public Policy Program at the Belfer Center for Science and International For example, targeted funding for earlier- Affairs at the Harvard Kennedy School. He is also career investigators and transformational the Benjamin Peirce Professor of Technology and research was contained in the stimulus leg- Public Policy and a Professor of Physics at Har- islation that Congress passed and it was in vard University. He was elected a Fellow of the the 2009 budget. The same was true for Pres- American Academy in 2007 and serves as a ident Obama’s ½rst two budget requests. In member of the Academy’s Council. each of the past two years, the directors of the Of½ce of Management and Budget and s you just heard from Neal, two years ago the Of½ce of Science and Technology Policy, A the Academy began a study to explore the where I once had a desk, sent a memoran- current models for the federal funding of dum to all executive branch departments science, under the leadership of Tom Cech. and agencies underscoring the White House Neal was one of the committee members commitment to these priorities. And during who shaped that study and has been a tireless the past two years, several agencies–the advocate for its recommendations. I think National Science Foundation, National In- he deserves a lot of credit for its success. stitutes of Health, Department of Energy, darpa, and other key science and technol- About a year ago, Neal and I, along with ogy agencies–have strengthened existing Leslie Berlowitz, President of the Academy, programs to focus on these areas. (I might Randy Schekman, from the University of note that it was fortuitous that Steven Chu California, Berkeley, who was also a mem- was a member of our committee. It was not ber of the study committee, and Keith Yama- a recommendation of our report, but the moto, of the University of California, San President appointed him Secretary of En- Francisco, began to think about the next ergy.) The Academy was not the ½rst orga- phases of the arise study to address some nization to raise the issues explored in of the initial report recommendations. In arise, and at least two federal agencies, particular, we focused on the committee’s conclusions that research universities must

50 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 arise II accept a greater responsibility for faculty the university and two integral stakehold- salaries and that they should shoulder a ers: federal funding agencies and industry. larger share of the cost for new facilities. It is clear that this new compact between (Some of you may have read “Overbuilding government and universities needs to be Research Capacity,” an editorial in Science by developed; but as we thought about this re- Bruce Alberts. This issue is a very serious lationship, we realized that there is another one at medical schools but also at some en- critical counterpart, namely, the relationship gineering schools.) with private industry. As a result, we have organized the committee into two separate As the relationship between engineering, subcommittees: one focusing on the govern- biology, medicine, and the physical sciences ment/university relationship, and the other becomes increasingly important, we also on the university/industry interaction. Each recognized the need to bring the medical subcommittee will be led by either Keith or and engineering communities together to me along with one or two cochairs. identify lessons learned on both sides. Spe- ci½cally, there is a need to share best prac- We also have an intermediate group look- ing at issues related to conflicts of interest. Our study group is investigat- We know there are conflicts of interest, es- pecially in the medical arena, but we also ing the sustainability and sys- know that collaborations with industry can temic effects of current funding be important in academia. Thus, this group is working to develop effective and action- policies, beginning with an ex- able recommendations and to arrive at an amination of the relationship agreed upon set of policies for managing conflicts of interest. between the government and Over the next year, the committee will meet the university and between the with key stakeholders before developing its university and industry. recommendations for the funding system and the future scienti½c enterprise. Our hope is that these meetings will focus and enrich tices in order to create a new paradigm to our ½nal report, increasing the likelihood replace the current funding model. This that it will have a positive impact on fund- model is unsustainable, carrying as it does ing policies and mechanisms and, in turn, both salaries and capital costs on the backs ensuring that American universities remain of agency budgets. Therefore, we need to robust intellectual centers. examine the long-term impact of both re- imbursement policies and funding mecha- nisms and propose ways to improve them. © 2011 by Venkatesh Narayanamurti This effort must necessarily be a collabora- tion between universities and government, with some new compact perhaps being de- veloped.

Keith Yamamoto and I are leading this new arise follow-on study, and we have a large number of excellent colleagues supporting us in this work, including many members of the Academy. Our study group is investigat- ing the sustainability and systemic effects of current funding policies, beginning with an examination of the relationships between

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 51 Academy Projects

ARISE II Workshop: American industries rely heavily on col- National Laboratory; University of Illinois The University-Industry laboration with the academic science and at Urbana-Champaign; and bp. Birgeneau Partnership engineering communities and have an im- stressed the importance of the university, portant stake in the vitality of research with its breadth of researchers, in provid- universities and their role in creating a well- ing the basic research that forms the foun- trained workforce. The arise ii study dation of future technology. He emphasized group is exploring the impact of current that by working together, universities and science funding policies, beginning with an industry have the potential to address a se- examination of the relationships between ries of challenges facing our society. the university and two critical stakehold- The meeting also included a presentation ers: federal funding agencies and industry. by Aled Edwards, Director and Chief Exec- On January 6–7, 2011, the arise ii com- utive Of½cer of Structural Genomics Con- mittee held a meeting at the University of sortium and Banbury Professor of Medical California, San Francisco. The workshop Research at the University of Toronto. Ed- focused on the university-industry partner- wards offered a different perspective on the “Many really interesting and important ship and included presentations from several university-industry partnership. The Struc- problems are not going to be solved by a industry representatives who have created tural Genomics Consortium (sgc) is a solid-state physicist or a biochemist; they or strengthened industry partnerships with public-private partnership dedicated to require input from many ½elds. Universi- academia. The panelists included Steven promoting the development of new medi- ties are in the very privileged position of Freilich, Director of Materials Science and cines by carrying out basic science research having people who are experts in every Engineering, Central Research and Devel- relevant to drug discovery. The sgc cur- ½eld you can think of.” opment, at DuPont; Richard Scheller, Exec- rently has 241 collaborations with compa- –Robert Birgeneau utive Vice President of Research and Early nies and universities from around the world, Development at Genentech; Larry Sumney, and all of the work produced by the sgc is President and Chief Executive Of½cer at published in the public domain; there are the Semiconductor Research Corporation; no intellectual property or con½dentiality and Ellen Williams, Chief Scientist at bp. agreements. Edwards argues that this novel public-private relationship allows research- The panelists discussed how industry can ers to address interesting questions that foster research collaborations with the uni- are not normally considered high priorities versity. Although each speaker represented for most sources of research support. a different industry sector–chemical, bio- medical, engineering, and energy–their The arise ii committee will next meet in overall message was essentially the same: late March to review the content, structure, industry-university collaboration is vital and preliminary recommendations of the “I think the most important thing that the for innovation. If the partnership between study. Semiconductor Research Corporation does universities and industry is well managed, is to bring industry into the university and it can lead to successful research outcomes to work with students.” and create a pipeline of the next generation of researchers. –Larry Sumney During the workshop, Robert Birgeneau, Chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley, spoke about technology innova- tion centers at universities, speci½cally the Energy Biosciences Institute–a unique col- laboration between the University of Cali- fornia, Berkeley; the Lawrence Berkeley

52 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 The Alternative Energy particular, the social-science research com- ·What governmental framework will best Future–Legal, Social, and munity. The gap between the energy-policy sustain climate and energy policy over community and the social-science research the long run? What happens to the stan- Economic Considerations: community, with a few notable exceptions, dard federal structure of the United States Overview is both wide and deep. The purpose of our when state and local governments have project is to begin to span that chasm. more to do with the answer, as they do with regard to climate, than they have in Six broad issues constitute the intellectual the past? And how do you build a durable framework of the project; they are designed yet adaptable framework that can last for to be bridging issues, issues that, on the decades but can still take account of new one hand, are important for energy policy information as it is developed? but, on the other, depend substantially on social-science content for their solution. ·How will America’s response to climate The kinds of issues we expect to address change affect our relationship to other include questions such as: countries? The collapse of negotiations at the Copenhagen Summit in December Our objectives in this project 2009 makes clear that we need a new in- ternational strategy. are twofold: to help policy- Robert W. Fri ·What will be the effect of changing the energy system on other physical systems, Robert W. Fri is a Visiting Scholar and Senior makers in the area of energy including ecosystems, land use, and water Fellow Emeritus at Resources for the Future. He understand how social science supply? In other words, how can this was elected a Fellow of the American Academy change be achieved in the context of sus- in 2010. can help solve their problems; tainable development? and to build a social-science Those of you who follow the debate about While these are fairly broad issues and we alternative energy know that many studies research agenda that is directed are not going to try to solve them, our ob- of energy and climate change, including two toward helping solve energy jectives in this project are twofold: one, to recent ones by the National Academies– help policy-makers in the area of energy America’s Energy Future and America’s Climate problems. understand how social science can help Choices–have gone over that area in much solve their problems; and two, to build a detail. While they disagree on a few items, ·What are the barriers to achieving a work- social-science research agenda that is di- in general these studies conclude that lim- able social consensus on climate and en- rected toward helping solve energy prob- iting future greenhouse gas emissions and ergy policies, and how can these barriers lems. We expect three main products: a adapting to the inescapable change in the be overcome? Any of you who followed conference next spring that will be a low- climate to which we are already committed the climate argument for the last few years hanging-fruit sort of affair, to take the op- will require a transformational change in knows that is something of a challenge. portunities for both energy policy and a our energy system. Thanks to billions of ·How will climate policy and transforma- social-science research agenda and get them dollars spent by public and private sources tion in the energy system affect the be- on the table as quickly as possible; a con- over the last thirty years, policy-makers havior of individuals and communities? ference report a year later, in 2012, to go have a very good idea of what that techno- We know there is public resistance to into more depth on the same issues; and, logical and economic transition is going to green technologies such as windmills. ½nally, two issues of Dædalus in 2012 to re- look like, and it’s a huge task. We know that people do not behave in port on many of these same questions. It is a reasonably ambitious agenda, I think, but But transformational change in the deeply the way that neoclassical economics says there is room for optimism. We have dis- embedded technological and economic in- they ought to. A whole series of issues covered that the government is interested frastructure that is the current energy system related to behavior needs to be addressed. in these issues, including the energy-policy will require a societal transformation that How do the rules we live by have to · community. The social sciences that we is equally profound, both to overcome the change? Do we need new rules for new have reached out to seem to be interested inevitable barriers to changing the energy technologies, and do some of the old as well and are pleased to hear about the system and to adapt to a new energy system rules we live by become out of date as study. as it emerges. Here, policy-makers are less new technologies are introduced? well served by the research community, in

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 53 Academy Projects

The Academy is a great platform for this Initiative for Humanities natural and social sciences so very well, in- kind of study. Of course, the reputation and Culture: Data Project forming decision-making by academics, and convening power of the Academy is educators at large, and national policy- terri½c, but two things have really impressed makers alike. me. One is the breadth of membership, Launched in January 2009, after a multi- which has allowed us to reach out to all year planning process, the online Humanities kinds of disciplines and bring them into a Indicators (www.humanitiesindicators.org) room together–a hard task in most set- gives scholars, policy-makers, and the gen- tings. But most important is the intellec- eral public the ½rst comprehensive statisti- tual freedom that we have been offered to cal picture of the state of the humanities pursue this strange agenda and to see just nationwide. It includes seventy-four indi- where it takes us. cators, two hundred tables and charts, and interpretative essays covering ½ve data areas: © 2011 by Robert W. Fri primary and secondary education; under- graduate and graduate education; funding Francis C. Oakley and research; the humanities workforce; Francis C. Oakley is President Emeritus and and the role of the humanities in American Edward Dorr Grif½n Professor of the History of Ideas at Williams College. He was elected a The third prong of the Acad- Fellow of the American Academy in 1998. emy’s humanities initiative The history of the Academy has been a involves an attempt to provide noble one in its support of the humanities. Those of us who have been involved with for the humanities a structure the National Humanities Center, for exam- of statistical data: the online ple, remember the central role the Academy played in creating that organization, as it Humanities Indicators gives did for many other agencies that support scholars, policy-makers, and the humanities in America. It is my mission this morning to assure you that this great the general public the ½rst effort on behalf of humanistic studies con- comprehensive statistical tinues in full force. picture of the state of the In 1998, responding to the quintessentially humanistic imperative to know thyself, the humanities nationwide. Academy launched its far-reaching, three- pronged Initiative for Humanities and Cul- life. The site is constantly updated with new ture. First, it established the Visiting Scholars data, and since March 2010, the Academy Program that Pat Spacks will speak about. has added new data stemming from the Second, it committed itself to publishing a Humanities Departmental Survey, which series of pertinent volumes and occasional provides a unique snapshot of American papers. But it is my task to dwell at some- university and college humanities depart- what greater, if not unconscionable, length ments at the end of the ½rst decade of the on the third prong of this humanities initia- twenty-½rst century. Since its unveiling in tive. It involves an attempt to provide for the 2009, the Humanities Indicators website has humanities a structure of statistical data: a recorded more than 1.2 million hits origi- set of indicators paralleling the thirty-year- nating from one hundred countries. old Science and Engineering Indicators published biannually by the National Science Founda- That fact notwithstanding, I have a sinking tion that has served our colleagues in the feeling, as I describe this great and challeng-

