Nvironmental Profile Tihama Environmental Environmental Health Protection Council Department Ministry of Housing and Municipalities

t.623 YET 190 nvironmental Profile Tihama Environmental Environmental Health Protection Council Department Ministry of Housing and Municipalities

'Oli\i';.

'•'.'til Evironmental Profile Tihama

Yemen Arab Republic

;f Study team

ir. Robert Beck prof. dr. Dik C.P. Thalent • dr. Jaques van der Gun ir. Janjoost Kessler ir. Bart P. van Lavieren ir. Paul Scholten

dr. Ali Mohamed Al-Shatebi dr. Yahia Aboud dr. Ali Albar dr. Ahmed Alwan Al-Madhagi dr. Abdul Waly Agbary M dr. Ali Mukred Mohamed Al-Awadi dr. Hazim Al Shukry dr. Abdul-Rahman Bamatraf dr. Abdullah Ba-lssa

Editor ir. Robert Beck

LIBRARY, INTERNATIONAL REFERENCE I CEf-nT:~ FOR COMMUNITY WATER SUPPLY : AND :;,V''r ' ;-: liftC) P.O. EG : : j-,,, 2JO9 AD The Hagu« Tel. (07" 3149 11 ext 141/142

IDHV LO: VE.T DHV Consultants '- January 1990 This publication has been made possible due to the financial support by the Netherlands Minister for Development Cooperation. Copyright belongs to the Netherlands Minister for Development Cooperation. However, short excerpts of this publication may be reproduced without prior authorization on the condition that the source is indicated. Applications to obtain the right of reproduction and/or translation should be made to the Netherlands Minister. Responsibility for the information and opinions expressed in this publication rests solely with the authors and publication does not constitute an endorsement by the afore mentioned Minister.

(•?• Contents

Page Page 1 Introduction 5 6 Present state of natural resources 27 1.1 Scope/Objective 5 6.1 Changing landscapes 27 1.2 How it is made 5 6.2 Sustainability 27 1.3 One of a series 5 6.3 Use and misuse of resources 29

2 Setting 7 7 Conservation 35 2.1 History 7 7.1 Biogeographical position 35 2.2 Topography and landscape 7 7.2 Flora and fauna 35 2.3 Population 9 7.3 Patterns of change 37 2.4 Geology 10 7.4 Requirements for nature conservation 37 2.5 Climate 11 2.6 Drainage 11 2.7 Legislative framework 12 8 Urban environment and environmental health 39 2.8 Why water is given priority 12 8.1 Health situation 39 8.2 Water supply 39 8.3 Urban hydrology 39 3 Water and land 13 8.4 Al Hudaydah's environmental problems 41 3.1 Types of land 13 8.5 Zabid's environmental problems 41 3.2 Surface water systems 15 3.3 Occurrence and characteristics of groundwater 15 9 Concluding statements for further action 42 9.1 Sustainable development 42 9.2 Socio-economic factors 42 4 The human factor 17 9.3 Changes in actual use and management 43 4.1 Agriculture 17 9.4 Implementation of environmental policies 44 4.2 Livestock production 20 9.5 Research 45 4.3 Firewood use 20 4.4 Fishery 21 10 Summary 46 5 Land and water use ecology 23 5.1 Land tenure 23 11 References 47 5.2 Water rights 24 5.3 Incentives in agricultural production 24 5.4 Incentives in livestock production 24 12 Colophon 48 5.5 Incentives in management of wood and range resources 25 SUDAN

IBOUH== (J ft ETHIOPIA \_-

The Tihama in the Yemen Arab Republic in the Middle East

Tihama kadi on his farm Doum palms on the Red Sea shore 1, Introduction

1.1 Scope/Objective tional formed the basis for tation in front of the authori- This Environmental Profile much of the information. Many ties concerned. A number of describes the environment of descriptions of the state of the statements were presented the coastal plain, the Tihama, resources, including descrip- and discussed on this occa- of the Yemen Arab Republic. It tions of vegetation, land use, sion, which are reflected in the also gives an analysis of envi- wildlife etc. were made. Our concluding chapter of this ronmental problems. Emphasis previous experience in the Profile is placed on the role of man area, for some of us dating in his interaction with the envi- back to the sixties, combined ronment: how do people in the with a study of literature al- 1.3 One of a series Tihama use and manage the lowed us to make a compari- This Environmental Profile is resources available and why son with the past. one of a series of three. The do they do it the way they do? other Volumes of this series Another source of information discuss the environment and By providing an overview of for studying the vast area that environmental problems in, the environment and the state the Tihama covers, was satel- respectively, Dhamar Governor- of resources in the Tihama lite imagery. ate and Al Bayda Governorate. and by describing the motives, These areas are chosen, be- patterns and trends of resour- Due to the limited availability cause they are areas in which ce use in regard to their and reliability of environmental assistance from the Nether- sustainability, the Environ- information, and the very little lands Ministry of Development mental Profile creates a frame- time available for the prepa- Cooperation is concentrated. work of environmental ration of the Profile, many However, the three areas of constraints and possibilities for shortcomings may be apparent study together cover an East- decision making by the autho- when reading it. This should West cross-section of the rities responsible for develop- lead to the conclusion that Yemen Arab Republic, contai- ment in the Tihama. more attention to the subject ning the main zones in which is necessary in future. the country can be divided. Use of the environment must These zones have a north- be sustainable if it is to The study was executed under south orientation. The zones guarantee sound medium and the supervision of the Environ- are the Tihama, bordering the long term conditions for mental Health Department Red Sea, the Mountain Belt, existence and a good guality of the Ministry of Housing and The Yemen Highlands and the of life. Therefore, man's activi- Municipalities in Sana' and Eastern Desert bordering the ties must fit within the en- financed by the Netherlands Rub al Khali. Consequently vironmental constraints of the Ministry of Development the three Profiles together may area being used. To achieve Cooperation. The Environmen- provide an insight into the this, knowledge and under- tal Protection Council provided environmental situation and standing of the environment is the framework in which these problems for the Yemen Arab required and must be integra- activities were carried out. Republic as a whole. However, ted into land use and planning They were carrried out by spe- it is recognized that local activities. cialists from the University situations outside the study of Sana', the Agricultural Re- areas may be quite different search Authority in Yemen, the from those encountered within 1.2 How it is made Research Institute for Nature the study areas. In our work in Tihama in 1988, Management, the TNO Insti- information was collected on tute of Applied Geoscience the environment and its use by and DHV Consultants from the man in the different areas. Netherlands. The team visited the area in October 1988. Interviews with During the study, a seminar farmers, nomads and autho- was held in Sana' at which rities, both modern and tradi- team members held a presen- 6

Topography and elevation

HEO SEA

ARABIAN .•it' 0- 500 meter ;*msl 500 1 500 meter amsl 15OO-?5OO meter amsl >2500 meter ;jmsl Tihama boundary

Luhayya mosque

Tihama village with round huts 2. Setting

2.1 History established a "factorij" in Al 2.2 Topography and landscape The Tihama is an area of great Mukhah in 1621. The Company, Some say that the African Sahel historical importance to the Yemen. which was extremely powerful at ends at the foothills of the Yemen It was visited by many medieval that time, traded in Al Mukhah be- mountain belt. Of course, both in scientists, especially during the tween 1614 and 1716. However,the terms of culture and resources the Yemen Golden Age, in the reign of trade focused on coffee and was situation is quite different, though the Rasulid Sultans (13th to 16th not very profitable. The Dutch in some respects, there are simi- century). This long period of Ra- word for coffee, "mokka", comes larities. The flat expanse of the dry sulid control of the Tihama and from this harbour. rangelands of the Tihama is dissec- southern Yemen, lasting more than ted by wadis along which agricul- two centuries, was without doubt tural lands and villages are During the Imamate, Yemen remai- the most brilliant in the early and situated. Many of these villages ned isolated while the world chan- medieval history of the Yemen. The consist of round grass-roofed huts. ged rapidly. The isolation ended town of Zabid was one of the great with the proclamation of the intellectual centres of the world in Yemen Arab Republic on Septem- The Tihama is bordered on the that period and many religious, ber 26, 1962. This heralded a per- west by the Red Sea. In the east, astronomical, mathematical and iod of change in the Yemen which the natural border consists of the other subjects were studied. In this is quite unmatched elsewhere in foothills of the Mountain Belt. This town, the basis for modern Algebra the world: From a country which, mountain belt rises to 3660 meters was developed. Attention was also in the 1960s, had virtually no cars above sea level within a distance paid in this period to the study of or even tracks suitable for cars, to of 50 km from the beginning of agriculture and nature, though it one having a network of tarmac the foothills (at roughly 400 meters was not a subject of major inte- and secondary roads and many above sea level). Very large wadis rest. thousands of cars. No industries flow into the Tihama from the developed in Yemen until after the mountains. These wadis channel The Tihama played a role in many Revolution, and no modern medi- most of the water for agriculture in earlier civilisations as well. The sea cine was practiced. Now there is the Tihama, in the form of ground trade between Egypt and India was an infrastructure of hospitals and water or by surface flow. A wadi already visiting ports in the Tihama dispensaries. No modern legal is a stream bed, which is dry for as early as 100 A.D., during the framework existed at the time of most of the time, but through reign of the Himyarite kings. Fol- the Revolution. It was developed which, sometimes, very large lowing the opening of this and since then. floods are drained. These wadis other sea routes, much of the im- hardly ever reach the sea. Impor- petus behind the caravan routes tant agricultural areas in the and the famous civilizations (suchas These changes have also had an Tihama are found in or near these Saba'with its Queen of Sheba and impact on the environment, al- wadi beds. Between the wadis, Qataban) along the border of the though rather less than one would there are vast rangelands with Eastern Desert (based on caravan expect, given the pace of moder- sand or silt dunes or sometimes routes and the incense trade) was nization. The reason tor this is that Stony surfaces. When rainfall is transferred to the Tihama. In the the human occupation of the Tiha- sufficient, the dunes are also used 16th century, the Ottoman occu- ma as well as Yemen in general, . for cultivation. This occurs in the pation of Yemen started in the has been rather intensive since eastern part of the Tihama which Tihama. Some years after the times immemorial, which is quite also has a denser tree cover. In assumption of power by Imam different from the situation in, for seventeenth century travel descrip- Yahya in 1904, the Turks had to example many African countries. tions, these trees are even descri- accept a division of power and the Most long term impacts of human bed as rather dense forests. Imamate gained complete control occupation on the environment over the territory of the Yemen took place centuries ago. Agricul- The landscape itself is relatively Arab Republic by 1918. tural land had been developed young and is formed by the conti- since medieval times on quite a nuous flow of sediments from the Even the Dutch have an historical large scale and there has been mountains. Along the coast, Red connection with the Tihama. The intensive use of forest resources Sea currents deposit material at old port of Al Mukhah, in the south and wildlife for centuries. What some locations and erode the of the Tihama, is nowadays a very happens to the actual agricultural, coast at others. guiet place, but during the seven- hydrological and other resources teenth century it used to be the and the remainder of tree and principal port for South Arabia. The wildlife resources is the subject of Netherlands East Indies Company this Profile. 8