54 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 ing enterprise, that it may come across as should equally inhibit any tendency toward Visiting Scholars Program dull old stuff, the enervating rattle of some the all-too-common Apocalypse Now genre very dry old bones. That may well be so. I of educational commentary. would wager, however, that no one who Time permits me to put just one shred of has had the experience of trying to assess flesh on these somewhat ungrateful bones. and write about the state of humanistic Somehow we may not be surprised to ½nd studies nationwide–no one who, in this out that a higher percentage of Americans experience, has felt caught in a cross½re of demonstrate poorer literary skills than do sweepingly negative attacks and bereft of citizens of any other Western industrialized any easy access to the sort of factual data nation, or that America’s book-reading rates needed if one is to make what is sometimes fall below those of Britain and Sweden. But disparaged nowadays as a reality-based as- it may surprise us to ½nd out that, at the sessment–is unlikely to feel anything but same time, the United States has one of the gratitude for the assistance that the Human- highest percentages of highly literate adults, ities Indicators has ½nally made so readily Patricia Meyer Spacks or that the nation’s book-reading rates are available. Glancing back in this connection well above those of many other European Patricia Meyer Spacks is the Edgar F. Shannon to the late lamented culture wars of the nations, not excluding Italy, France, and Professor of English Emerita at the University of 1980s and 1990s, one should not too easily Germany. Virginia. She was elected a Fellow of the Ameri- forget that the discussion was enveloped in can Academy in 1994 and served as the Academy’s a fog of confusion and misinformation that The generalizations we choose to make President from 2001 to 2006. She is Chair of the seemed to shroud humanistic endeavors, about the state of the humanities nation- Academy’s Visiting Scholars Program. whether in relation to what was purported wide, then, really should be nuanced enough to be going on in higher education, in our to reflect properly this sort of complexity nlike the other Academy activities that primary and secondary schools, or in Amer- in the picture that the data all too often U you have been hearing about, the Visiting ican society at large. Data deprivation was reveal. So, all praise to the Academy for Scholars Program focuses speci½cally and the order of the day. taking the ambitious initiative that now purposefully on groups of non-Fellows, enables us to respond to that astringent Data concerning issues as fundamental as groups that may well supply Fellows of the imperative. the number of students enrolled nation- future. Conceived in 2000, the program got wide in courses devoted to the humanities under way in 2002, thanks to the efforts of were either entirely lacking, or were incon- © 2011 by Francis C. Oakley Leslie Berlowitz, who developed support sistently assembled, hard to access, poorly from a consortium of colleges and universi- disseminated, unwittingly ignored, and ties now known as the University Af½liates. routinely underutilized. As a result, gener- The ½rst year produced 110 applications; alizations con½dently advanced about the for this year’s class, there were 300. humanities–those supportive in nature no less than the negative ones–were all too The Visiting Scholars Program often characterized by a woolly species of disheveled anecdotalism punctuated un- is unusual, possibly unique, in helpfully from time to time by moments supporting only early-career of truly cranky but attention-grabbing dys- pepsia. That, of course, was counterpro- scholars and in providing sys- ductive then, and it would be counterpro- tematic help for the tasks they ductive today. It simply won’t do, especially now that we have at our disposal in the Hu- have undertaken. manities Indicators a user-friendly mode of Each class has been very small: six to eight access to many of the most pertinent facts. post-docs and assistant professors who show For what these data reveal (thinking nation- promise of becoming leaders in their ½elds, ally now) is a complex and highly nuanced invited to spend a year at the Academy to picture that, while it certainly points out the work on book projects. They are supplied danger of any business-as-usual attitude, with of½ces and computers and with oppor-

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 55 Academy Projects tunities to interact with Academy Fellows. program. For the last two years, they have The Global Nuclear Future The scholars come from a range of disci- agreed to focus mainly on problems that plines in the social sciences and humanities: arise in the effort to write what are usually history (including the history of science ½rst books. We discuss the content of what and of education), art history, literature, they are doing but also the dif½culties that anthropology, sociology, and law, among arise in doing it. One possibility that we have others. After their year at the Academy, they thought of for this year is a session on foot- tend to do very well. Out of ½fty-nine schol- notes. How does one cut down on them ars before this year, ½fty-six have secured while still remaining true to the imperative full-time positions at universities and re- of situating individual work in the context search institutions, which is a remarkable of ongoing discussions? What sort of infor- record in these times. New jobs secured by mation belongs in notes? How does one last year’s Visiting Scholars included ap- avoid alienating an audience by including pointments at Johns Hopkins, Barnard, and too many notes? Last year, we read together Rutgers. Of the ½fty-nine former scholars, a book about how to turn a dissertation into Scott D. Sagan nine are now associate professors, and two something publishable and spent a session Scott D. Sagan is the Caroline S.G. Munro have received tenure. Members of the group talking about it. One suggestion for this year Professor of Political Science and Codirector of have published more than seventy books. is that we join in reading some theoretical the Center for International Security and Coop- works about various ½elds in the humanities But such data do not tell the whole story. eration at Stanford University. He was elected and the connections among them. Whatever They suggest that the program has been a Fellow of the American Academy in 2008. the speci½c activities, they turn out to focus successful, but they do not indicate how. on how to write a book. I want to use my few minutes to talk about The Academy’s Initiative on The Global what actually goes on while the scholars The Visiting Scholars Program is unusual, Nuclear Future has brought Academy mem- work at the Academy. Like all successful possibly unique, in supporting only early- bers from many academic disciplines and residential fellowship programs, the one career scholars and in providing systematic professions together with signi½cant Wash- here fosters close connections among its help for the tasks they have undertaken. ington and international policy-makers to participants. The Visiting Scholars Program, That systematic help, in conjunction with address a single but very complicated ques- however, differs from many others by being the spontaneous support that members of tion: will the expected spread of nuclear so small. The scholars typically bond early, the group offer one another, enables them power around the world also create the fu- forming an interdisciplinary community to work better and to have a richer sense of ture spread of nuclear weapons? The project dedicated to helping one another ful½ll their what their work entails. It is always fascinat- has entailed both research and policy-impact immediate aspirations. (This year they have ing to see how their elevator speeches–the activities. The research has resulted in two also formed a winning trivia team.) They one-minute summaries of what they are special issues of Dædalus (Fall 2009 and Win- read one another’s work, provide counsel on doing–change in the course of the year ter 2010) and a set of occasional papers, job letters and job talks, and discuss their they spend here. Those summaries typically Shared Responsibilities for Nuclear Disarmament: own and each other’s projects–all of this become much richer, much more nuanced, A Global Debate and Multinational Approaches arising organically and spontaneously be- and usually much more complicated. Good to the Nuclear Fuel Cycle. The policy-impact tween the scholars. The of½cial arrange- books have issued from the program already, activities have involved workshops, meet- ments for the year, however, further the and I expect more to follow. ings, and brie½ngs, including with National same ends. During the fall, every other This imaginative expansion of the Academy’s Security Council staff, with House and Sen- week brings an informal speaker: an editor traditional concerns draws on Fellows both ate staff on Capitol Hill, with of½cials from from a university press, a literary agent, ex- to select the scholars and to participate in the national laboratories, and with interna- perts on digital work in the humanities and discussions with them. I hope you will let us tional scholars, government of½cials, and social sciences, and local scholars willing to know if you are interested in ½lling either nuclear industry representatives in the Mid- talk about their own work and about the of these roles. dle East and Southeast Asia. processes of producing it. Lively discussion Figure 1 shows which states have nuclear inevitably follows the presentations. © 2011 by Patricia Meyer Spacks power today (listed in black) and which are The scholars themselves plan the alternate aspiring nuclear power states. At one of the weeks in conjunction with me as chair of the project meetings, we discussed the obvious

56 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 The Global Nuclear Future geographic spread of countries that have asked the International Atomic Energy Agen- cy (iaea) for assistance; we noted that it would be interesting to look at their eco- nomic standing as well, to get a sense of how likely it is that they will achieve their objec- tives. Further, one participant pointed out that we should also study the political con- ditions within each state, focusing on the characteristics that will influence how safe- ly and securely they will be able to operate nuclear facilities. Looking at the countries listed in Figure 1 in terms of their ability to control corruption, we see that existing nu- clear power states have higher abilities to The Academy’s Initiative on The Global Nuclear Future has brought Academy members from many academic disciplines and professions together with Figure 1 signi½cant Washington and international policy-makers to address a complicated ques- tion: will the expected spread of nuclear power around the world also create the future spread of nuclear weapons? control corruption than do aspiring nuclear states (see Figure 2). According to the World Bank, political stability is de½ned by the likelihood of insurrections or other serious violent uprisings within the state. We also have measures of government effectiveness, regulatory quality, and the state’s scores re- garding its status as a democracy or autoc- racy. On all these issues, aspiring states look Figure 2 quite different from existing nuclear power states, giving us a sense of the challenge we face in decreasing the likelihood that the spread of nuclear power will have security problems attached to it.

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 57 Academy Projects

what kinds of mechanisms could, in a polit- ical sense, improve the institution and the overall nonproliferation regime.

But the security of our global nuclear fu- ture also depends on what technology is developed. What will the next generation of nuclear power plants look like? What will improved safeguards and safety mecha- nisms look like from a technological per- spective, and how will we ensure that the best technologies are exported and some of the ones that are more dangerous are not exported? What is the appropriate mix of new national laws and changing interna- tional regulations that will be required? We need strong networks of collaboration between social scientists, physical scien- tists, engineers, and lawyers to address these critical issues. Figure 3 © 2011 by Scott D. Sagan The democracy versus autocracy score is secret nuclear weapons program were all interesting in another way, as Figure 3 illus- non-democratic. Although we do not have trates. Many countries have tried to get a full understanding of the influences of nuclear weapons or have started nuclear democratic polity on keeping international weapons programs and then ended them agreements, this ½nding is a valuable one for a variety of reasons. Scholars in the past that we want to explore in more detail mov- looking at this fact noted that both democ- ing forward. racies and non-democracies have nuclear Will the spread of nuclear power lead to weapons. Likewise, both democracies and the spread of nuclear weapons? We have a non-democracies have started nuclear weap- clear, simple answer to that complex ques- ons programs and ended them. According to tion: it depends. It depends in part on which those scholars, regime type–that is, whether states with what types of governments de- a country is democratic or not–is not all velop nuclear power. It also depends on that important. The data shown in Figure 3 the global political institutions that provide suggest that this dismissal of the idea that export rules, inspections of new facilities, democracies behave differently than non- and safety and security guidelines. Will new democracies regarding nuclear weapons is institutions for the management of nuclear wrong. In Figure 3, each gray dot indicates power be created and sustained, broken or when a country joined the Nuclear Non- strengthened over time? We need social Proliferation Treaty (npt), thereby com- scientists and physical thinking about these mitting itself not to seek or acquire nuclear issues. We need meetings such as the one weapons. All democracies, marked in gray, the Academy sponsored on the occasion of that had nuclear weapons programs but the npt Review Conference in May 2010, ended them and then joined the npt have gathering three past presidents of the npt not cheated on their commitment not to Review Conference, the current president seek or acquire weapons or to restart their of the Conference, and our project leaders programs. The countries that signed the to talk about how to improve the npt and npt but subsequently cheated by having a

58 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 The Global Nuclear Future across dozens of additional countries, many Pakistan. What these deals represent are of which currently have no nuclear technol- the signi½cant changes on both the demand ogy and very little capacity for handling nu- side of nuclear power and the supply side clear technology. We are seeing a changing that may tax our ability to manage this pattern in the demand for nuclear power for process. a variety of reasons having to do with climate The Academy project asks, particularly on change, energy security, and changing eco- the nonproliferation front, what do we need nomics of energy, among others. to do now in order to ensure that the world we end up living in harvests the bene½ts of This Academy project asks, nuclear power while minimizing the poten- particularly on the nonprolif- tial adverse consequences? Will existing rules and institutions be suf½cient? Those eration front, what do we need of you who follow these questions know that iaea Steven E. Miller to do now in order to ensure the is widely criticized as being inad- equate to its purposes today. How adequate Steven E. Miller is Director of the International that the world we end up is it going to be in 30 years, in a world where Security Program at the Belfer Center for Science living in harvests the bene½ts nuclear technology is much more widely and International Affairs at the Harvard Kennedy distributed? Are the legal frameworks that School. He was elected a Fellow of the American of nuclear power while mini- currently exist durable and effective enough Academy in 2006. mizing the potential adverse to cope with the additional pressures of a much wider distribution of nuclear tech- We live in a world that has a certain set of consequences? nology? Overall, there is this broad ques- nuclear attributes, and that world is chang- tion: will the npt system–a collection of ing. We are heading into a different world, We try to distinguish between spread–the treaties, laws, norms, a variety of ancillary leading us to ask the broad question, how increase in the number of countries with institutions, all clustered together in what will we be able to live safely and fruitfully in nuclear technology–and expansion–the we call the global nuclear order–be ade- that new world–or, if you are more cynical, rapid growth of nuclear power in countries quate to the task of protecting us from the will we be able to live safely in that world? that already have it. Expansion can raise dangers of the world into which we seem some problems of its own, in particular, to be heading? Today, there are 438 nuclear power reactors when the result is a very small number of distributed across roughly 30 countries. The Academy project recognizes that any very large programs. For example, of the About half that nuclear capability is in three effort to strengthen or improve the npt 60 or so reactors under construction today, countries: the United States, France, and regime will require the assent, buy-in, and half are accounted for by two countries, Japan. The 30 of the existing nuclear power full participation of nuclear newcomers. China and South Korea. Spread leads to a states tend to fall within the list of nato Currently, there is among the newcomers much larger number of small programs, countries, plus Russia, Japan, and China. a substantial coalition of the disaffected; greatly increasing the geographic scope of In the last several years, 60 additional many of them do not share the same wor- the nuclear issue. countries have approached the Interna- ries as the Western nonproliferation com- tional Atomic Energy Agency (iaea) and Moreover, in the past the nuclear technol- munity and do not buy into our remedies. expressed an interest in pursuing nuclear ogy suppliers consisted of a tiny number Thus, one prominent strand of our project power. If all those dreams came true, we of advanced industrial states–the United is to reach out to the nuclear communities would triple the number of nuclear power States, France, Japan–and those suppliers in places like the Middle East and South- states. This possible outcome, however, is a were selling mostly to countries such as east Asia, where the appetite for nuclear very long timeline phenomenon, looking Finland or Belgium. The most recent deal, power is nearly ubiquitous. We hope, ½rst, forward three or four decades from now. consummated in December 2009, involved to build ties with them, understand their But that will be a very different world. the Korean Electronic Power Company, points of view, and respect and give proper kepco, in a twenty-year $40 billion deal acknowledgment to their interests; and, If the most extravagant visions presently with the United Arab Emirates. The next second, to develop a frame of convergent forecast were to come true, in about 30 years controversial deal coming down the pike interests demonstrating a shared global in- we would be living in a world with 500 or involves China’s selling two reactors to terest in creating a safe and secure nuclear 600 additional nuclear reactors spread

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 59 Academy Projects order, one that is better able to manage the The Global Nuclear Future tremely dif½cult to arrange for a meaning- surge in nuclear technology that we foresee. ful conduct of operations–that is, one that has consequences of some signi½cance for To this end, the Academy held a meeting in violations. The International Atomic Energy Abu Dhabi in December 2009 that brought Agency (iaea) does have some (arguably, together those Middle Eastern players in- relatively ineffective) enforcement powers terested in nuclear power (which is just in the realm of nuclear security, but it really about all of them). We have a meeting in has none in the realm of nuclear safety. Take, November 2010 in Singapore, as Southeast for instance, the so-called 123 Agreements. Asia is the other region where the nuclear The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 provided a appetite is nearly universal. Our meetings framework for cooperation in the nuclear and project activities build from what now energy realm between the United States and exists–a Western nonproliferation com- any other country, laid out in Section 123 of munity–to what we think needs to exist: a global nonproliferation community. Robert Rosner The rational basis for any

© 2011 by Steven E. Miller Robert Rosner is the William E. Wrather Distin- revival of nuclear energy is guished Service Professor in Physics and Astron- omy & Astrophysics at the University of Chicago. to meet concerns about opera- He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy tional safety, security, and, in in 2001. the case of programs that have The rational basis for any revival of nu- an international flavor, nuclear clear energy is to meet concerns about op- erational safety, security, and, in the case of proliferation. Are we doing all programs that have an international flavor that we can in these areas? (as the nuclear issue obviously does), nu- clear proliferation. Are we doing all that we the act and called “Cooperation with Other can in these areas given the ongoing nuclear Nations.” For this reason, such cooperative renaissance that has become evident inter- agreements are commonly referred to as 123 nationally, even if less so here in the United Agreements. This framework represents a States? trade: cooperation in providing nuclear ex- In the United States, operational safety at pertise in return for agreement, for example, nuclear plants has been excellent. But what not to enrich uranium fuel, not to reprocess about the nations that do not have the hu- spent nuclear fuel, and, ½nally, to return man or technical infrastructure to support spent fuel to the provider–that is, not to domestic nuclear power but are buying nu- accumulate spent fuel in the host country. clear power plants nonetheless? What are On principle, these agreements offer the the rules by which we can be sure that these possibility of enforcing standards in nuclear plants will be operated safely? We know security and nuclear safety; in practice, it that serious operational problems in one has not been simple to conclude such agree- country–think of the Ukraine–can affect ments. The United States did conclude such public relations elsewhere and lead to re- an agreement with Abu Dhabi, for example, strictions on nuclear power, even in loca- but is struggling in its negotiations on an tions where safe operations have tradition- agreement with Jordan. A key element to ally not been an issue. either success or failure in these negotiations We have discussed this challenge with util- seems to be the ambitions a particular nation ity operators in the United States as well as has for engaging in the nuclear fuel cycle. France and Japan, and it turns out to be ex- For example, nations that have exploitable

60 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 uranium resources tend to be loath to sign a promising development as we look forward International Agreements away the right to make large pro½ts on fuel to the future and think about America’s role to Limit Cyberattacks enrichment and possible fuel fabrication– in dealing with the spread of nuclear mate- which, by the way, they are allowed by the rials and nuclear weapons worldwide in a Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (npt). transparent fashion. Whether or not you are in favor of nuclear power as a component Where does this leave us? In the 1950s and of a new carbon energy future, you do need 1960s, the United States was in a unique po- to think carefully about the unintended con- sition as the acknowledged technical leader sequences for the United States to step out in things nuclear. Many nations still regard- of nuclear power in a world where nuclear ed America as a relatively benevolent super- power does not seem to be disappearing. power. Both of these facts, unfortunately, have dramatically changed, and especially in the latter area. There is substantial re- © 2011 by Robert Rosner sentment about being lectured by America, a concern raised repeatedly at the Academy meeting in Abu Dhabi. There is distrust John D. Steinbruner based on substantive departures by the John D. Steinbruner is Professor of Public Policy United States from its very own standards at the School of Public Policy and Director of the as expressed in the npt; think of the treaty Center for International and Security Studies at America signed with India. And we seem to the University of Maryland. He was elected a be losing our technological edge in nuclear Fellow of the American Academy in 1992. power. Note that, for example, the major vendors of nuclear power plants today are The Academy’s project on International from France, Japan, and South Korea, with Agreements to Limit Cyberattacks is in very Russia not far behind. In the wings are China early stages of conception. I will be presump- and India, both of which have very serious tuous enough to imagine what the project ambitions in this area. might ultimately conclude, but I am imag- What about the United States? Westing- ining. The actual results are yet to come. house is now owned by the Japanese. ge is no longer able to build plants on its own There are very good reasons and is also partnering with the Japanese. to worry about a massively We have some start-ups in the United States that are exploring drastically new designs, destructive use of cybertech- but these will probably not see commercial use for at least a decade or more, probably nology. The practical question more like twenty years. Our large construc- is: can we count on natural tion ½rms, such as Bechtel, do have strong involvement in building nuclear plants restraint or will we need orga- abroad, but it tends to be on the civil con- nized protection? struction end of things.

The nuclear renaissance one sees abroad Let me begin with a memorandum that was is certainly not happening in the United written in 1944 by Vannevar Bush and James States, so as a result, we are in danger of Conant to Henry Stimson, who was then resting much of our nuclear design exper- Secretary of War. They explicitly recognized tise on the work done at the weapons labs the massive threat potentially posed by bio- and within the naval reactor program, that technology. They described the science on is, within programs that are largely classi½ed which that was based. They doubted it and not open to public scrutiny. This is not would be a feature of the then-ongoing war, but they warned that in the aftermath

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 61 Academy Projects it would be a major international problem. few are willing to argue that deterrent tech- Protecting the Internet as a They recommended organized transparency niques can be reliably effective, and there Public Commons under the United Nations as the best avail- is an evident danger of perverse dynamics able means of fending off the possibility of driven by reciprocal fear. It is considered belligerent development of this technology. prudent under such circumstances to ex- In that same memorandum, they implicitly plore formal agreements establishing pro- alluded to a similar emerging problem with tective rules. It is widely assumed that any regard to nuclear weapons. agreement would have to be global in scope, yet also widely accepted that it could not Their recommendation was not enacted for be comprehensive. The process of cyberex- either of these technologies at that time. ploitation on the Internet is too well in- Nuclear weapons have been massively de- grained to imagine its eradication anytime ployed in deterrent confrontation and still soon. are. Biological weapons have been massively explored but not actively deployed. (It is a The presumption is that any effective pro- signi½cant difference.) Neither has been tection would have to focus on acts of de- used in warfare since World War II, leading struction. One can imagine an agreement David D. Clark to the evident question, does Murphy’s law that would formally prohibit destructive David D. Clark is a Senior Research Scientist at apply here? Is the deterrent effect inde½nite- attacks on critical infrastructure targets: the MIT Computer Science and Arti½cial Intelli- ly reliable in both of these technologies or is power grids, navigation services, ½nancial gence Laboratory. He was elected a Fellow of the it susceptible to catastrophic breakdown? clearing market mechanisms, emergency American Academy in 2002. Conant and Bush, in 1944, were very worried response systems, and health care delivery about catastrophic breakdown. We have not –all of which, I might add, are extremely For a number of years, the Academy has yet experienced it, but that does not guar- vulnerable to deliberate destruction. The been interested in the security of cyberspace. antee that we are inde½nitely protected. notion is that, along with formal prohibi- This interest is a natural outgrowth of the tion, there would be active international What does this have to do with cybersecu- Academy’s broader interest in security, but monitoring of attempted violation and col- rity? We are in a comparable situation to the issues of cybersecurity, or, more speci½- laborative development of protective pro- Conant’s in 1944. We can see, perhaps with cally, the security of the Internet, are differ- tocols. To ensure protection at a higher slightly less clarity than he had, very good ent from other sorts of security. Moreover, standard than we currently have, these reasons to worry about a massively destruc- the area of cybersecurity is poorly under- functions would have to be separated from tive use of cybertechnology. The practical stood, even though it is currently receiving the normal Internet, admittedly a large and question here is whether we can count on a lot of attention in the press and in Wash- dif½cult enterprise. The point would be to natural restraint, which so far has protected ington. engage major states in discussion of this us in these other areas, or whether we need possibility. There are a number of ways to view the is- organized protection? Will the spontaneous sues of cybersecurity. Right now, Washing- evolution of defensive technology in this At the moment, although there is some ton is caught up in the framing and rhetoric area come to dominate offense? Can the in- loose discussion going on, the idea of pur- of national security, which leads to vocabu- herent deterrent effect of potential destruc- suing actual formal prohibition has not lary such as cyberattack, cyberdefense, cyber- tion compensate for defensive advantage, been seriously explored. The primary ini- war (whatever that might be), the “standing or is there a set of rules that will establish a tiative now is vested in U.S. Cyber Com- up” of a “cybercommand,” and philosophies defensive advantage? mand, which is not inclined to engage in of cyberdeterrence. The interest in deter- international discussions. The envisaged Over the past year, I have chaired a panel rence arises by analogy to nuclear deterrence, project will attempt to sensitize society to for the National Academy of Sciences on of course, but the two domains have almost the scope of the cybersecurity problem and deterring cyberattacks. From listening to nothing in common. encourage more constructive organization many people explore these questions, I would of protection. A second view of cybersecurity is that of say that few argue that defensive advantage economic activity and globalization. This can be established by technical means. The © 2011 by John D. Steinbruner view captures issues such as international common statement is that there is no tech- crime and industrial espionage. The latter nical solution to this problem. Moreover, is a pressing problem right now, as we are