In a west to east cross-section of Districts and Governorates the Tihama the overall slope of in the Tihama the terrain increases from 0% near the coast to about 2 % over the eastern part.

The main port of Yemen is Al Hudaydah, which is also the capital of the Al Hudaydah Governorate Midi ,'. that covers the largest part of the Tihama. There is substantial industrial activity in the town. Al Huday- A8S dah is, together with Sana' and : Taiz, one of the three large towns : in the Yemen Arab Republic. There Az Zuhrah are many secondary towns in the Tihama, among which Bayt al Faqih is the largest, with a very jjjt'AI Luhayvi'ih important market for agricultural products from which they are dis- tributed over the whole of Yemen. The other towns and the small port ah towns are connected by tarmac • and good gravel roads. The smaller villages can almost always be rea- Bajil

Al Marawiah Also in the Tihama the population grows rapidly and consists of a high percentage of young people. Al Hud

Zabid

Al KvJfewkhai

A! Mii«'l-a!

Mawza ched by car these days using hard public, but, in contrast, the region women in the Tihama. This is tracks. This relatively good acces- takes up only 10% of the land area more pronounced in the urban sibility is a very recent and impor- of the Yemen. The Tihama consists centres. This is due to migration tant development in the Tihama of 22 administrative districts, of for labour. In 1975 in Al Hudaydah and is certainly unique with which 17 belong to Al Hudaydah the sex ratio was much more unev- respect to rural areas in the moun- Governorate, three districts belong en than it is now. This is explain- tains and in the east of the coun- to Hajjah Governorate and two dis- ed by the fact that the family try, where accessibility is often tricts to Taiz Governorate. At this follows the man after a certain extremely poor, just as it used to district level, population data are time when he is able to generate a be in the Tihama. available. more or less permanent income, and the family can benefit from a In 1962,a start was made on the Most people in the Tihama are, like better access to medicine and edu- large scale development of wadi the majority of the Yemeni, invol- cation. irrigated agriculture, managed by ved in agriculture. Population con- the Tihama Development Authority. centrations are found in the urban The available figures also indicate Since then, large irrigation centres and in the areas with the that of the Yemeni working force a schemes with an infrastructure of highest agricultural potential, relatively high percentage is work- roads, canals, etc. have been im- around Wadi Zabid and other ing in the Tihama, nowadays. This plemented along Wadi Mawr, Wadi wadis. Other small groups are the is astonishing given the fact that Surdud, Wadi Zabid and Wadi bedouin, living from their livestock the Tihama used to be considered Rima. Possibilities to develop Wadi and fishermen living in small villa- as a relatively backward area in the Siham in a similar way are current- ges along the coast, but distribu- Yemen. It is clear that the situation ly under study. ting their produce over the whole has changed. Tihama and further inland. Temporal or even permanent emi- 2.3 Population The urban population forms about gration abroad is also important in Before 1975, the estimated popula- one quarter of the total Tihama the Tihama. There is one emigrant tion of Yemen made by different population. It is concentrated in every third household in Al bodies and varied, at between 4 mainly in Al Hudaydah, but also in Hudaydah town. The remittances and 5 million. Since the censuses the secondary and smaller towns these emigrants send to their fami- of 1975 and 1986, the Yemeni (i.e. in urban centres with over lies amount to large sums. For population is known more accura- 5000 inhabitants). Jobs in Al example, in the year 1980, over the tely. The population of the Yemen Hudaydah are found in trade, in- whole country these sums amoun- Arab Republic in 1986 is estimated dustry and the informal sector, and ted to more than six billion Yemen at 9.2 million, of which 1.13 million in the administration and services Ryal. Al Hudaydah district alone live in the Tihama. sectors. received about 10 % of this There are slightly more men than amount.. During the first census in 1975 only 0.65 million inhabitants were registered. The annual growth rate that follows from these numbers is Population in the Tihamain numbers 4.9 %. However, given the absence of reliable data on birth, death Total population and density n Tihama. Districtwise distribution of sexes in 1986. District Total Total Density 1986 District Males Females Sexratio and migration this figure cannot be 1936 1975 inhab./km2 1986 1936 1986 confirmed. While the death rate in Al Hudaydah 155110 82723 646 Al Hudaydah 85605 69505 .23 the Tihama has probably decreased Al Marawiah 70297 48064 97 Al Marawiah 35166 35131 1.00 with Ihe introduction of modern Al Lutiayyah 53B16 39206 45 Al Luhayyah 26659 27157 .98 Az Zuhrah 66310 45174 76 A/ Zuhrah 32778 33541 .98 medicine during the last twenty Az Zaydiyah 46222 39395 62 Az Zaydiyah 22854 2336S .98 years, it is known that child morta- Al Qanawis 34558 206?6 89 Al Qynawis 16558 18000 .92 Al Miqhlaf 20432 15358 112 Al Mighlaf 10024 10408 .96 lity is still very high. It may bo Ad Dahi 24524 17901 101 Ad Dahi 12055 12469 .97 assumed that the real growth rate Al Munirah 18679 15474 24 Al Munirah S733 9946 .88 Ba|l 77381 49129 50 Bajil 38232 39149 .98 is very high though perhaps not as Zabid 167549 11462 89 Zauid 82481 85068 .97 high as the calculated growth rate. Hays 27266 18420 104 Hoys 13-160 13806 .97 Al Khawkhnh 18594 16582 38 Al Khawkhah 9234 9360 .99 It may also be assumed that the Bayt Al Faqih 121677 81110 73 Bayt Al Faqih 60600 61077 .99 improved accessibility since 1975 Ad Dtjrnyhimi 2891B 18726 46 Ad Durayhimi 14378 14540 .99 Al Mansuriyah 29686 30016 98 Al Mansuriyah 14590 15096 .97 resulted in a more complete cen- As Sukhna 31254 8921 118 As Sukhna 14975 16279 .92 Al MukhahlTaiz 37963 22011 26 Al Mukhahflaiz 19922 18041 1.10 sus in 1986. Mou/a(Tai/l 22001 20329 9 Mou/?i(Tai/) 11299 10702 1.06 Midi(Hajjah) b919 7585 7 Midi(Haiiah) 3094 2825 1.10 Harad(Hajjah) 28585 18063 27 Harad(Hajjah) 14637 13948 1.05 The total population of the Tihama AbslHaiiah] 40830 26438 26 Abs(Haiiah) 20612 20218 1.02 forms aboul 12 % of the total Totals 112758 Totals 567946 559634 1.01 population of the Yemen Arab Re- 0 652713 57 10

2.4 Geology The topography of the country is linked to the geological processes wsw ENE African shield Red -Adi rift ufillcy (

Most of the country lies on a block that has been strongly uplifted, til- ted slightly eastward, and faulted into numerous small blocks. These tectonic processes started during Quaternatry sediments the Tertiary, simultaneously with Tertiary evaporite-clastic series the formation of the Red Sea gra- Tertiary intrusive granites ben. They were accompanied by Tertiary volcanics widespread volcanic activity: the Mesozoic ano paleozoic rocks Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments Preeambrian basement that outcrop widely in the northern Major faults part of the Yemen Highlands, have Approximate dernensions Horizontal 300 350 km been buried under thick layers of Vertical 3-b km lavas and tuffs in the central and Schematic diagram of geological cross-section across the southern part of the country. Bed Sea rift valley. Elsewhere, in particular along the eastern edge of the Yemen High- lands, these sedimentary layers have been removed by erosion and Precambrian basement rocks are visible. Quartenary sediments cover the Tihama, various intermontane