62 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Protecting the Internet seeing state-sponsored industrial espionage age cohorts are less fluent in Internet-speak socially centered means to develop models directed at the United States, which (by our and are involved less. But there is a cross- of trust. But in the Internet of today, each norms) is against the rules of fair play. But cutting theme that all age and economic of us is more on our own, and this needs to in the global game, there are few rules and groups express: the Internet is of no value change. A framing of security that relates few referees. to them. Our concern here is not just the to the individual rather than the war-½ghter desire to have everyone join in our point of must be that of shared experience and build- Most of these issues, aside from internation- view, but that these people will be more and ing a communal sense of trust. “Trust” is a al crime, are not of daily concern to us as more disenfranchised as the world moves critical concept here. individuals as we use the Internet. Several online. There are many jobs today for which of us urged the Academy to take a different Another way to think about security, which you can apply only online. Paper tax forms and person-centered view of cybersecurity, a paper in the upcoming Dædalus issue will are almost a thing of the past. As more and a positive view centered on the Internet as explore, is by analogy to public health regu- more services and societal functions move a global commons. This viewpoint invites lation. Since bad software on one computer online, pushed, among other factors, by questions about what motivates people to (the kind of code we call “malware”) can lower cost, how should we think about lead to infestation of other computers if those who hold out? The goal of this study is to they interact–we don’t call those programs For the individual, the issues of security do “viruses” for nothing–a model and set of focus the “security discourse” not center on concepts such as cyberwar. regulations that balance individual freedom on those issues that relate to They center instead on the fear of fraud and with collective obligations to prevent the identity theft, the loss of personal informa- spread of malware seem to make sense. how the Internet can empower tion, and other sorts of personal fears. An This is a very different way of thinking about the individual and can provide obvious question is whether the Internet security than you would get from the mili- can be made secure against these person- tary or intelligence community, but it will a “safe enough” experience ally threatening concerns. The honest an- be a useful point of view in the larger Inter- that the user is willing to par- swer is no. The Internet is a reflection of net context. the real world, and we can no more lock A number of other topics will be discussed take of that experience. out con men and other sorts of tricksters in the Dædalus issue. For example, what is from cyberspace than we can from the real the shape of political participation on the use the Internet, how the right sort of dis- world. Every behavior, good and bad, will Internet? What are the institutions and or- course can be encouraged, what causes peo- be reflected from the real world into the ganizations that can foster our view of the ple to hold back from participation, and so cyberworld. Internet as a commons? (We can discuss on. Of course, some of the other views re- The correct question is more like this: can national security at the United Nations, but late to this approach: for example, the fear we make the Internet safe enough that we where should we advocate for the emergence of criminal activity, much of which is indeed should be willing to go there? It is the same of a global civil society?) international, is a very real concern when it question we ask when we decide whether can directly affect us. I will leave you with a high-level thought to take our children to the park. A park is about this study and the papers that will One vehicle we are using to address these not totally safe, and if we tried to make it result from it: the goal is to take back the concerns is a Dædalus issue, slated for Fall totally safe, it would be so constrained and “security discourse” that today is centered 2011, which will include contributions that repressive we would not want to go there around the language and posturing of war, explore aspects of the global commons of because it would be no fun. When we think defense, and deterrence, to focus it on those the Internet. Let me mention a few of the about whether the park is safe, we ask our- issues that relate to how the Internet can topics that the papers will consider. selves two related questions: is it safe empower the individual and can provide a enough, and do I know enough to make For those of us who think the Internet is a “safe enough” experience that the user is that judgment accurately? The issue with wonderful invention, a nagging question is willing to partake of that experience. I think the Internet is as much the second question why everyone doesn’t agree with us. Almost this is a suitable and worthy goal for this as the ½rst; how can we tell when we acci- 25 percent of the U.S. population does not Academy and its fellowship. dentally go to a “bad neighborhood”: a use the Internet. What de½nes these unbe- dangerous website, a misleading bit of lievers? Some answers are obvious: those email spam, and so on? In the real world, © 2011 by David D. Clark in the bottom socioeconomic tiers raise we help each other sort out these issues; we questions of cost, for example. The older share social cues and experiences. We have

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 63 Academy Meeting Because It Is Wrong: Torture, Privacy, and Presidential Power in the Age of Terror

Charles Fried and Gregory Fried Introduction by Michael Boudin The 1957th Stated Meeting, held at the House of the Academy on September 27, 2010

Introduction by Michael Boudin Judge for the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit and Fellow of the American Academy since 1999

It is a particular pleasure to introduce two very good friends, Charles Fried and Gregory Fried. Father and son have coauthored the book Because It Is Wrong: Torture, Privacy, and Presidential Power in the Age of Terror. Charles is a graduate of Princeton University, Oxford University, and Columbia Law School. His career is centered around Harvard Law School, where he has held two named chairs in succession, taught a range of subjects, including constitutional law, and written a succession of books and articles, some of which have a decidedly philosophical slant. From 1985 to 1989, he served as Solicitor General of the United States. From 1995 to 1999, he was a Justice of the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts. He is also a distinguished appellate lawyer and was elected a Fellow of the American Academy in 1997.

Gregory graduated from Harvard College, obtained his M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Chicago, and is currently Chair of the Department of Philosophy at Suffolk University. He has acquired a number of distinguished fellowships and has published many scholarly writings, including a book on the philosopher Martin Heidegger. He has not yet held a high government of½ce, but at his age, neither had Charles.

The events of 9/11 and the ensuing war on terror have focused attention on how far governments and individuals can go to protect domestic and national security. These questions recur in every age, but the perspective from which they are answered is often different. The fashionable modern view is a utilitarian perspective, which asks whether the bene½ts outweigh the costs in any decision. With respect to torture, Charles and Gregory reject that perspective. They have mostly joint views, although there is a discrepancy or two. To begin our discussion, I have a question for the authors.

Because It Is Wrong examines immoral behavior by high government of½cials, focusing on the use of torture, the invasion of privacy, and instances in which presidents act illegally. All three issues are connected to the Bush administration, though it is not alone. Some might think that the gravest devastation of the last eight years was wrought not by illegal or unethical behavior, but by the Iraq War. The planning and execution of the invasion of Iraq are viewed as serious mistakes in judgment. Is bad statesmanship in security matters arguably much worse than illegality and immorality?

64 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Many people are reluctant to admit that torture is an absolute prohibition. Absolute prohibitions make people nervous, even if the choices they make in their own lives adhere to such prohibitions. This tendency is shown by the fact that people who have this decent and correct instinct cast about for empirical arguments for why torture never works: it provides wrong answers more often than it provides right answers; the results are unreliable; or the same in- formation can be obtained in other ways. Those arguments make me nervous because as empirical facts, they may be correct much of the time, but they are not correct all the time. When this is the case, the temptation to allow torture creeps in.

Charles Fried Gregory Fried We look at the difference Charles Fried is the Bene½cial Professor of Law Gregory Fried is Professor and Chair of the Depart- between behaviors that are at Harvard Law School. He has been a Fellow ment of Philosophy at Suffolk University. of the American Academy since 1997. illegal because they are wrong and those that are wrong The two problems are very different. Bad Bad statesmanship can do enormous because they are illegal. statesmanship is hard to avoid and frequent- damage to a nation, but we focus in our ly encountered. Grossly immoral behavior book on matters of principle, not speci½c Torture is a very old prohibition. In the is something we can avoid. We know what imprudent acts. Undermining matters of Lieber Code of 1863–the ½rst code of con- should be avoided on moral grounds. We principle, in my view, has a longer-lasting duct for war developed by any nation–Presi- can be told what to avoid. On the other hand, deleterious effect on the character of a na- dent Lincoln af½rmed that it is proper to to wag a ½nger at a president and say, “Be tion than a single miscalculation in diplo- kill combatants and admissible, if regret- prudent, be wise,” is an injunction without matic or military affairs. table, that noncombatants be killed as a a lot of content, however much we would result of so-called collateral damage. What wish that injunction be followed. Michael Boudin he stated with great clarity, however, is that Could you summarize for the audience the torture and cruelty are absolutely forbidden. main point of the book? In recent years, the Catholic Church–that great torturer–has admitted a similar ab- Charles Fried solute pronouncement: in the encyclical We start by looking at the difference be- Veritatis Splendor of 1993 from Pope John tween behaviors that are illegal because Paul II. they are wrong and those that are wrong How do we make a case that something is because they are illegal. Torture, on one absolutely wrong? In our book, we ½rst hand, is illegal because it is wrong. Unwar- make the argument graphically. We show ranted wiretaps and the surveillance of a painting by Leon Golub, a stark, striking cyberspace, among other violations of laws painting of someone being tortured. Then such as the Foreign Intelligence Surveil- we discuss what happens in torture. But in fisa lance Act ( ) that the Bush administra- the end, we understand that this is not an tion engaged in after 9/11, were wrong be- unanswerable argument. As my dear friend, cause they were illegal. the late political philosopher Bob Nozick said, “A good argument is not like a machine

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 65 Academy Meeting

Torture is illegal because it is wrong. Unwarranted wire- taps and the surveillance of cyberspace that the Bush administration engaged in after 9/11 were wrong be- cause they were illegal. gun. It does not physically disable you from objecting.” We do not try to machine-gun our audience into agreement.

What we do show is that the absolute pro- hibition is reasonable. It is in line with many of the beliefs that guide us; we do not think that everything has a price. Prohibition on torture is not a goal. In other words, we do not try to have as little torture as possible. Such a scenario is the premise of Lenin’s argument: “Let’s have a little torture today, so that we have much less torture in the fu- ture.” Rather, the prohibition is a constraint. In the pursuit of goals, there are trade-offs, as the utilitarians like to say. The constraints are the borders–the limits–within which those goals are pursued. To quote my hero once again, Lincoln said, “As I would not be a slave, so I would not be a master.” As I would not be tortured, so I would not be a torturer. Survival is not simply a matter of physical survival; what we survive to be matters. Respecting the absolute prohibi- Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi da), Flagellation of Christ. S. Domenico Maggiore, Naples, Italy. Photo credit: Scala/Art Resource. tion against torture describes the kind of human being that it is worth trying to be. somewhat on the traditions of the society The third main subject of our book is exec- Gregory Fried in question as well as the level of technolog- utive authority. Our work on the ½rst two Although we state that, unlike torture, vio- ical progress in that society. A society with- topics led us to the realization that the world lations of privacy such as surveillance and out telephones, recording machines, or the after 9/11, which has pushed us into these eavesdropping are wrong because they are Internet is very different than one that uses divisive questions on surveillance and tor- illegal, we are not making a purely relativis- such technology. For a state to employ its ture, has also ushered in a crisis in how the tic argument about the latter. We believe investigative and prosecutorial powers, its American people relate to the concept of there is a core value of privacy. Any decent duly appointed of½cers must have some executive power. That crisis is embodied by society that respects fundamental principles capacity to invade the established zone of some of the arguments the Bush adminis- will give its people some refuge of privacy privacy. We believe, therefore, that while tration made, particularly in its defense of to which they may retreat; that is a necessity privacy is an important value, it is not an torture. To what extent is any duly appointed of the human condition. However, the con- absolute one. In that sense, it differs from of½cer of the law responsible for upholding tours of that region of privacy must depend the prohibition on torture. the rule of law? In other words, is the rule of