Geology

ARABIAN SkA

'iuatem:j Gualerndry.leriiary vulCSnicS Tertiary intrudes Mciozoic fJaleo/tm.: sediments Precamtjr \ bnsnmr:nt. 11

plains and the Eastern Desert the upper soil layers can absorb Aden, towards the Arabian Sea and lands; on a more local scale, they immediately. Hence, surface water towards the great inland desert of are present in the beds of nume- runs off downslope towards the the Southern part of the Arabian rous wadis all over the country. wadis. The catchment areas of peninsula (Rub al Khali Basin). these wadis may be grouped into The Tihama is situated within the larger basins. In the Yemen Arab The Tihama is situated entirely Red Sea graben. At the surface Republic we may distinguish be- within the Red Sea Basin. It consti- Quaternary alluvial and aeolian tween the areas draining towards tutes the lower part of the basin, deposits are predominant. These the Red Sea, towards the Gulf of which is a favourable position from deposits are only thin in the eastern part of the Tihama, but thicken westwards, attaining 300 meters in the extreme western part. They are underlain by Tertiary sediments in the western zone, but Mean annual rainfall more to the east they rest upon Tertiary volcanic rocks or older for- mations. Locally, the Quaternary cover is interrupted by outcrops of pre-Quaternary rocks.

RED SEA 2.5 Climate The climate in the Yemen is relatively favourable compared to the remainder of the Arabian Peninsula: rainfall is more abundant than elsewhere and temperatures are moderate over large areas because of altitude. As far as rainfall is concerned, a strong east-west trend is evident in the Tihama, from virtually nil along the coast to quantities permitting rainfed cultivation in the eastern part. The rains fall in spring (Rabi), late summer and autumn ( Sayf and Kharif). The Sayf and Kharif rains are more reliable and most rain falls in this period.

Differences in temperature are only modest, which can be explained by the limited variation in topographic elevation. The average annual temperature is around 30 degrees Cel- N. sius. Rather high relative air humidity (averages over 60%) keeps the diurnal variation much smaller than in the mountainous zones of Yemen.

Aridity is evident since much more water potentially evaporates than is generated by the rains. 0 -100 mm/yr

1OO-J00 mm/yr 2.6 Drainage '''':''': 200 300 mm/yr Even though rainfall is not abun- IBjf 300-400 mm/yr dant in the Yemen, rain storms figt 400 500 mm/yr often produce more water, than •I 500-600 mm/yr 12

the point of view of water resour- agement of the environment is sence of water. First to drink and ces. All excess water draining from still virtually non-existing. This is wash, secondly to water livestock the neighbouring west-facing not surprising, given the fact that and crops and thirdly for industrial mountain catchment enters the the problems arising from modern use. In the Yemen, water is a scar- Tihama. life have only begun to be felt ce resource. The rains determine recently. During the Imamate no the success of a cropping season attention was paid to legislation in or its failure. The rains also deter- 2.7 Legislative framework this and many other fields, ll is the mine the replenishment of the Within the framework of rules that task of the Environmental Protec- aquifers, the subterranean water together regulate the life of man in tion Council established in 1987 to resources. the Yemen, a distinction can be provide the framework for environ- The availability of water varies from made between the laws that origi- mental legislation and of the Su- one location to another, This avail- nate from Shari'a, the Qoranic law preme Council for Water to provide ability is the first important factor and the customary law, which is this for the management of water that determines and has determi- usually in line with the foundations resources. ned the use of the land. For this of Islam. The customary law, reason, water availability is a fre- however, may vary from location to quently recurring topic of this location, and in case of water Profile. rights, for example, many local par- 2.8 Why water is given ticularities and regulations can be priority found. It is evident that all human activi- Modern law, enforcing proper man- ties are made possible by the pre-

The availability of water determines the way of life in the Tihama

Major wadis and watersheds

Rub al Khali Basin

Arabian Sea Basin Sana' in

M£O SEA f Aden Basin

ARABIAN StA

Major wadis Watershed boundaries 13 3. Water and land Mosaic of satellite of Tihama and mountains (landsat MSS of April 1985 and January 1986). 3.1 Types of land The landscape of the Tihama as a whole is rather monotonous. It consists of alluvial material deposited by the wadis and sometimes locally transported by the winds. However, when looked upon in detail a great variation in environments is found. On the scale of this Profile only a few can be visu- alized and discussed. Nine main so-called land units are distinguished with regard to their physical characteristics but also in respect of their potential for human occupation.

From west to east certain types of land can be distinguished. They are crossed by the wadis, their floodplains, etc.

A mangrove zone is present along the muddy parts of the coast. Where the coast is not muddy, coral reefs are present at some distance from the coast. Mangroves can still be found along the northern Tihama.

A zone with beaches, bare and vegetated sebkhas and coastal dunes extends along the coast and is only interrupted by zones where fresh surface or ground water reaches the coast. Sebkhas are areas where usually brackish ground water evaporates. They are therefore very saline.

East of the coastal zone vast flat rangelands are found, in the west without shrub or trees and in the east, where more rain falls, an open shrubland has developed. In the area near Al Mansuriyah large longitudinal dunes (erg) were formed thousand years ago from the very fine sands that cover the whole zone.

In the east, the Tihama is bordered by the foothills. The material that is deposited here comes from the mountains and is called "pediment". Except when cultivated, the pediment is covered by a desert pavement (hammada). The soil 14

Land unit map of Tihama material between the stones ero- A land unit is an area with a relatively similar landscape and use. des away and a pavement remains that protects the underlying soil.

The wadis enter the Tihama usually through a narrow passage, cut into bedrock. In these so-called gorges some permanent base flow usually exists. The floods transport enormous amounts of sediments and water and then disappear rapidly. Many of the silts are deposited in the areas that are now in use for wadi irrigation. Somewhat finer material is deposited in the wadi terminal areas, where well irrigated agriculture flourishes these days.

At the downstream end of the wadi terminal areas, close to the sea, ground water may be found at very shallow depths. These are the areas with the date and doum palm groves.

Name Physiography Water Vegetation Soil

M Mangroves tidal swamp inundated mangrove clayey by tides trees sands

B Coastal zone beaches. sprayed. no trees. sands sebkhas. brackish saltbush, and sandy coastal dunes or frssh grassland clays groundwater

S Sandy plains flat plains. deep shrub and fine and dunes undulating groundwater grassland sands non-cultivable longitu- < 250 mm. dinal dunes rain

C Dunes and undulating deep discontinuous fine sandy plains longitudinal groundwater shrub- and sands cultivable dunes and •-• 250 mm. grassland flat plains rain

T Terminus of very flat shallow palm groves loamy wadis plains with fresh and vegetated sands hummocks groundwater hummocks

F Floodplains flat plains irrigated wadi bound silts of wadis by surface shrub or yroundwate thickets

P Pediment sloping rain and discontinuous gravelly partially areas with run-off open silts and cultivable and without > 300 mm. woodland loams terraces

N Non- sloping rain and open gravelly cultivable areas run-off woodland silts and pediment without < 300 mm. loams terraces

0 Rock outcropping generates almost bare, no soil outcrop rock run-off some succulents 15

3.2 Surface water systems Seven major streams and a number of minor ones descend from the mountain belt and enter the Tihama. They bring all excess water from the adjoining, relatively E P E P ET P E P E P ET P wet, mountain catchment areas to the Tihama, on average an estima- u nu ted 500 to 1000 millions of cubic metres per year.

The regime of these streams is extremely flashy. Instantaneous hy- drographs show a much higher range of flows than the average daily figures reveal: within 24 P Precipation E Evaporation hours the discharge in the major ET Eval uutranspiration wadis may increase from less than 1 m3/second to as much as 500 Principal water flows in the Tihama. or 1000 m3/second.

The floods (peak flows) may be a (ma/a) AVERAGE DAILY FLOWS WADI SUROUD FAJ AL HUSSEIN 1HB4 very destructive and carry much sediment. Permanent or almost permanent flow (base flow) occurs only in some stretches of the wadi channel. They are most reliable in the zone immediately upstream of the Tihama, where they constitute a significant portion of the total annual discharge.

The mountain streams degenerate quickly on arrival in the relatively flat Tihama zone: the stream beds widen and divert, and lose the water they convey through infiltration, y diversion and evaporation. Little local run-off originates in the Tiha- itEfiBil ma, especially in the eastern part, JUL UK SEP OCI NOV DEC because the lands are flat and permeable and rainfall is limited. Con- Average daily flows in Wadi Surdud in 1984 as an example of the regime of streams entering sequently, local drainage networks the Tihama. are poorly developed and hardly any surface run-off reaches the base of the reservoir. In the east ments inside these zones are in Red Sea. these layers are impermeable con- general more permeable than those solidated rocks, whereas to the outside), the spatial distribution of west the Tertiary sediments are of the major sources of ground water 3.3 Occurrence and charac- low to moderate permeability and recharge (wadis) and the regional teristics of ground water contain immobile saline water. drainage basin (Red Sea), within Aquifer systems which the major part of the ground Fresh ground water resources in The Quaternary aquifer system is water flow in the Tihama is con- the Tihama are found almost exclu- not homogeneous: close examina- centrated. sively within the Quaternary sedi- tion reveals that it is composed of mentary layers. a number of semiindependent "ground water flow domains". Ground water recharge, storage Basically, the Quaternary sediments These domains are typically fan- and discharge in the Tihama constitute one large shaped and reflect preferential The natural pattern of ground regional ground water reservoir, zones for ground water flow. This water recharge and discharge in up to 300 meters in depth. The can be explained by the observed the Tihama is conceptually very underlying Tertiary layers form the sedimentation patterns (the sedi- simple. Ground water recharge 16

takes place mainly along the This enormous quantity means that eastern edge of the Tihama, natu- a systematic exhaustion of the ral discharge exclusively at or near reservoir only becomes noticeable the Red Sea coast; hence, ground at a stage when the reservoir is water flows from east to west. already seriously depleted. The Ground water recharge is produced average annual ground water dis- dominantly by the wadis entering charge is currently exceeding the the Tihama and to a lesser extent average recharge; consequently, by direct infiltration of local rainfall, storage depiction of fresh ground by return flows from irrigation and water occurs. by underflow from the consolidated rock units bordering to the east. Ground water quality Fresh to slightly brackish water Ground water discharge takes prevails in the shallow parts of the place by submarine outflow into Quaternary aquifer. In general, the Red Sea, by evaporation along there is a tendency of increasing the shore (in the sebkhas) and by ground water mineralization occur- ground water abstraction. Under ring in a down-flow direction; fur- natural conditions there is as much thermore, mineralization is more recharge as discharge. This balan- pronounced in the "stagnant" : ce has been disturbed during the zones outside the active flow last twenty years, by a significant domains. increase in ground water extraction for irrigation. The latter mechanism Brackish and saline ground water has become significant only at shallow depths is common near recently, but is at present the domi- the Red Sea coast, except where nant discharge mechanism. appreciable submarine ground The pore volume of the Quaternary water outflow occurs. This minera- aquifer constitutes an enormous lized ground water is, in some ground water reservoir. It contains zones, genetically distinct from the currently some 250 - 500 billion circulating fresh ground water (e.g. cubic metres of fresh ground water it may be of seawater origin); in storage, which exceeds the ave- elsewhere it is produced by evapo- rage annual discharge by approxi- ration in zones of near-surface mately three orders of magnitude. water tables (sebkhas).

Wadi Zabid is among the larger wadis entering the Tihama. 17 4. The human factor

In the previous chapter, details of the physical environment were pre- Acreages of arable land sented. In this chapter the human Cultivation type Dry Wet Normal Crops occupation is projected over this year(ha) year(ha) year(ha)

physical environment: how are the Wadi irrigation 30,000 40,000 38,000 sorghum, alfalfa Tihami using their natural resources? Deep groundwater 66,200 66,200 66,200 fruits, vegetables irrigation

Shallow groundwater 3,500 3,500 3,500 dates, alfalfa, irrigation sorghum 4.1 Agriculture The Tihama was under cultivation rainfed cultivation 0 300,000 194.000 millet, cowpea thousands of years before the birth run-off cultivation 5,000 8,000 7,000 sorghum, alfalfa of Christ. This cultivation started, Totals 104,700 417,700 308,700 presumably, along the wadi beds in which seeds were planted after the floods had passed. Later, wadi ultivable land water was diverted onto land adjacent to the wadis by a system of guide bunds. The bunds increase mics of input agriculture (dicsel, the local water level in a flood, and fertilizer, pesticides, etc.) are becom- this water is diverted onto the ming much more important than in farmland. This system became the past. more and more sophisticated and The following agricultural systems continues up to the present day can be distinguished: along all major wadis. - Wadi irrigated cultivation - Deep ground water irrigated Agriculture in the Tihama is practi- cultivation sed in different systems. These - Shallow ground water irrigated systems can be differentiated ac- cultivation cording to the access to water that - Rainfed cultivation : a farmer has for his crops. This - Run-off cultivation physical factor is still the single most important factor in shaping a Wadi irrigated cultivation farming system in the Tihama, but Wadi irrigated cultivation takes market conditions and the econo- place traditionally by diverting flood

Sorghum crop and irrigation canals inside the Wadi Rima irrigation system. Some years ago many two-wheel drive vehicles could not traverse the area, nowadays they can.

No agriculture: Rainfed cultivation Wadi and groundwater irrigation Groundwater irrigation Run-off cultivation 18

water and fertile sediments with it ment, pose a technically very surface varies, of course, from sea- onto the fields. This method of irri- complicated problem for the func- son to season. The main rainy sea- gation still takes place on quite a tioning of irrigation structures. In son starts in July/August and large scale. However, modern irri- the short period of development, continues to October. The shorter gation schemes have taken away much has been achieved in this rainy season starts in March/April the need for erecting diversion field, but it should be realized that and continues until June. structures in the wadis on an traditional irrigated agriculture was increasing number of farms, al- a balanced system developed over though the traditional structures thousands of years. Modernized Deep ground water irrigated are still in evidence. Many are irrigated agriculture, of course, can- cultivation constructed with the help of trac- not achieve the same efficiency The irrigation of crops with diesel tors and some by animal traction. within 20 years. pumps was introduced in the Tiha- When a large flood passes the ma some 20 years ago. During the structures are always washed A fundamental difference between seventies and eighties a tremen- away, but not before a satisfactory traditional and modernized irrigati- dous growth was witnessed. For- amount of water to start cultivation on is that much less sediment arri- merly marginal agricultural areas has been received. When the next ves on the fields in the modernized were transformed into important crop watering is required a new system, thus creating the need for cash crop producing areas, e.g. the structure is built. A sorghum crop mineral fertilizers, which are still Mahat area at the terminus of needs three floodings to produce a hardly applied nor available in the Wadi Rima. Pump irrigated farms good yield. Tihama. were also established within the wadi irrigated areas, especially In Wadi Mawr, Wadi Rima and The crops grown in wadi irrigated where water availability was insec- Wadi Zabid modern irrigation areas arc mainly cereals (sorghum ure. The development of this deep systems have been implemented, and some maize) and fodder (alfal- ground water irrigation from zero aimed at making more efficient use fa and ratoon of sorghum). In to over 9000 pumps in 1989 affec- of the water. The degree of suc- areas near the wadi gorges where ted the water balance of the Tiha- cess varies from place to place a permanent base flow exists, far- ma considerably, resulting in a and problems do occur with mers started to grow bananas lowering of ground water tables respect to the inequity of water some years ago, while other peren- near concentrations of pumps, distribution and poor on-farm irri- nial crops and legumes have also especially in the central part of the gation practices. Other problems become more prominent. The Tihama. are, on the one hand, due lo poor introduction of ground water irriga- maintenance of the systems and, tion is also evident in the formerly Perennial fruit tree cultivation (pa- on the other, to poor design crit- only wadi irrigated areas in order paya, banana, mango, and many eria. The large floods, in combina- to secure the water supply for the others) is the most rewarding crop tion on with the smal base flow and crops and especially for the cultiva- in the deep ground water irrigated the tremendous amounts of sedi- tion of fruits. The wadi irrigated areas while legumes such as okra, tomatoes, water melon, peppers, cucumber, tropical spinach , sweet Wadi Zabid, with in the foreground a traditional intake canal for flood water for irrigation. melons and sweet peppers are also produced. Other crops include sesame, cotton and jasmine (perfume).

Shallow ground water irrigated cultivation The shallow ground water irrigated cultivation is a traditional type of cultivation, centred around the production of dates near the coast. It is practised nowadays with modern means and the cultivated area has expanded. Near the coast, ground water is much more shallow than in the central part of the Tihama. It almost reaches the surface on the beaches in the wadi terminal areas. Date palm cultivation may extend in these areas continue almost onto the beach. Storms have some- 19

times destroyed large date palm stands e.g. near Al Mukha, a town famous for its dates in the seventeenth and eighteenth century. Dates were a much appreciated export product from the Tihama in those days.

Date palms are intercropped with annual crops such as sorghum, alfalfa and legumes on a minor scale. Millet is also grown in an opportunistic fashion beyond the date palm holdings, during the Kharif. Deep ground water exploration has also led lo lowering ground water tables in the upper reaches of date palm cultivation. These date palms can no longer be supported without irrigation from motor pumps as well. Date palm cultivation may continue up to the sea front at locations where fresh ground- Rainfed cultivation water discharges underground into the sea. .m Rainfed cultivation takes place rather opportunistically on the sandy plains and dunes. The herbace- ous layer is removed for cultivation but usually a tree may be left here and there. This type of cultivation is important especially in the area around Al Mansuriyah and in the sandy plains between Al Marawiah, Ad Dahi and Bajil, both in the easLern part of the Tihama, where rainfall is relatively favourable. How- ever, near almost every village, some areas may be used for rainfed cultivation if the farmers judge there is a chance to have a successful crop yield in a certain year.