66 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Torture, Privacy, and Presidential Power in the Age of Terror law absolute in the same way that the prohi- How do we get out of this bind? Presidents We believe that while privacy bition on torture is absolute? Surprisingly, Jefferson and Lincoln provide good exam- we argue in our book that the answer is no: ples. In 1807, after the Chesapeake Affair in is an important value, it is not of½cers of the law are sometimes required which a British warship ½red on an Ameri- an absolute one. In that sense, to break certain laws–not all laws, but some can warship, Jefferson faced the real possi- laws. bility that the United States would go to war it differs from the prohibition with Great Britain in a very unprepared One example we use in the book is a story state. Therefore, he took it upon himself to on torture. reported in The Boston Globe in early Winter requisition the funds to reequip our for- 2008. A pregnant woman named Jennifer to ½x this somehow, and you won’t do any- tresses and navies. In doing so, he violated Davis had the misfortune of going into labor thing. I have drawn up my own articles of the Constitution, which states that only during rush hour, and there was a traf½c jam impeachment to present to the House Judi- Congress has the authority to requisition along the route to the hospital. Her husband ciary Committee.” If Congress then fails to such funds. He went to Congress, acknowl- drove in the breakdown lane, which is against act, he ought to relax. Bush presented the edged his clear violation of the law, and the law in the state of Massachusetts. They fisa case before Congress, albeit kicking asked Congress to ratify what he had done. ran into one state trooper, who saw that and screaming. With respect to approving Davis was in labor and waved them through. Abraham Lincoln acted similarly when he the use of torture, however, Bush sought no They ran into another state trooper, paused, suspended habeas corpus, which only Con- congressional authorization. How is this and he waved them through. They ran into gress can do, at the outset of the Civil War. breach to be healed? Gregory has one view. a third state trooper, who stopped them, He recognized this violation, and Congress saw that Davis was in labor, and then wrote rati½ed the suspension. In the same way, a Gregory Fried them a ticket. The State Police of Massachu- police of½cer who not only waves a pregnant It is important to underline that these are setts said the of½cer had made a principled woman through but escorts her to the hos- extremely dif½cult questions. Not only is decision based on his understanding of the pital, should tell his or her boss, “Chief, here the act of torture a serious crime, but also, rule of law. They were breaking the law; he are my badge and gun. If you think what I the theory of presidential power employed had to write them a ticket. have done is wrong, accept my resignation.” by the Bush administration is utterly con- Presumably, the chief would say, “Forget trary to fundamental American principles. about it. Take your badge, take your gun, Many people are reluctant Namely, the administration advanced the and get back to work.” to admit that torture is an doctrine that in his role as commander in To repair the breach in the rule of law, those chief, the president is unable to break a law absolute prohibition. responsible must recognize their violations because no law can stand before a president and seek reconciliation through the avenues seeking to secure national security. available to them. Aristotle said there is a principle of equity The engagement in torture and the seri- or reasonableness in the law, and that is be- ous refutation of this country’s balance of Charles Fried cause there is no such thing as a law that can powers deserve repudiation. In our system, anticipate all the possible conditions in We are left with a couple of dilemmas. What crimes and faulty legal philosophies are which it could be applied. In the context of of the situation in which the president asks repudiated through prosecution. Jennifer Davis getting to the hospital, any Congress to ratify his violations and heal reasonable agent of the law would have said the rule of law nunc pro tunc, as we lawyers Charles Fried that Jennifer should be waved through, and say, and Congress does nothing? Congress I am convinced that there will be no prose- the law on driving in the breakdown lane rati½ed Bush’s violation of fisa, but it cer- cutions; indeed, there should not be. I have ignored. Because it is impossible to write all tainly did not approve torture. Indeed, at lived through Watergate, Billygate, Iran- conceivable exceptions into the law, people the insistence of Senator McCain, Congress Contra, the farce of Whitewater, and the who have a responsibility to the law need to recon½rmed its prohibition. What happens Monica Lewinsky scandal, and history be able to judge when it should be ignored. in this case? makes quite clear that in a functioning But this principle can be dangerous, too, in democracy, there is a very good reason why a liberal democracy dedicated to the rule Greg had a wonderful idea for handling this those who have ousted the persons before of law. situation that I think is genuinely patentable. The president should say, “Look, we’ve got them should not try to put their predeces- sors in jail. If we started down that path,

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 67 Academy Meeting then those in power might be tempted aesthetic or emotional. You invoke the image one of the most singular habits of tyranny, never to give it up because of the risks that of God and quote from the Scriptures; then we should not imagine that the utilitarian would befall them. Or, they would await you say the argument is not premised on a calculus of rationalists will preserve us from their chance to prosecute the next group. religious foundation. You reject, rather flat- it infecting all other branches of our civic The process would create a terrible Ores- ly, the suggestion that it is necessary to es- life. Torture is a powerful venom; once it tian cycle. tablish pragmatically that torture is always enters the system, it eats away at the funda- wrong. You believe it is wrong even if it is mental habits and traits of a democratic We must remember that Vice President useful. What do you say to someone who people. Cheney, Attorney General Gonzalez, and maintains that your view is a personal intu- Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld, though ition that he or she does not happen to share? they authorized terrible practices on an in- Is the rule of law absolute in How do you persuade that person? admissible theory, were not Hitler; they the same way that the prohi- were not Pol Pot. They were trying to pro- Charles Fried tect us against enemies who did not hesi- bition on torture is absolute? tate to torture and kill as many innocent The chapter that discusses torture is directed people as possible. They made bad judg- at changing the reader’s intuition, and it does Michael Boudin ments, which must be repudiated. But if we that, ½rst, evocatively, as in the examples pursued criminal prosecutions, they would you mentioned, but then rationally. The ra- Imagine a scenario in which a president is not even begin until well into the second tional argument is that accepting moral faced with a ticking nuclear bomb and a Palin administration! Furthermore, prose- constraints on one’s choices in behavior is villain who says, “I’ve planted the bomb. cutions might result in acquittals. Then not unreasonable or unusual. Torture can It’s going to go off in some large city. I know where would we be? We have to ½nd some easily be put on the list of things that most where it is, and you can’t make me tell you.” other way. I think President Obama, who people would not do. Couldn’t a president who failed to water- seems to share my distaste for criminal board the villain, or let loose the people with Gregory Fried pliers to tear out his thumbnails, watch the To what extent is any duly To return to my father’s citing of Bob Noz- city explode and think that he or she had ick’s wonderful line that an argument is not acted immorally? appointed of½cer of the law a machine gun, there is a point at which one Gregory Fried responsible for upholding cannot force people to share one’s intuition. the rule of law? That said, the United States has had a long The problem with ethics is that sometimes tradition of eschewing torture, from the it puts us in a position where we do not want Bill of Rights and its prohibition on cruel to be; it forces us to ask ourselves, what prosecutions in this case, ought to issue a and unusual punishment to George Wash- would I do in a situation like that? This pardon to Rumsfeld, Cheney, and Gonzalez, ington’s proclamation after the Battle of scenario reminds me of some of the cast- stating that they have committed crimes Princeton that the Hessians, who had treat- away lifeboat cases of the nineteenth cen- but are being pardoned. There is a prece- ed American soldiers with great cruelty, tury, in which people ate one or more of the dent for this idea; it is what Gerald Ford should not be treated with similar cruelty. other people there. No one would say the did for Richard Nixon, and it was an act of castaways had done the right thing, but they Of course, there have been departures from great wisdom and great courage. Ford’s might be excused. When people who are that tradition in American history. To the proclamation was the best case that could under enormous pressure and strain act skeptic, I would pose the questions: What have been made against prosecution. wrongfully, they might still be pardoned on are the habits of thought and conduct that account of the circumstances. But this an- Michael Boudin are necessary to a democratic republic? swer presents a problem for our argument What instincts and intuitions are necessary The central message of your book is that because it seems to offer a get-out-of-jail- to the people of a democratic republic? Re- torture is absolutely wrong. Making the free card. pugnance against torture, I would argue, absolutist argument, you begin with the must be one of those instincts. In this world, things pass away; but that does dramatic reproduction of a painting that not mean we should not stand fast by our shows fascist of½cers torturing a victim who This is a quasi-Burkean argument in favor core principles. There are some fundamen- is hung upside down, naked, in a cell; then of the prohibition against torture. Torture tals that de½ne us as a nation, and I believe you say the basis for your contention is not is the practice of tyrannies. If we engage in

68 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Torture, Privacy, and Presidential Power in the Age of Terror that the prohibition on torture is one of Question What are the habits of thought them. We can give ourselves up in more Do you understand torture to mean delib- ways than physical destruction. That’s a and conduct that are neces- erately inflicting tremendous pain on some- hard thing to hold to in the moment of di- one for a purpose, to get them to do some- sary to a democratic republic? saster, but I believe that’s where we need thing or expose information over a prolonged to take our stance. Repugnance against torture, period of time? we would argue, must be one Question Charles Fried of those instincts. We think of torture in terms of examples we The chapter called “Bordering on Torture” can articulate and get our arms around, but confronts the dif½cult question of de½ning Comment there are circumstances in which our ½nite what constitutes torture. I will offer two thinking needs to be replaced with in½nite answers. First, there are bound to be bor- I think it is torture to stop a person from thinking–a magnitude of scale vastly be- derline questions. Take, for example, the killing someone else by inflicting terrible yond what we normally deal with. Suppose question, “Are you bald?” Some people are pain on him. Charles Fried says that this someone has invented an Earth-ending clearly bald; some people are clearly not at behavior also would be impermissible, but weapon. There is a prisoner in our midst, all bald; and then there are the dif½cult in- it doesn’t strike me as impermissible. and we do not know for certain whether we between cases. Your question demands that Charles Fried will get the answer required to stop the we try to move beyond the ostensive de½ni- bomb if we torture him. Under those cir- tion. Second, I see a difference between tor- I think we do, in fact, acknowledge that dis- cumstances, should the president insist on ture and saying to a person who has been tinction. In war, we have outlawed certain torturing the prisoner for the purpose of captured, “Look, if you don’t help us, you kinds of bullets because they cause terrible saving civilization? My answer is that he will never see your wife and children and wounds that cannot be healed. We have for- should. home again; you will be in prison for the bidden poison gas on the same principle. rest of your life.” I see a difference between In the early 1960s, philosopher Jack Rawls Accepting moral constraints addressing the will of the person and seeking said his most awful experience in World on one’s choices in behavior is simply to destroy it, so that he is no longer War II was using flamethrowers to flush a person capable of thought or choice. Japanese soldiers out of their cave. He said, not unreasonable or unusual. “I’d rather encounter them in battle than Torture can easily be put on Question do that.” Your argument seems to focus on torture the list of things that most Comment that takes place once someone is captured. people would not do. Now suppose you had to kill a person to stop The two paintings that you use as central him from shooting and killing another per- illustrations in your book depict the kinds Charles Fried son. Then imagine that instead of killing of torture that are not among the techniques the would-be shooter, you could incapaci- The hypothetical is that there would sim- we are worried about today, the ones that tate him by imposing physical pain for a ply be no world left afterwards? I want to generated your book and this conversation. certain period of time, perhaps for many say I am unmoved. I don’t want to give the The United States did not use the rack and hours. If you have the choice between kill- reasons that come crowding to my mind: the screw. They used waterboarding, sleep ing the person to stop him from shooting What if just one continent was at risk? deprivation, sensory deprivation, and soli- someone or torturing him in that way, do What if there were four hundred people tary con½nement for extended periods of you think it would be correct to kill him who might have information? There are time. The Bush administration never pub- rather than torture him? in½nite possible circumstances. I’m in- licly took the classic position of “yes, it’s clined simply not to go there at all, and live torture, but it’s permissible because we’re Charles Fried with my answer. After all, the world will trying to save the world.” Rather, the con- sistent argument was that it wasn’t torture. end, though almost certainly not in your Yes. un scenario. Maybe it is best that the world Waterboarding is very bad, but the Con- not end with torture. vention itself offers wiggle room, suggesting there is a category of cruel and inhumane methods of interrogation that are not torture.

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 69 Academy Meeting

Pictures of a doctor watching somebody be- with prisoners; isolation in windowless cells Torture is that which does not ing waterboarded would ask people to think for up to months at a time; forced nakedness, about what actually occurred and who was diapering, and slapping; the use of dogs to seek to persuade the will. It is responsible, particularly in terms of profes- terrorize prisoners; and chaining prisoners the employment of techniques sional responsibility. Ultimately, we are talk- to the floor and forcing them to defecate on ing about the cia’s use of so-called profes- themselves. According to a Senate Armed meant to destroy the will, to sional interrogators and whether that con- Services Committee report, those practices drive the person mad. stitutes torture. If it does, then the fact that were all directly approved at the highest nobody has been prosecuted is horri½c. But level. All that we see in the photos from Charles Fried I also think it’s horri½c to say that torture is Abu Ghraib are extensions of the tech- depicted by the images in your book, and niques that those soldiers saw being used The Fourth Amendment, which embodies so long as we are not doing that, it’s merely by duly appointed torturers. The techniques our commitment to privacy, prohibits only cruel and inhumane and therefore subject are incredibly insidious, and they constitute unreasonable searches and seizures and to different modes of legal analysis. torture by the tradition of American law. search or seizure without a warrant. This Indeed, waterboarding was considered tor- stricture assumes that even your private Gregory Fried ture until the United States began to use it. diaries can be searched and seized with Some of the chapters in Jane Mayer’s book judicial authorization. To me, that is differ- Charles Fried The Dark Side help explain the genesis of the ent from the torture that destroys you. actual procedures that the United States The supposed benign quality of water- Gregory Fried used. Methodologies like sensory depriva- boarding is much belied by the fact that at tion, sleep deprivation, and forcing prison- least one person was waterboarded 187 I think there may be a point at which we will ers to stand for long periods of time were times. The powers that were involved de- need a warrant to do brain scans. The caveat used by the Nazis, Stalin, and North Korea cided that they should use saline because is that these methods are potentially so in- to induce insanity in their prisoners–to the use of water risked causing the sub- vasive, and so unaccountable–both in the leave them gibbering mounds of flesh. These ject’s death. The notion that waterboard- sense of who has them and also in the sense ing is not torture is unacceptable. of where they are being used and how we Torture is a powerful venom; know they are being used–that the public Gregory Fried once it enters the system, it could reasonably sense that our island of It has been documented that these other privacy is being shrunk to zero, even if it eats away at the fundamental techniques, including exposure to extreme isn’t really. The development of those tech- habits and traits of a demo- heat and cold and stress positions, have re- niques is extremely dangerous and would sulted in the deaths of people in our capture. need careful monitoring. cratic people. Those are serious war crimes. If it could save us from the situation in which practices were all adopted by the people in Charles Fried either the world disappears into a black hole the Bush administration as ways of soften- or we get world-saving information from a I would like to come back to our rough de½- ing up people to get them ready for interro- prisoner, I think I would prefer to have the nition of torture. Torture is that which does gation. They have long been recognized as prisoner’s brain scanned. Those yet unde- not seek to persuade the will, even in terms torture. After World War II we executed veloped techniques, wedded to other tech- of what the ma½a would refer to as “an offer Nazis for using these “no blood, no foul” niques that have been proven by many you can’t refuse.” It is the employment of techniques. sources, may be our best bet for avoiding techniques meant to destroy the will, to such nightmare scenarios. The Jay Bybee memos of August 1, 2002, drive the person mad. authorized not only waterboarding, which © 2011 by Michael Boudin, Charles Fried, receives the most attention, but also stress Question and Gregory Fried, respectively positions and sleep deprivation, which were I have criticized the premature use of tech- used by the Inquisition, the Gestapo, and nologies for brain reading. But is the mind Franco; exposure to extreme cold and heat; a privileged island of privacy, or is it permis- sensory deprivation, which was used on sible to develop these technologies for ob- American citizen Jose Padilla, who went taining knowledge from guilty parties as an insane as a result; putting insects into cells alternative to torture?

70 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Noteworthy

As of press time, several Fel- Daniel Meltzer (Harvard Law National Medal of Science Stephen J. Benkovic (Pennsylvania lows of the Academy, listed School): Member, President’s State University) is the recipient Stephen J. Benkovic (Pennsylvania below, had been nominated Intelligence Advisory Board of the 2011 National Academy of jila State University) Sciences Award in Chemical Sci- or appointed to key posts in Margaret Murnane ( ; Uni- ences. the Obama administration: versity of Colorado): Member, Esther M. Conwell (University of President’s Committee on the Rochester) Archie Brown (University of Ox- Henry J. Aaron (Brookings Insti- National Medal of Science Marye Anne Fox (University of ford) has been awarded the 2010 tution): Chair, Social Security California, San Diego) W. J. M. Mackenzie Prize of the Advisory Board Richard D. Parsons (Citigroup, Political Studies Association of Inc.): Member, President’s Coun- Susan L. Lindquist (Whitehead psa John T. Casteen III (University the United Kingdom ( ) for cil on Jobs and Competitiveness Institute for Biomedical Research; of Virginia): Member of the his book The Rise and Fall of Com- Massachusetts Institute of Tech- Board of Trustees of the Wood- Paul Sagan (Akamai Technolo- munism. He also received the Dia- nology) row Wilson International Center gies): Member, President’s Na- mond Jubilee Award for Lifetime Achievement in Political Studies for Scholars tional Security Telecommunica- Mortimer Mishkin (National In- from the psa. tions Advisory Committee stitutes of Health) Kenneth I. Chenault (American Theodore Lawrence Brown (Uni- Express Company): Member, Robert Sampson (Harvard Uni- Stanley B. Prusiner (University of versity of Illinois at Urbana- President’s Council on Jobs and versity): Member, Of½ce of Jus- California, San Francisco) Competitiveness tice Programs Science Advisory Champaign) was elected a Fel- Board Warren M. Washington (National low of the American Chemical Rita Colwell (University of Mary- Center for Atmospheric Research) Society. land; Canon U.S. Life Sciences, Laura D’Andrea Tyson (Univer- Inc.): U.S. Science Envoy sity of California, Berkeley): Amnon Yariv (California Institute Federico Capasso (Harvard Uni- Member, President’s Council on of Technology) versity) won the 2010 Julius John Doerr (Kleiner Perkins Cau- Jobs and Competitiveness Springer Prize for Applied Physics. ½eld & Byers): Member, Presi- dent’s Council on Jobs and Com- Luis Ubiñas (Ford Foundation): Other Awards Hal Caswell (Woods Hole Ocean- petitiveness Member, Advisory Committee ographic Institution) is the recip- for Trade Policy and Negotiations Linda Abriola (Tufts University) ient of a 2010 Humboldt Research Roger W. Ferguson, Jr. (tiaa- has been recognized in the ency- Award by the Alexander von cref): Member, President’s Elizabeth Warren (Harvard Law clopedia American Women of Sci- Humboldt Foundation. Council on Jobs and Competi- School): Special Adviser, Bureau ence since 1900. tiveness of Consumer Financial Protection Alexandre Chorin (University of Chinua Achebe (Bard College) was California, Berkeley) was awarded Joseph S. Francisco (American Carl Wieman (University of Brit- awarded the 2010 Dorothy and the 2011 iciam Lagrange Prize. Chemical Society; Purdue Univer- ish Columbia): Associate Director Lillian Gish Prize. sity): Member, President’s Com- for Science, White House Of½ce Francis Ford Coppola (American of Science and Technology Policy Bruce Alberts (University of Cal- Zoetrope/Francis Ford Coppola mittee on the National Medal of ifornia, San Francisco; Science) is llc Science Presents, ) is the recipient of among the recipients of the 2010 the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Alice Gast (Lehigh University): Select Prizes and Awards George Brown Award for Inter- Award given by the Board of Gov- U.S. Science Envoy national Scienti½c Cooperation ernors of the Academy of Motion given by crdf Global. Picture Arts and Sciences. Agnes Gund (Museum of Modern Art): Member, National Council Nobel Prizes, 2010 Alan Alda (New York, NY) is Gretchen Daily (Stanford Uni- on the Arts Economics among the recipients of the 2010 versity) is among the recipients aaas Kavli Science Journalism of the 16th Heinz Awards. William R. Hambrecht (WR Ham- Peter A. Diamond (Massachusetts Awards. brecht + Co): Member, Board of Institute of Technology) Antonio Damasio (University of Directors of the Presidio Trust Nancy Andrews (Duke University Southern California) was awarded Dale T. Mortensen (Northwestern School of Medicine) was awarded the Honda Prize by the Honda Jeffrey R. Immelt (General Elec- University) the 2010 Vanderbilt Prize in Bio- Foundation of Japan. tric): Chair, President’s Council medical Science. on Jobs and Competitiveness Ingrid Daubechies (Princeton Presidential Medal of Freedom David Awschalom (University University) was awarded the 2011 Eric S. Lander (Broad Institute mit of California, Santa Barbara) re- Benjamin Franklin Medal in Elec- of and Harvard): Member, Warren Buffett (Berkshire Hath- ceived the Turnbull Lecturer trical Engineering by the Franklin President’s Council on Jobs and away) Award from the Materials Re- Institute. Competitiveness search Society. Jasper Johns (Sharon, CT) Titia de Lange (Rockefeller Uni- W. James McNerney, Jr. (The Boe- Yo-Yo Ma (Cambridge, MA) Peter Beak (University of Illinois at versity) is the recipient of the ing Company): Member, Presi- Urbana-Champaign) was elected a 2011 Vilcek Prize in Biomedical dent’s Council on Jobs and Com- Fellow of the American Chemical Science. petitiveness Society.

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 71 Noteworthy

Joseph M. DeSimone (North Toyo Ito (Toyo Ito & Associates, Harold Mooney (Stanford Univer- Adam Riess (Johns Hopkins Uni- Carolina State University; Uni- Architects) was named a 2010 sity) is the recipient of the 2010 versity) was awarded the 2011 versity of North Carolina at Praemium Imperiale Laureate for Volvo Environment Prize. Einstein Medal by the Albert Ein- Chapel Hill) received the 2010 Architecture by the Japan Art stein Society of Bern, Switzerland. Mentor Award from the Ameri- Association. Jeffrey Moore (University of Illi- He shares the prize with Saul Perl- can Association for the Advance- nois at Urbana-Champaign) was mutter (University of California, ment of Science. Anita Jones (University of Vir- elected a Fellow of the American Berkeley). ginia) is the recipient of the Na- Chemical Society. Richard Eisenberg (University of tional Academy of Engineering Ronald L. Rivest (Massachusetts Rochester) was awarded the 2011 Arthur M. Bueche Award. K. C. Nicolaou (Scripps Research Institute of Technology) is the re- Nobel Laureate Signature Award Institute; University of Califor- cipient of the James R. Killian, Jr., for Graduate Education in Chem- Bill T. Jones (Bill T. Jones/Arnie nia, San Diego) was awarded the Faculty Achievement Award given istry by the American Chemical Zane Dance Company) is among 2011 Benjamin Franklin Medal in by mit. Society. the recipients of the 2010 Kennedy Chemistry by the Franklin Insti- Center Honors. tute. Janet Davison Rowley (University Sandra Faber (University of Cali- of Chicago) was awarded the 2010 fornia, Santa Cruz) was awarded Mary-Claire King (University of Louis Nirenberg (New York Uni- Pearl Meister Greengard Prize by the 2011 Henry Norris Russell Washington) was awarded the versity) is the recipient of the 2010 the Rockefeller University. She Lectureship by the American 2010 Pearl Meister Greengard Chern Medal, given by the Inter- shares the prize with Mary-Claire Astronomical Society. Prize by the Rockefeller Univer- national Mathematical Union and King (University of Washington). sity. She shares the prize with the Chern Medal Foundation. Loren Ghiglione (Northwestern Janet Davison Rowley (Univer- Emmanuel Saez (University of University) was named the winner sity of Chicago). Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney (Univer- California, Berkeley) was awarded of the 2010 Distinguished Service sity of Wisconsin-Madison) was a MacArthur Fellowship. to Journalism History Award given Robert P. Kirshner (Harvard Uni- elected a Fellow of the Institut by the American Journalism His- versity) was awarded the Dannie d’Etudes Avancées-Paris for her Robert Sampson (Harvard Univer- torians Association. Heineman Prize in Astrophysics, project on aesthetic and militarism sity) was awarded the 2011 Stock- given by the American Astronom- in comparative perspective. Her holm Prize in Criminology. He Carlo Ginzburg (University of ical Society and the American In- research focuses on its develop- shares the prize with John Laub California, Los Angeles) was stitute of Physics. ment in France. (National Institute of Justice). awarded the 2010 Balzan Prize for European History. Stuart A. Kornfeld (Washington Bert O’Malley (Baylor College of William H. Schlesinger (Cary In- University School of Medicine) Medicine) is the 2011 recipient of stitute of Ecosystem Studies) is the Vartan Gregorian (Carnegie Cor- is the recipient of the E. B. Wil- the Ernst Schering Prize, awarded 2010 recipient of the Sustained poration of New York) received son Medal awarded by the Amer- by the Ernst Schering Foundation. Achievement Award given by the the Aspen Institute’s Henry Crown ican Society for Cell Biology. Renewable Natural Resources Leadership Award. Elinor Ostrom (Indiana Univer- Foundation. Robert Langer (Massachusetts sity) received the Diamond Jubi- James Haber (Brandeis Univer- Institute of Technology) is the lee Award for Lifetime Achieve- Kay Kaufman Shelemay (Harvard sity) was awarded the Thomas recipient of the National Academy ment in Political Studies from University) was awarded the 2010 Hunt Morgan Medal for Lifetime of Engineering Founders Award. the Political Studies Association Jaap Kunst Prize. Achievement in Genetics by the of the United Kingdom. Genetics Society of America. Leonard Lauder (Estée Lauder Ernest Sosa (Rutgers University) Companies) received the Aspen Saul Perlmutter (University of was awarded the Nicholas Rescher Thomas Hampson (Hampson Institute’s Corporate Leadership California, Berkeley) was award- Prize for Contributions to Sys- Foundation) is the recipient of Award. ed the 2011 Einstein Medal by the tematic Philosophy by the Uni- the Living Legend Award given Albert Einstein Society of Bern, versity of Pittsburgh. by the Library of Congress. Joseph LeDoux (New York Uni- Switzerland. He shares the prize versity) is the recipient of a Dis- with Adam Riess (Johns Hopkins Steven Squyres (Cornell Univer- Ulf Hannerz (Stockholm Univer- tinguished Scienti½c Award given University). sity) is the recipient of the 2010 sity) was awarded the 2010 Anders by the American Psychological Eugene Shoemaker Memorial Retzius Medal by the Swedish Association. Francine Prose (New York, NY) Award, presented by Arizona Society for Anthropology and was awarded the Washington Uni- State University. Geography. James C. Lehrer (NewsHour with versity International Humanities Jim Lehrer) received the Aspen Medal. James Stimson (University of John Hennessy (Stanford Univer- Institute’s Public Service Award. North Carolina at Chapel Hill) sity) is the recipient of the 2010 Marcus E. Raichle (Washington was awarded the 2010 Warren E. Dr. Morris Chang Exemplary Susan L. Lindquist (Whitehead University in St. Louis School of Miller Prize from the American Leadership Award given by the Institute for Biomedical Research; Medicine) is among the recipients Political Science Association. Global Semiconductor Alliance. Massachusetts Institute of Tech- of the MetLife Foundation Awards nology) is the 2010 recipient of for Medical Research in Alzhei- John Meurig Thomas (University Susan Band Horwitz (Albert Ein- the Max Delbrück Medal. mer’s Disease. of Cambridge, UK) was awarded stein College of Medicine of Yeshi- the 2010 Bragg Prize Lectureship va University) received the Life- Yves Meyer (École Normale Calyampudi Radakrishna Rao of the British Crystallographic time Achievement Award in Can- Supérieure de Cachan, France) (C.R. Rao Advanced Institute of Association, the 2010 Sven Berg- cer Research from the American was awarded the 2010 Carl Fried- Mathematics, Statistics and Com- gren Prize Lectureship of the Association for Cancer Research. rich Gauss Prize for Applied puter Science, India) is the recip- Royal Physiographic Academy Mathematics. ient of the India Science Award. of Lund, and the 2010 Ertl Prize Lectureship of the Max Planck Gesellschaft.