In a year of good summer and autumn rains, enormous areas in the An extreme form of rainfed millet cultivation on dunes near Al Mansuriyah. Tihama may be seeded especially with millet and to a lesser extent !|!i with cowpea. In years of mediocre Run-off cultivation respective farming systems. Techni- rainfall, the cultivated area may be A special form of rainfed cultivation cally speaking, however, the contri- very small. Virtually no areas yiel- is found in the eastern part of the bution of run-off water to a ded a successful rainfed crop in central and northern Tihama, "runoff" crop is usually smaller the extremely dry year 1984. Both where bunded lands are found that than the contribution of the rains, in 1988 and 1989 the cultivated receive run-off water from either that fall directly on the field. area may have amounted to as nearby mountain slopes or from much as 300,000 hectares. The the slightly sloping area above the Mechanization long term estimate for the rainfed bund. Sorghum is the main crop The use of tractors has also increa- cultivable surface is about 190,000 on these lands and is cultivated in sed tremendously in recent years. hectares, which is more than twice lato summer and autumn. Despite the often small plot size, the surface of the sum of the more mechanization is rapidly introdu- intensively cultivated areas. The A "run-off" farmer has a much ced. However, animal traction has yield per hectare is much smaller larger chance of a successful crop not been completely abandoned by since the seeds are planted far than a "rainfed" farmer. This has most farmers. apart. implications for differences in the 20

4.2 Livestock production away as Al Bayda, along the east- ma, but the nomadic way of life of Livestock production in the Tihama ern border of the country. many bedouin is dwindling and is an essential part of the activities many families are trying to gain of virtually all rural people as it is On the one hand, livestock pro- access to land resources for culti- in other parts of the Yemen, and vides the family with milk, but it is vation and are trying to build up an the Tihama is a livestock exporting also a source of income and al- income through labour, etc. other region. The Yemen, as a whole, ways a form of investment. The than by livestock rearing. Especially imports livestock from Somalia, importance of livestock varies with along the coast in the northern Djibouti and Ethiopia in increasing the water availability and security Tihama, large herds of camels can numbers. These imports take place of income from crop production. still be found, together with rela- especially through the ports of Al The more risky agriculture is, e.g. tively prosperous bedouin families. Mukha, Dhubab and Mousa. The in case of rainfed farming, the situation for the Tihama is also dif- more important livestock is to the ferent because far more rangelands farmer, not only for income but are available for animals than else- also as a financial buffer. When 4.3 Firewood collection where. However, even in the Tiha- crop production gives a reliable and timber ma as much as 40% of the diet of income, a smaller part of a far- In the Tihama, as in the rest of livestock may consist of fodder mer's income is generated by Yemen, food is prepared largely crops and crop residues, consisting livestock. Cows are kept in the vi- with firewood. In the urban centres of alfalfa, sorghum leaves and cinity of the house and herds of increasing use is made of gas for stalks. In the varieties of sorghum sheep and goats either graze on cooking, but firewood remains cultivated in the Tihama (e.g. Kay- the stubble of the fields or on the important. The town of Zabid is ra), both grain and fodder produc- rangelands surrounding the largely built from bricks, an activity ing characteristics are important. villages. that has almost stopped comple- The quantity of produced sorghum tely due to the increasing prices of forage is enormous. This is some- Livestock raising is still a way of firewood. Currently, the Tihama is times exported to areas as far life in the western part of the Tiha- still an exporter region of firewood

Camel raising is still a way of life in the western part of the Tihama.

'I 21

in the Yemen, but, nevertheless, firewood is getting more and more scarce. Charcoal in Yemen comes almost exclusively from the Tiha- ma. Doum palms still provide an important part of the wood for huts of many Tihami in the western and central parts. In urban areas all timber is imported nowadays.

4.4 Fishery The villages and towns along the coast all harbour a population of fishermen, whose way of life has changed the least compared wilh that of other Tihami. Fishing still takes place from small boats and rafts on the Red Sea. Part of the produce is consumed and the remainder is sold. The catch is lan- One method of conservation for fish: Ice is transported to the fishing boats. The ambient ded at night and is transported by temperature is 35 degrees Celsius. motorbike to all parts of the Tiha- ma. Fish from the Red Sea is sold in Sana' and other upland towns, especially the catches of fishermen from Al Hudaydah, who have access to means of transport. In smokin fish, large quantities of fire- Another method of conservation for fish: in smoking fish copius quantities of firewood wood are used. are used

Sebkha areas along the coast are sometimes used for salt production. A system of canals loads sea water into ponds where it is allow- ed to evaporate

Since the cultivation of cash crops has become more important to most farmers, the use of agro-chemicals is increasing, despite their scarce supply on the markets. Their use is an important factor in agricultural extension. 22

Absolute and relative number and areas of farm holdings Absolute and relative number and areas of farm holdings under one type of land tenure in Al Hudaydar Governorate under two or more types of land tenure in Al Hudaydah alone. Governorate alone.

Holdings Owned Sharecrop Rented Holdings Owned land Owned land No owned waqf individuals Total 50% or more less than 50% land Total of total area of total area In holding

number 46415 4010 403 0 50828 number 3892 3262 549 7703 % of total 79.4 6.9 0.7 0 86.4 % of total 6.6 5.6 0.9 13.1

area (ha) 271341 10419 446 0 283206 area (ha) 26233 228211 1347 50401 % of total 81.4 3.1 0.7 0 84.9 % of total 2.9 6.8 0.4 15.1

average holding 5.85 2.6 3.59 5.57 size

Wells to irrigate from groundwater are drilled on the initiative of individual farmers. Tihama goats and sheep. 23 5. Land and water use ecology

Nature provides the natural resources that allow mankind to grow food, raise livestock, collect fuelwood, catch fish, etc. Man uses the resources and tries lo maxi- mize their output. In this sense, every farmer and fisherman is managing natural resources.

Everyone has his own way of survi- ving and obtaining economic results, by implementing different land use activities. Yet at a macro level a limited number of sets of activities or farming systems can be distinguished in the Tihama. Land tenure and rights and access to water resources are factors of great importance in this respect. In this chapter the situation with respect to the driving forces be- The poultry industry underwent a tremenaous growth ut the beginning of the eighties. hind the use of the resources and Now the industry is well over the peak. their management is assessed.

holder to operate the land. The of the total produce. All costs of 5.1 Land tenure holder can be the owner, tenant or water, seeds, ploughing, etc. are The way in which land and water share cropper. born by the landowner. Zakat resources are managed by the (tax) and harvesting costs are people who use the resources is to The Tihama contains more than deducted before the shares are a large extent determined by whe- 70,000 farm holdings of which 80 split. ther people have had the rights to % are privately owned. Some 7 % - The landlord receives 25 %, the use these resources for many of the holdings are fully share pump and well owner 50 % and generations, or, whether for one cropped and less than 1 % is ren- the tenant 25 %. Water costs are cropping season only. From an ted waqf land. Another 6 % of the born by the pump and well environmental point of view, a holdings is owned for more Lhan owner and other costs arc deduc- system of resource management in 50% and the remainder 6 % is ted before distributing shares. which people are motivated to im- owned for less than 50%. How- Share cropping arrangements often prove the quality of the resources ever, ownership does not exclude occur on irrigated land and rarely that are at their disposal is most share cropping arrangements with on rainfed lands. Under these appropriate. labourers, who are, for example, arrangements, share croppers lack newcomers to Tihama. the means and the incentive to In Islamic law, land can be owned undertake improvements to in- or used ('Amir) or not (Mawat). The share cropping system in the crease the productivity of the land. Likewise, two categories of water Tihama is quite unique. Various are distinguished, i.e. owned and arrangements arc made under dif- The statements above apply espe- not owned. However, most jurists ferent conditions, particularly with cially to agricultural land. Range- consider water as an object which respect to the source of irrigation lands and tree resources may also cannot be owned (Mubah). It is water. Under spaLe irrigation or be communally owned. Whether mubah because the Prophet said rainfed conditions the owner's and this form of land tenure is still "Mankind arc co-owners in three the tenant's share is 50 % each. functioning and protecting the things, namely water, fire and Costs are incurred by the tenant. resources depends on the degree pasture". On ground water irrigated farms, of organization and strength of the variable arrangements are made community using these "Mawat" Forms of land tenureship include depending on whether or not the lands. Specific forms of rights on privately owned land (melek), state landlord owns the well. The ar- fallow grazing, collection of dead owned (miri), endowment (waqf), rangements are as follows: wood and cutting of life wood exist and leased (sharak) land. Land ten- - The owner of the land and well in a groat variety on the commu- ure includes ihe legal right of the gets 75 % and the tenant 25 % nally owned lands. Resources 24

which have no claims from private control over its exploitation neither The increase in the use of agro- persons, communities or the state, from the national government nor chemicals, tractors, pumps and the arc very rare in the Tihama. For from local authorities. growth of internal markets all illus- this reason the movements of Although the government has trate the sudden shift in agricul- bedouin livestock are confined to undertaken a number of water ture which until about twenty years the western Tihama, especially to resources development projects ago was almost fully oriented the relatively sparsely populated which are gradually changing the towards subsistence, to the present areas in the extreme north and traditional water use pattern, no day situation in which agriculture is south. legal enactment has yet been pro- almost fully monetarized. Most far- mulgated. mers finance the cultivation of crops for home consumption by 5.2 Water rights the sale of cash crops. They are The system of water rights in the 5.3 Incentives in agricultural quite willing to continue in this Tihama and in other regions of the production way, given the very high value they Yemen is based upon a mixture of attach to home-grown food: Groundwater Islamic legal principles and local Most of the agricultural land is customary practices. The term "Produce from Yemen" as a syno- privately owned and cropped. How- right (huq) denotes a multitude of nym for quality ever, for the Tihama farmer, access obligations arising from contracts A largo part of the agricultural pro- to land is only one of the factors in between parties and from moral duction is used for home con- cultivation. Access to water is ano- and ethical standards. Within the sumption. Yemeni in general attach ther and most crucial factor. Accor- guidelines of Islamic law (Shari'a) a very high value to home-grown ding to the rule "upstream first", priorities in the allocation of water food. This applies to cereals, but farmers a long distance away from are for domestic, agricultural and also to milk, chicken, sheep, etc. In the source of the water, whether industrial uses. the same spirit, they are also very this comes from surface run-off or reluctant to use agro-chemicals The distribution of surface water the wadi, are very uncertain of (pesticides, fertilizers, etc.) on generally follows rules which pro- their yield or of any yield at all, crops that are grown for consump- vide for upstream areas to take until the end of the rainy season. tion at home. Urban people would water first, and for plots of land Despite the fact that investments also be very reluctant to buy nearest to the water course to take to make ground water more acces- foodstuffs that have been treated water first. Local practices inter- sible may not be directly profitable, with chemicals, if they knew. How- vene once the water has been dis- these investments offer a way out ever, the use of agrochernicals is tributed. The first user can take as of the traditional water rights situa- increasing despite their low availa- much as he wants regardless of tion and provide much greater bility. The high price that is paid the amount available to down- certainties of crop successes to for "produce from Yemen" provi- stream users. There are exceptions farmers than before. The access to des a firm basis for agricultural to the rule, such as the local ground water increases the value development in the country. customary laws in Wadi Zabid. of a holding very much. Individual Such practices conform to the Is farmers are very keen on possibili- Incentive for fruit production lamic law in theory, but in practice it ties tor exploitation of ground In 1984 the import of fruits was does not guarantee equity within water. prohibited by law. This import limi- the secondary distribution system. Transition from subsistence agricul- tation has greatly enhanced the According to custom and Islamic ture to market product/on development of fruit tree cultiva- law, every landowner is entitled to The cultivation of crops for urban tion. The price paid for the locally dig a well on his own land or communities is not new in the Tiha- produced fruits is still very high "mawat" land intended for deve- ma. Cities have existed for ages and provides a good incentive for farmers to indulge in the cultivation lopment. Thus, legally, extraction and there has been a demand for of fruits. of ground water is at the owner's fruits and vegetables in towns discretion. However, continued use since time immemorial, since they of the newly dug well is prohibited are an essential part of the Yemeni 5.4 Incentives in livestock if it proves to be detrimental to an diet, whether rural or urban. How- already established well. In other ever, with the improved accessi- production words, the owner of the land or bility of the Tihama and the expan- The livestock that is kept around the well has primary right to use sion of the urban population, the the house, chickens, sheep, goats, and can own the water he with- demand for cash crops and the donkeys and cows are kept for the draws, but the ground water incentive for their production has well-being of the family. They pro- system remains common owner- increased tremendously. Many vide them with cash, milk and ship. more farmers than before are meat. In commercial terms the Ground water development is car- involved in the production of activity of livestock production in ried out privately, and there is no cash crops the Yemen more often than not 25

contributes to the farmer's income. Firewood is a much wanted com- many droughts, while migration to In the Tihama, livestock is tradition- modity. This commercial aspect find work has had a strong impact ally an important commodity as usually has a rather devastating on the social organization. Live- well as being a savings account, impact on the remainder of the stock production is essential to the but the production systems are in trees. Given the marginal sub- villagers for survival. In this situa- fact subsistence oriented. sistence of those who collect fire- tion, overgrazing of the rangelands wood for money, there is no in the vicinity of the village docs The growth in poultry factories, long-term incentive to protect the occur on a large scale. that was so enormous in the High- firewood resources from degrada- lands, especially in the period '80 - tion. A non-deniable advantage of '87, is well over its peak and nomadic grazing remains that investment in these plants is not For example, for rainfed farmers because of the mobility of herds so profitable any more. The activity who have access to only meagre (and people) over-use of good must be seen as an investment in agricultural resources, the diet of rangelands can to some extent be agriculture by people who generate their livestock comes to a very avoided. Nomadic bedouin also their income largely from trade. large extent from the communally have incentives not to overgraze, owned rangelands, which they use given the fact that they cannot sur- Yemeni, especially in the towns, in competition with other villagers. vive without good rangelands in are consuming more meat than In recent years, there have been future. before. Livestock imports increase rapidly, while as yet there is no clear private or government initiative to enhance the national meat A form of desertification: small scale formation of dunes production. It seems that, as yet, there is not enough incentive or knowledge for individuals to initiate beef production, most likely due to the low price of imported meat.

5.5 Incentives in the management of wood and range resources The firewood that is consumed by families in the rural areas is largely collected on the Tihama rangelands and to a limited extent from privately owned trees. It depends on the strength and degree of the organization of the local community whether incentives exist for the proper management of wood resources, but an incentive for proper management certainly arises if it can be seen that the community will profit in the future from a proper management of wood resources. The same applies to the management of range resources. However, the communal ownership of tree and range resources exists in the first place to protect these resources against use by outsiders. Communal ownership does not necessarily imply proper management, since there may be insuffi- cient knowledge to carry it out.

Firewood collection is undertaken by the villagers themselves or by labourers hired by a merchant. 26

Incentives and impact sheep. There is, however, a rather secure animal feed, trade in agricultural produce income from the farm, compared to rainfed over the country, poultry factories, livestock farmers. imports and firewood trade. Opportunistic. in recource management Deep ground water farm owners These farmers are permanently active on Privately owned agricultural land is relatively the farm (have relatively few off-farm activi- well managed. Farmers succeed in adding Incentives and impact for resource manage- ties), fruit tree crops take on increasina value to the farms. I he management of ment are different for different groups of re- importance, while livestock holdings are communally owned resources depends on source users. Groups of resource users can maintained as an investment. Sales of the strength and organi7ation of local com- be distinguished on the basis of their activi- livestock cover the running costs of pumps, munities. The changing socio-economic cli- ties and their incentives. The farmers can etc. mate leads to more marginal incentives tor essentially be grouped according to their proper management and consequently to a use of water and their control over water Deep ground water share croppers decline of the state of the communally and land: These farmers are also permanently active owned resources. on the farm (have relatively few off-farm acti- Upstream farmers vities), cultivating especially sorghum (grain How negative this impact is depends on These farmers are usually relatively well-off and fodder), with small livestock holdings. how the technological skills are used and farm owners. They have good access to Land owners are reluctant to permit fruit the resistant nature is to them. But since surface water, usally smal livestock hold- tree cultivation. technological skills are increasing rapidly the ings (unless it is a good investment) and impact will only become more negative, relatively low off-farm income. Shallow ground water farmers unless the incentives for the resource mana- Relatively well off farmers, gaining their gers change or the government does exerts Downstream farm owners income from dates, very small livestock its protective role more effectively. This is a small wealthy group with vast land holdings holdings, well and pump ownerships and a Even when people have the incentives to lot of off-farm activities in trade, etc. Camel raising bedouin adequately manage the natural resources at A group of both poor and relatively well off their disposal, they may cause damage to Downstream farm share croppers people, roaming the western Tihama in the resources due to the marginality of their Sayf farmers, not so well-off, with relatively search of pasture and water. Cultivation is subsistence: they are cannibalizing their small numbers of goats and sheep, and an still hardly practised, but labour is a source means of production because there is noth- increasing dependency on well irrigation. of income. ing else. This is especially the case in Off-farm income is becoming more im- rainfed farming. portant. Fishermen Fishermen living from the Red Sea fishery, As yet, there are no incentives in the fiha- Rainfed farmers gaining income from fish sales and to some ma to use ground water resources carefully. Subsistence farmers with relatively many extent from trade with other coasts. On the contrary, everybody is motivated to off-farm activities and sheep and goats as a obtain as a large a share of it, as possible. financial buffer. The land holdings are not Urban population Very few people realise that groundwater so valuable as elsewhere. Buyers of agricultural produce and fuelwood may be a terminable resource. Judging by with money earned in non-rural activities. the numerous areas which have not yet rea- Run-off farmers ched danger level situations, it is clear that Farmers with small land holdings, who rare- Merchant farmers many communities are still capable of pro- ly have access to ground- Usually stemming from land owners, but es- tecting their communal firewood and range water and who own relatively few cattle and sentially involved in agri business such as resources.