72 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 David J. Weatherall (University Geoffrey Cowan (University of Eric Schmidt (Google Inc.) has Non½ction of Oxford, UK) is the recipient of Southern California) has been been named Executive Chairman the 2010 Lasker~Koshland Award named President of the Annen- of the Board of Google. Kwame Anthony Appiah (Prince- for Special Achievement in Med- berg Foundation Trust at Sunny- ton University). The Honor Code: ical Science. lands. Larry J. Shapiro (Washington How Moral Revolutions Happen. University in St. Louis School of W.W. Norton, September 2010 E. O. Wilson (Harvard University) Alan M. Dachs (Fremont Group) Medicine) was elected Chair of the was awarded the Henry David has been elected Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Associ- Francisco J. Ayala (University of Thoreau Prize for Literary Excel- Board of Trustees of The Confer- ation of Academic Health Centers. California, Irvine). Am I a Monkey? lence in Nature Writing by pen ence Board. Six Big Questions About Evolution. New England. Margaret C. Simms (Urban In- Johns Hopkins University Press, William F. DeGrado (University stitute) was named to the Board October 2010 Peter Wolczanski (Cornell Univer- of Pennsylvania) was named to of Trustees of Carleton College. sity) is the recipient of the 2011 the Scienti½c Advisory Board of Leo Braudy (University of South- National Award in Organometal- PolyMedix, Inc. Luis Ubiñas (Ford Foundation) ern California). The Hollywood lic Chemistry from the American has been appointed to the Board Sign: Fantasy and Reality of an Chemical Society. Susan Desmond-Hellmann (Uni- of Directors of Electronic Arts Inc. American Icon. Yale University versity of California, San Fran- Press, February 2011 Adam Zagajewski (University of cisco) was named to the Board of Susan R. Wessler (University of Chicago) is the recipient of the Directors of Procter & Gamble. California, Riverside) has been Noam Chomsky (Massachusetts European Poetry Prize, awarded elected Home Secretary of the Institute of Technology) and Ilan by the Cassamarca Foundation. J. Larry Jameson (Northwestern National Academy of Sciences. Pappé (University of Exeter, UK). University) has been named Ex- Gaza in Crisis: Reflections on Israel’s ecutive Vice President of the Uni- War Against the Palestinians. Hay- New Appointments versity of Pennsylvania for the Select Publications market Books, November 2010 Health System and Dean of the University of Pennsylvania School Donald D. Clayton (Clemson of Medicine. Poetry University). Catch a Falling Star. Fellows appointed to the iUniverse, November 2009 Scienti½c Advisory Board Stephen M. Kosslyn (Harvard Charles Simic (University of New Antonio Damasio (University of of Immune Design University) was appointed Direc- Hampshire). Master of Disguises. tor of the Center for Advanced Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Oc- Southern California). Self Comes David Baltimore (California Insti- Study in the Behavioral Sciences tober 2010 to Mind: Constructing the Conscious tute of Technology) at Stanford University. Brain. Pantheon, November 2010 Richard Wilbur (Smith College). Richard Klausner (Column Group) Kent Kresa (Northrop Grumman Anterooms: New Poems and Trans- Jacques d’Amboise (National Corporation) was named Chair- Dance Institute). I Was a Dancer: Inder Verma (Salk Institute) lations. Houghton Mifflin Har- man of the Board of Directors of court, November 2010 A Memoir. Knopf, February 2011 the Music Center. Freeman Dyson (Institute for Other New Appointments C.D. Wright (Brown University). Michael A. Marletta (University One with Others. Copper Canyon Advanced Study), editor. The Best of California, Berkeley) has been Press, October 2010 American Science and Nature Writ- David Bloom (Harvard School of ing 2010. Houghton Mifflin Har- Public Health) was appointed to named President of the Scripps Research Institute. court, October 2010 the Board of Directors of Popula- Fiction tion Services International (psi). Michael L. Norman (University of Elizabeth L. Eisenstein (Univer- sity of Michigan). Divine Art, In- Lee C. Bollinger (Columbia Uni- California, San Diego) has been Seamus Heaney (Dublin, Ireland). named Director of the San Diego Human Chain. Farrar, Straus and fernal Machine: The Reception of versity) was named Chairman of Printing in the West from First Im- the Board of Directors of the Fed- Supercomputer Center at the Uni- Giroux, September 2010 versity of California, San Diego. pressions to the Sense of an Ending. eral Reserve Bank of New York. Ward Just (Vineyard Haven, MA). University of Pennsylvania Press, Gary Borisy (Marine Biological Larry Page (Google Inc.) has been Rodin’s Debutante. Houghton December 2010 Laboratory) was appointed as a named Chief Executive Of½cer of Mifflin Harcourt, March 2011 Google. Daniel A. Farber (University of Head of Faculty for Cell Biology Steve Martin (Beverly Hills, CA). California, Berkeley) and Anne within Faculty of 1000 (F1000). David Rockefeller, Jr. (Rocke- An Object of Beauty: A Novel. Grand Joseph O’Connell (University of Alan Brinkley (Columbia Univer- feller Financial Services, Inc.) Central Press, November 2010 California, Berkeley), editors. Re- sity) was named Chairman of the was named Board Chair of the search Handbook on Public Choice Rockefeller Foundation. Philip Roth (New York, NY). Board of Trustees of the National Nemesis. Houghton Mifflin Har- and Public Law. Edward Elgar Humanities Center. Gerald Rosenfeld (Rothschild court, October 2010 Publishing, September 2010 Emily Carter (Princeton Universi- North America; New York Uni- Eric Foner (Columbia University). versity) is Strategic Advisor and Garry B. Trudeau (New York, ty) has been appointed the Found- NY). 40: A Doonesbury Retrospec- The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln ing Director of the Andlinger Vice Chairman of United States and American Slavery. W.W. Nor- Investment Banking at Lazard Ltd. tive. Andrews McMeel Publishing, Center for Energy and the Envi- October 2010 ton, October 2010 ronment at Princeton University. Steven Rosenstone (University of Minnesota) was named Chancel- lor of the Minnesota State Col- leges and Universities.

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 73 Noteworthy

William A. Galston (Brookings Pauline Maier (Massachusetts Harriet Ritvo (Massachusetts In- Theodore Ziolkowski (Princeton Institution) and Peter H. Hoffen- Institute of Technology). Rati½ca- stitute of Technology). Noble Cows University). Dresdner Romantik: berg (University of Hawaii at tion: The People Debate the Consti- and Hybrid Zebras: Essays on Ani- Politik und Harmonie. Universitäts- Manoa), editors. Poverty and tution, 1787–1788. Simon & Schus- mals and History. University of verlag Winter, October 2010 Morality: Religious and Secular ter, October 2010 Virginia Press, December 2010 Perspectives. Cambridge Univer- sity Press, November 2010 Nelson Mandela (Nelson Mandela Neena B. Schwartz (Northwestern Commissions Foundation). Conversations with University). A Lab of My Own. Anthony Grafton (Princeton Rodopi, January 2010 Myself. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, Guy Nordenson (Guy Nordenson University) and Joanna Weinberg October 2010 and Associates) was the lead de- (University of Oxford, UK). “I Have David Sehat (Georgia State Uni- signer and structural engineer Always Loved the Holy Tongue”: Isaac Steven E. Miller (Harvard Univer- versity; Academy Visiting Scholar, with Pelli Clarke Pelli Architects Casaubon, the Jews, and a Forgotten sity), Michael E. Brown (George 2007–2008). The Myth of Ameri- of the Hillhouse Pedestrian Brid- Chapter in Renaissance Scholarship. Washington University), Owen can Religious Freedom. Oxford ges for Yale University in New Belknap Press of Harvard Univer- R. Coté Jr. (Massachusetts Insti- University Press, January 2011 tute of Technology), and Sean Haven, CT. sity Press, January 2011 Jane Smiley (New York, NY). The M. Lynn-Jones (Harvard Univer- Billie Tsien and Tod Williams Stephen Greenblatt (Harvard Uni- Man Who Invented the Computer: sity), editors. Contending with (Tod Williams Billie Tsien Archi- versity). Shakespeare’s Freedom. The Biography of John Atanasoff, Terrorism: Roots, Strategies, and tects) have been chosen to design University of Chicago Press, No- mit Digital Pioneer. Doubleday, Octo- Responses. Press, July 2010 Princeton University’s new And- vember 2010 ber 2010 Martha Minow (Harvard Law linger Center for Energy and the Charlotte Greenspan (Ithaca, NY; School). In Brown’s Wake: Lega- Robert M. Solow (Massachusetts Environment. Academy Scholar in Residence, cies of America’s Educational Land- Institute of Technology) and Jean- 2010). Pick Yourself Up: Dorothy mark. Oxford University Press, Philippe Touffut (Cournot Centre for Economic Studies, France), Fields and the American Musical. August 2010 We invite all Fellows and Oxford University Press, July 2010 editors. The Shape of the Division Gary Saul Morson (Northwestern of Labour: Nations, Industries, and For eign Honorary Members Edith Grossman (New York, NY). University). The Words of Others: Households. Edward Elgar Publish- to send notices about their Why Translation Matters. Yale From Quotations to Culture. Yale ing, January 2011 recent and forthcoming pub - University Press, December 2010 University Press, April 2011 Patricia Meyer Spacks (University lications, scienti½c ½ndings, Ulf Hannerz (Stockholm Univer- Guy Nordenson (Guy Norden- of Virginia). Pride and Prejudice: exhibitions and performances, sity). Anthropology’s World: Life in son and Associates). Patterns and An Annotated Edition. Belknap and honors and prizes to a Twenty-First Century Discipline. Structure: Selected Writings 1972– Press of Harvard University Press, bulletin@ama cad.org. Pluto Press, August 2010 2008. Lars Müller Publishers, October 2010 September 2010 Stephen Hawking (University of Jeffrey Stout (Princeton Univer- Cambridge, UK) and Leonard Guy Nordenson (Guy Nordenson sity). Blessed are the Organized: Mlodinow (California Institute and Associates), Catherine Seavitt Grassroots Democracy in America. of Technology). The Grand Design. (Catherine Seavitt Studio), and Princeton University Press, De- Bantam, September 2010 Adam Yarinsky (Architecture cember 2010 Research Of½ce). On the Water | bbn Thomas C. Holt (University of Palisade Bay. Hatje Cantz Verlag/ John A. Swets ( Technolo- Chicago). Children of Fire: A His- MoMA Publications, January 2010 gies). Tulips to Thresholds: Coun- tory of African Americans. Farrar, terpart Careers of the Author and Straus and Giroux, October 2010 Robert B. Pippin (University of Signal Detection Theory. Peninsula Chicago). Hegel on Self-Conscious- Publishing, June 2010 Maxine Hong Kingston (Univer- ness: Desire and Death in the “Phe- sity of California, Berkeley). I Love nomenology of Spirit.” Princeton Helen Vendler (Harvard Univer- a Broad Margin to My Life. Harvill University Press, February 2011 sity). Dickinson: Selected Poems and Press, March 2011 Commentaries. Belknap Press of Eric A. Posner (University of Harvard University Press, Sep- Wendy Lesser (The Threepenny Chicago Law School). Economics tember 2010 Review). Music for Silenced Voices: of Public International Law. Ed- Shostakovich and His Fifteen Quar- ward Elgar Publishing, Novem- Garry Wills (Northwestern Uni- tets. Yale University Press, Febru- ber 2010 versity). Outside Looking In: Ad- ary 2011 ventures of an Observer. Viking, Robert D. Putnam (Harvard Uni- October 2010 versity) and David E. Campbell (University of Notre Dame). Theodore Ziolkowski (Princeton American Grace: How Religion University). Die Welt im Gedicht: Divides and Unites Us. Simon & Rilkes Sonette an Orpheus II.4. Koen- Schuster, October 2010 igshausen & Neumann, July 2010

74 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 Remembrance It is with sadness that the Academy notes the passing of the following members.*

Thomas Julian Ahrens–November 24, 2010; William H. Goetzmann–September 7, 2010; Henry Lardy–August 4, 2010; elected to the elected to the Academy in 1995 elected to the Academy in 2000 Academy in 1965 John David Alexander–July 25, 2010; elected Eugene Goldwasser–December 17, 2010; Jack Levine–November 8, 2010; elected to to the Academy in 2006 elected to the Academy in 1991 the Academy in 1949 Neal Russell Amundson–February 16, 2011; Morris Goodman–November 4, 2010; elected Romulus Linney–January 15, 2011; elected to elected to the Academy in 1992 to the Academy in 1996 the Academy in 1998 Milton Byron Babbitt–January 29, 2011; Oleg Grabar–January 8, 2011; elected to the Guido Majno–May 27, 2010; elected to the elected to the Academy in 1974 Academy in 1973 Academy in 1977 Kurt Baier–October 24, 2010; elected to the Louis Henkin–October 14, 2010; elected to Benoit B. Mandelbrot–October 14, 2010; Academy in 1975 the Academy in 1974 elected to the Academy in 1982 Ralph Belknap Baldwin–October 23, 2010; Walter Rollo Hibbard, Jr.–February 24, 2010; Jerrold E. Marsden–September 21, 2010; elected to the Academy in 1980 elected to the Academy in 1963 elected to the Academy in 1997 Paul Frank Barbara–October 31, 2010; Richard C. Holbrooke–December 13, 2010; John Emery Murdoch–September 16, 2010; elected to the Academy in 1999 elected to the Academy in 2004 elected to the Academy in 1973 Daniel Bell–January 25, 2011; elected to the Bernard Leonard Horecker–October 10, Nathan J. Oliveira–November 13, 2010; Academy in 1964 2010; elected to the Academy in 1962 elected to the Academy in 1994 Jacob Bigeleisen–August 7, 2010; elected to John Peter Huchra–October 8, 2010; elected Kenneth Harry Olsen–February 6, 2011; the Academy in 1968 to the Academy in 1991 elected to the Academy in 1976 Adriaan Blaauw–December 1, 2010; elected David Lee Hull–August 11, 2010; elected to Martin Ostwald–April 10, 2010; elected to to the Academy in 1973 the Academy in 1992 the Academy in 1991 Reinhold Brinkmann–October 10, 2010; Robert Stephen Ingersoll–August 22, 2010; Oscar Sala–January 2, 2010; elected to the elected to the Academy in 2002 elected to the Academy in 1988 Academy in 1988 Nicola Cabibbo–August 16, 2010; elected to Alex Inkeles–July 9, 2010; elected to the Daniel Schorr–July 23, 2010; elected to the the Academy in 1981 Academy in 1962 Academy in 2002 Britton Chance–November 16, 2010; elected Walter Isard–November 6, 2010; elected to Eli Shapiro–December 4, 2010; elected to to the Academy in 1955 the Academy in 1975 the Academy in 1955 William K. Coblentz–September 13, 2010; Chalmers Ashby Johnson–November 20, Alfred William Brian Simpson–January 10, elected to the Academy in 2002 2010; elected to the Academy in 1976 2011; elected to the Academy in 1993 Robyn M. Dawes–December 14, 2010; Tony Robert Judt–August 6, 2010; elected to Melvin Ernest Stern–February 2, 2010; elected to the Academy in 2002 the Academy in 1996 elected to the Academy in 1975 Jacqueline de Romilly–December 18, 2010; Alfred Edward Kahn–December 27, 2010; Robert Edward Lee Strider–November 28, elected to the Academy in 1988 elected to the Academy in 1978 2010; elected to the Academy in 1962 William von Eggers Doering–January 3, Benjamin Kaplan–August 18, 2010; elected to James Mourilyan Tanner–August 11, 2010; 2011; elected to the Academy in 1954 the Academy in 1958 elected to the Academy in 1993 Shmuel Noah Eisenstadt–September 2, 2010; Friedrich Katz–October 16, 2010; elected to Michael Tinkham–November 4, 2010; elected to the Academy in 1968 the Academy in 2003 elected to the Academy in 1967 Charles J. Epstein–February 15, 2011; elected James Collyer Keck–August 9, 2010; elected Robert Charles Tucker–July 29, 2010; elected to the Academy in 2004 to the Academy in 1973 to the Academy in 1975 John Bennett Fenn–December 10, 2010; John Frank Kermode–August 17, 2010; Frederick Theodore Wall–March 31, 2010; elected to the Academy in 2000 elected to the Academy in 1976 elected to the Academy in 1966 Alfred Paul Fishman–October 6, 2010; Richard Darwin Keynes–June 12, 2010; David J. Weber–August 20, 2010; elected to elected to the Academy in 1996 elected to the Academy in 1978 the Academy in 2007 Joseph Harold Flom–February 23, 2011; John Werner Kluge–September 7, 2010; Sidney J. Weinberg, Jr.–October 4, 2010; elected to the Academy in 2006 elected to the Academy in 2002 elected to the Academy in 2005 Philippa Ruth Foot–October 3, 2010; elected Leon Knopoff–January 20, 2011; elected to George Christopher Williams–September 8, to the Academy in 1983 the Academy in 1965 2010; elected to the Academy in 1990 Philip P. Frickey–July 11, 2010; elected to the Bernard MacGregor Walker Knox–July 22, Bernhard Witkop–November 22, 2010; Academy in 2002 2010; elected to the Academy in 1977 elected to the Academy in 1978 Albert Ghiorso–December 26, 2010; elected Mabel Louise Lang–July 21, 2010; elected to Arnold Zellner–August 11, 2010; elected to to the Academy in 1972 the Academy in 1981 the Academy in 1979 *Notice received from July 23, 2010, to February 24, 2011

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 75 Condoleezza Rice Visits the Academy

Former Secretary of State Reflects on the Importance of Public Service

On December 1, 2010, President Leslie C. During a wide-ranging conversation, Rice Berlowitz welcomed and formally inducted reflected on her career as a Soviet and East into the Academy former Secretary of State European affairs specialist, an academic Condoleezza Rice. Patricia Meyer Spacks, administrator, White House National Se- President of the Academy from 2001–2006, curity Advisor, and the nation’s sixty-sixth also of½ciated at the induction ceremony. Secretary of State. She also spoke about more recent events in North Korea and Dr. Rice, who was elected to the Academy China, the role of science and technology in 1997 while serving as Provost of Stanford in diplomacy, and arms control and the University, spoke about her perspectives on New start Treaty with Russia. the importance of public service to a group of Fellows and members of mit, Harvard, Asked about the tenor of contemporary Boston University, and the W.E.B. Du Bois politics, Rice remarked that “our politics Institute for African and African American has just gotten too fast and the volume is Research. too loud. . . the questioning of the motives of our politicians, of our public servants, “It is not always the easiest transition, to has reached a fever pitch.” She stressed the go from the academy into the world of gov- need for a less partisan, more constructive ernment, but it is one of the really great public discourse about such critical issues honors that one can have,” said Rice. She as immigration reform and national eco- noted that although cynicism toward pub- nomic policy. Condoleezza Rice lic service may make it an unattractive op- tion for some, she is encouraged by the passion and idealism exhibited by many young people on college campuses. “A great democracy cannot function without those who are devoted to trying to make it a better democracy.”

76 Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Winter 2011 american academy Leslie Cohen Berlowitz named of arts & sciences Norton’s Woods, 136 Irving Street, Cambridge, ma 02138 President of the Academy telephone 617-576-5000, facsimile 617-576-5050, email [email protected], website www.amacad.org

Leslie Berlowitz has been al leader on humanities policy, academy officers named the 45th President of she led the creation of the Acad- Louis W. Cabot, Chair of the Board and Trust the American Academy of Arts emy’s Humanities Initiative Leslie Berlowitz, President and William T. Golden Chair and Sciences. She has led the and its widely cited Humanities Academy as Chief Executive Indicators. John S. Reed, Treasurer Of½cer since 1996 and was Jerrold Meinwald, Secretary Berlowitz is currently directing elected a Fellow of the Ameri- Gerald L. Early, Cochair of the Council the Academy’s response to a can Academy in 2004. congressional call to assess the Neal Lane, Cochair of the Council Louis W. Cabot, Chair of the state of the humanities and so- John Katzenellenbogen, Vice Chair, Midwest Board, noted that Berlowitz has cial sciences and their impact Jesse H. Choper, Vice Chair, West presided over an unprecedent- on the country’s education sys- ed period of accomplishment. tem, economic competitive- publications advisory board ness, and cultural diplomacy. “Leslie has raised the visibility Jerome Kagan, Chair; Jesse H. Choper, Denis Donoghue, and impact of the organization. “It is a great privilege to serve Gerald Early, Linda Greenhouse, Steven Marcus, Jerrold Meinwald She has expanded the scope and the members of the Academy,” size of the research programs; Berlowitz said. “This is an his- editorial staff enhanced our publications; toric organization with a vital Phyllis S. Bendell, Director of Publications increased the engagement of contemporary mission. I am members around the country; grateful to the of½cers and mem- Micah J. Buis, Associate Editor created innovative new fellow- bers for the faith they have Erica Dorpalen, Editorial Assistant ship programs for early-career placed in me and look forward Scott Eaton Wilder, Design & Layout scholars; established an archives to collaborating with the Board Initial design by Joseph Moore of Moore + Associates to improve access to the Acad- and the fellowship in the com- emy’s records; and overseen ing years as we work to serve Bulletin Winter 2011 the most successful fundrais- the public good.” Issued as Volume lxiv, Number 2 ing effort in our history,” Cabot © 2011 by the American Academy of Arts & Sciences said. “This new title reflects the The Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences (issn 0002–712x) value that the Board places in is published quarterly by the American Academy of Arts & Sciences. Leslie’s leadership and our con- Periodi cals rate postage paid at Boston, ma, and at additional mailing ½dence in her ability to bring of½ces. Post master: Send address changes to Bulletin, American Acad- ma the Academy to new levels of emy of Arts & Sciences, 136 Irving Street, Cambridge, 02138. distinction.” The views expressed in the Bulletin are those held by each contribu- tor and are not necessarily those of the Of½cers and Fellows of the Berlowitz has helped to advance American Acad emy of Arts & Sciences. major Academy initiatives on energy policy, federal funding photo credits of science, the independence of the judiciary, and new norms Steve Rosenthal inside front cover for business practices. A nation- Martha Stewart pages 1, 5–9, 12–13, 15–17, 22–24, 26, 32–34, 47, 49–50, 53–56, 59–62, 65, 76 Elisabeth Fall page 10 Rod Searcey page 43, top Jim Block pages 43, bottom; 52 Don Liebig/ ucla Photography page 44 Eric Craig page 45 Wendy Barrows page 46, top Ed Zilberman page 46, bottom