Incentives and impact on different resources

Groups of resource Natural Resources users Range Ground Agric. Wood Wildlife land water land Resources Resources

INC/IMP INC/IMP INC/IMP INC/IMP INC/IMP

Upstream farmers 0/0 0/0 + /+ + •10 -/- Downstream farm owners 0/- -/-- + / + -/- -/- Downstream

sharecroppers -/-- 0/- 0/0 -/-- -/•

Rainfed farmers -/-- 0/0 0/- -/-- •/• Deep groundwater

farm ownorg -/- -/-- + /+ + -/- •/• Deep groundwater

-/- -/- sharecroppers •/- -/- 0/0 Shallow groundwater farmers 0/0 -/-- + /+ + -10 -I- Camel raising bedouin 0/0 0/0 0/0 -1- -1- Fishermen 0/0 0/0 + / + -/-- -/- Urban population 0/0 -/- 0/ + -/-- -/- = very negative — negative Merchant farmers -/- -/- -/- -10 -1- 0 = neutral + = positive ±± very positive 27 6. Present state of natural resources

6.1 Changing landscapes The first aspect is related to the The landscapes of the Tiharna are biological diversity of the Tihama, different from those of the past the second to its production poten- and those of the future. The rea- tial. The second aspect currently sons behind these changes may be deserves much more attention in sought in climatic change and in the perspective of rural develop change due to human occupation. ment than the first, and given the The climatic data that are available isolation of the area during the last for the Tihama do not allow for an century, this is may be rightly so. analysis of climatic change, since the meteorological records are too The changes man caused in the scarce for this purpose. However, Tihama had an impact on its biolo- from analyses in nearby regions of gical diversity. On the one hand, Africa and the Middle East it the Tihama became richer in spe- seems to early to take climatic cies and habitats than before, since change into account as an impor- man has introduced new land- State of agricultural resources tant factor for changes in the envi- scapes in destroying the old natu- ronment in this time period. On the ral vegetation cover (date and other hand, should future climatic doum palm stands, and other cul- changes cause a rise in sea level, tivated lands with the birds, insects this would have a tremendous im- and plants that go with them). The pact on an area, such as the Tiha- pace of change over at least two ma, where human activity near the thousand years has been slow shoreline is very important and enough to justify this conclusion. where salt water intrusion in the On the other hand the rapid chan- ground water is already locally im- ge that is currently taking place is portant. of course, just as devastating to all the wildlife and flora that the Tiha- In travel descriptions of the thir- ma supported as it is in other parts teenth and seventoonthcentury the of the world. Tihama is described as a densely forested area. However, the defini- Sustainable use of resources is a tion of forest by Arab travellers use which can continue for gene- may be interpreted somewhat dif- rations, without causing damage to ferently than the term forest in its the production potential harboured —< modern sense. It is recognized by soil and water resources. For however, that the expansion of cul- example, a farmer may transform tivated lands over the centuries has the formerly forested floodplain of occurred largely on those places, a wadi into agricultural land. He where forest used to grow, namely takes away all the wood on the along the wadi, on the wadi flood- land for this purpose, and he pre- plains and terminal areas, dune val- pares his field. As the years go by, leys and on the foothills. his farm increases in quality, because of the care he takes in Nowadays many bare areas are managing his land. Despite the found near the villages and in fact that the forest is removed, the areas surrounded by larger towns. new use to which the farmer puts Centuries ago, these bare lands the land is sustainable in itself. were presumably much less exten- Environmental problems are prob- sive, when both rainfed cultivation lems caused by careless use of and grazing by livestock were resources by man. If the trees cut •:•?.•& much less intensive. down by the farmer are the last trees in his environment, he has 6.2 Sustainability not been careful in his resource i;: Good use in this respect. In the discussion of the impact of .; Degrading these changes there are two No agriculture aspects that should be looked into. ';U Alarming 28

In Wadi Rima irrigation has taken structures that function well (better Problems in wadi place similarly to the traditional wadi than the traditional ones!?) in the irrigation practiced elsewhere in the capricious wadis. The huge sediment Tihama for millenia: loads are another technical problem irrigation, use is made of the occasional heavy for the structures and cause canal floods of very short duration. The siltation. On the other hand the less with the example floods are diverted to the fields and sediment is let into the canals the one or, exceptionally, two waterings less natural fertility is transported to are sufficient to sustain a deep the fields and the more mineral ferti- of Wadi Rima rooting crop. Agricultural yields are in lizers are required. This trend in con- general low and vary from year to junction with others reduces the year, depending on the size and fre- farmers capability for forage produc- quency of the floods. Devastating tion since cash crops have to finance floods damage and frequently fertilizers, etc. A reduction of the live- destroy irrigation structures and agri- stock production capability inside cultural lands. Yearly repair and the irrigation systems will increase maintenance are essential elements the pressure on the grazing lands of the system. outside and thus further stimulate environmental degradation. Traditionally, once the most upstream field has been irrigated and not ear- With the help of a computer an opti- lier than that, water is diverted to the mum gate operation schedule was fields of the farmer downstream. formulated for the whole area, based Thus, lands situated near the water- on seven years of hydrologic data intake can be triple cropped. By con- collection and on the lessons learned trast, on the more extensive lands from the much older irrigation further downstream even a single system in Wadi Zabid (1975-1979). watering may be an uncertain However, the schedule had to be prospect. Water distribution is mana- adjusted in view of an emerging dis- ged by the canal master, one for pute with regard to water rights, each canal. He arranges the priority which at one time had become quite of the water rights to the various violent: In the new situation farmers fields and farmers according to the with a very reliable access to flood historically developed water rights. water, received much less water, while farmers downstream received As in Wadi Zabid and Wadi Mawr a more; the computer did not take the modernized irrigation system has historic water rights into account. now been constructed. The design of this Wadi Rima irrigation system is Research results indicate that based on a radically different con- higher agricultural yields can be ob- Diversion structures in Wadi Rima cept from the system in Wadi Zabid tained if the irrigation water is used and somewhat different from that in more efficiently. There is scope for Wadi Mawr. Here the traditional flood improvement in this respect. More- irrigation system, aiming to divert over it is most urgent, given the fact flood waters at maximum flow rates that more intensive use of surface at many locations, is replaced by a flow is being made. This wadi flow is system relying on the diversion of at the same time the most important low flow rates at one location. The source for groundwater recharge, system was completed in 1983 and already a resource that is threatened has been intensively monitored since. by overuse. It consists of a diversion weir, a main supply canal, a division structure, an The modernization of wadi irriga- inverted syphon (transporting divert- tion in the liharna is a good example ed water under the wadi bed to the of the environmental problems that other bank) and two canal systems are arising now as a result of econo- on the left and right banks. mic development. The lesson from the past is that it is more economic The different concepts of the main to prevent the damage from being irrigation structures in Wadi Rima, caused than to cure the problems Wadi Mawr and Wadi Zabid illustrate afterwards. the technical difficulty of designs of 29

6.3 Use and misuse of resources Farming pumped wells + The sustainability of the use of + + agricultural land depends on the 6000 farming practices, these are dif- TIHAMA ferent for the different farming + systems, in which the dominant 4000- issue is again the farmer's access to water.

Wadi irrigated agriculture zooa The mere tact that wadi irrigation has existed for at least two thou-

sand years in itself implies that the 0 i i i i i i i i i i i i t i i system is sustainable enough. The 1975 1980 1985 wadi water brings the nutrients onto the field in the form of fertile sediments. Low inputs are required Total abstraction from wells other than labour. Modernized irrigation, though providing water only supplies a fraction of the sediments, and the use of mineral fertilizers is becoming urgent, since the natural soil fertility becomes ex- hausted rapidly.

A remarkable aspect of both traditional and modernized wadi irrigated farming is the integration of livestock in the farming system. are usually much more overgrazed Stubble, specially grown ratoon of than in the case of the wadi irriga- sorghum and alfalfa provides ani- ted agriculture. Another problem mal feed. exists with respect to ground The boundary between high poten- water. On a regional scale, the tial irrigated cropland and adjacent total abstraction exceeds by far the low potential rangelands is much annual ground water recharge. less sharp than it is elsewhere in The immediate consequences are the Tiharna or in many other that ground water level declines, countries. on average by 0.5 meters per year, and there is a migration of saline Deep ground water agriculture (sea) ground water into the fresh The rangelands surrounding the water aquifer. The last feature is deep ground water irrigated farms quite irreversible.

Animal traction is yet another aspect of low-input agriculture

Total abstraction (Mm3/yr| • 0

The productivity of any irrigated when both of the following factors The effect of high land in ther Tihama is much higher apply to an area: than that of the adjacent rangeland - the degradation of rangeland or rainfcd cropland in terms of, for occurs more rapidly when the pro- potential zones example, tonnes of dry-matter productivity of the rangeland is lower. duction per hectare per year. The The lowest rangeland productivity in otherwise low fact that farmers inside the irrigated occurs on the driest parts of the areas have many animals is the ba- Tihama where no water is avail- sis for an environmental problem. able to the pastures other than potential land The animals graze and browse for the periodic rain. most of the time near the irrigated - the farming system is focused on area, though outside the fields as the production of cash crops. long as there are crops. They graze This is especially the case in deep and browse on the nearby lands groundwater irrigated farms, where more than elsewhere, if only on the costs of water cannot be off- their way to or from pastures fur- set by cultivating crops such as Direct impact zones ther away. The impact of this high animal fodder. Usually the owner grazing intensity in the low potential of the deep groundwater irrigated zone surrounding the high potential farm does not rely very much on area is usually one of degradation animals for his income, but his of the rangelands in a circle around share croppers, labourers and ten- the irrigated areas. These circles ants certainly do. may have radiuses of up to 20 or more km's in some semi-arid envi- In conclusion, it may be said that ronments. severely degraded areas, including the region near Zabid where refor- In the Tihama as in the rest of estation efforts are concentrated, Yemen, animal production is a com- are situated in the central and pletely integrated part of traditional western Tihama zone around areas farming systems. This is quite dif- of deep groundwater irrigation. This ferent from almost any other known degradation has been caused by an location. The mere fact that the inadequate integration of livestock animals are kept inside the farm at and crop production on the farms. night and at least partly fed on It is acknowledged that many of the farm-produced fodder has been farms where deep groundwater irri- effective in preventing degradation gation has been applied have been of the rangelands beyond a certain established recently and that a stage. more balanced farming system may develop over time. This aspect However, in some locations, the deserves attention in the Tihama situation is different. This is the case experimental farms. especially when one or certainly

Dune formation along the fringes of a deep groundwater irrigated area in the western part of the Tihama.

' ' Low potential land Medium potential land ':: High potential land I Direct impact zones 31

Shallow ground water agriculture This much older type of cultivation, used especially for dates, has a negative impact on water resources nowadays. The production of dates on a larger scale combined with a lowering of the ground water tables due to the introduction of motorpumps has caused some wells in the areas used for date palm cultivation to become increasingly saline. Combined with this is the fact that a prudent use of ground water is needed, in any case, to sustain the production of dates.

Bain fed farming Rainfed cultivation has always been described as being very variable in cultivated area. As a consequence In the date palm groves too, increasing use is made of motor pumps. of the sequence of dry years in the period from 1973 to 1987 and the population growth, much of the natural vegetation surrounding the the long run. The process of deser- collection can be reduced. In the villages of the rainfed farmers has tification is quite reversible. rainfed areas separation of lands been destroyed. This has given rise for cultivation and grazing would to dune formation in areas whore Groundwater be of great help in alleviating the the sand was formerly stable. The It is estimated that roughly 20 % desertification problem. natural vegetation has not had of the Tihama farmers had access much chance to regenerate in this to ground water in 1988, either by Most of the surface of the Tihama is cover- period due to the heavy gracing ownership of a well and pump or ed by this open treeless range/and, which that takes place in the dry years by hiring one of the two or by buy- is still in good condition. when the land cannot be cultiva- ing water. Already, this 20 % puts ted. Of course, the high longitudi- a tremendous demand on ground nal dunes are not formed in this water and has given rise to low- manner, but even in in these areas, ering ground water tables and will dust storms are much more com- presumably cause a great loss in mon than they used to be. The de- capital in the form of wells which pendency on livestock, the limited have become or will become dry. access to land with a more secure Groundwater is the most important water availability has resulted in a and endangered resource for future degraded and desert-like environ- development in the Tihama. ment of the villages inside the Bajil, Al Marawi'ah and Ad Dahi Grazing triangle as well as in the villages The rangelands of the Tihama are on the tops of the longitudinal intensively used by grazing and dunes near Al Mansuriyah. browsing livestock. The scope for : an increase in livestock production § -||||tSl^ The wind erosion is locally very based on improved range product- strong in these areas. On the other ion is rather small in this respect. hand, the current desert would dis- A possible increase in livestock appear within a couple of years, if production is more likely to be no man or animal touched the achieved by increasing fodder crop land. Of course, this is a rather un- production for livestock teed. Near realistic situation considering that villages, in the rainfed agricultural people have to live at least partly areas and along the fringes of the from what this land may provide. well irrigated areas degradation of Nevertheless, some reduction in the rangelands takes place. The the intensity of use would be bene- degradation is reversible if the ficial to the village population in intensity of grazing and firewood 32

Some reports claim that desertifi- In some locations the sands and silts Desertification in cation is one of the greatest dangers have started moving and the newly to development in the Yemen and in formed dunes threaten good farm particular to the Tihama. land or villages. This is the case the Tihama According to this Profile, desertifi- along the fringes of the woll irrigated cation is not a general feature in the areas e.g. near Zabid and on the Tihama but it occurs on a certain dunes near Al Mansuriyah The latter scale: location is the largest single desertified area in the Tihama, while other So far, the term degradation has significant areas occur within the tri- been used to describe a reduction of angle formed by the towns of Bajil, Al Marawi'ah and Ad Dahi. Desertification and carrying capacity. the production capability of the envi- Desertification is a form of degradation in ronment. Desertilication is a form of which an ecosystem takes on the appearance degradation in which an ecosystem If the soil has not blown away com- of a desert. Desertification may occur without takes on the appearance of a desert. pletely as is the case in the Tihama a change in climate. If the soil has not been Desertification may occur without a eroded away by wind and water and there has and there has not been a climatic not been any climatic change, the vegetation change in climate. In the Tihama cer- change, the vegetation can regene- can regenerate, provided the regrowing trees tain areas have become desert-like: rate, provided the grasses and trees and grasses are not immediately cut by man - circular areas in the immediate are not immediately cut by man or or grazed by animals. The fact that this last vicinity of towns and villages, e.g condition is practically never fulfilled is the grazed by livestock. true reason that desertified zones continue to where livestock concentrates to exist in areas where it is not necessary. drink, In the case of the Tihama this means - zones around irrigated areas, where that desertification can be stopped The production capability of the environment fuclwood is colluded and goat and quickly by stopping grazing and is determined by its use. When grazing land is overgrazed, the number of animals it can sup- sheep feed on the rangeland nearest browsing by livestock and collecting port decreases. There is a certain number of to the farm, fuelwood on the desertified lands. animals per hectare which gives a sustainable - zones of rainfed cultivation where maximum return in milk or meat. The determi- the natural vegetation is removed, From a management point of view, nation of this carrying capacity is crucial in determining the sustainability of forms of land in order to cultivate millet and the situation in the Tihama is rather use. cowpea. favourable duo to the fact that many of those who created the desertification are the same people who are now experiencing the trouble it causes. Obviously, these people must be very well motivated to stop the pro- • plant and animal species cess of desertification in their envi- extinct th e environmen t ronment. With help from specialists • erosion in sustainable land use management, . diseases for man, good alternatives may be formulated animal,etc.

abilit y o f and eventually trees or grasses may be planted, when the local community agrees with the formulated plan. iv e ca p u / sustainable use not sustainable use •1 \ a. ntensity of use ol Ihe environment

A desertified rainfed cultivation area where attempts to culti- Reafforestation efforts near Zabid. vate continue, although only a minimal yield will be obtained. 33

Wood resources Tihama, north of Az Zuhrah and in Tihama does not lead to overuse'of The enormous stand of firewood the Abs, Harad and Midi districts. the fish resources in the Red Sea, •!'. and timber that the Tihama repre- but this may not be true of the sented in the seventeenth century The Tihama used to have impor- floating fishing factories that some- has largely disappeared, and those tant mangrove stands at many times come ashore in Al Huday- trees that remain are now disap- locations from north to south. The dah. However, this subject is pearing at increasingly rapid rates straight poles the mangroves pro- beyond the scope of this Profile. from some of the rangelands. duce are in great demand for Degradation takes place wherever construction purposes. With the Wildlife , more is consumed than produced, growth of especially the port Hardly any wildlife is left in the which is occurring more and more towns, much of the mangrove Yemen as a whole. Gazelle popula- frequently. Source areas for relati- stands were cut. For instance, the tions are still reported in the North- vely large scale firewood collection British cut down virtually all man- ern Tihama. Wildlife as a resource are still found in the southern groves on Kamaran island and for human use is not applicable Tihama between Hays and Wadi adjacent areas in the beginning of anymore for the Yemen Arab Repu- Mawza and in some relatively the twentieth century. The wood blic. The aspect of conservation is unpopulated areas in the northern was used in Aden. The only remai- treated in Chapter 7. ning mangrove areas of importance Wood resources 1989 A.D are those near and north of Al Wood resources 1800 A.D Luhayyah. Most of the mangrove areas are only ten to twenty meters wide and are intensively brow- sed by camels.

Use of nature products The great natural variety in plant and animal life in the Tihama and the bordering sea has provided man with many products. For instance, for many years, coral has been widely used in the construction of houses and mosques in the port towns, though on a relatively small scale. But in recent years, it has also been used for road construction. The largo quantities used for this purpose have had a devastating impact on the reefs which are important areas in the sea for the reproduction and growth of fish. The fishery as practised from the

Bare or cultivated land Open shrubland Grassland Dense shrubland Open woodland Dense woodland 34

Thihama ground water is a much slow. However, this movement and The use of ground water wanted resource. However, as with the mass of fresh ground water is all natural resources, it cannot be enough to prevent the intrusion of used without limitation. The ground salt water. in the Tihama water situation resembles that of the western half of the Netherlands, If this balance is seriously under- where a serious accident took place, mined by, for instance, lowering the such as may also occur in the ground water tables in the middle Tihama. and upper reaches of the Tihama it can only be detected at the coast Two facts which are a source of after many years, by which lime sig- great hidden danger for the future of nificantly smaller amounts of fresh the Tihama have to do with its water will reach the sea. The danger ground water. First, the Tihama con- when this situation is reached is that tains an enormous fresh water reser- salt water will intrude very rapidly voir, in which the annual fluctuations under the Tihama, as it did in the and the current overdraft is only Netherlands. Whereas, in the Nether- noticeable in the long term. Second lands there happens to be a lot of the Tihama ground water moves fresh surface water and a surplus of from east to west, flowing under the rain, in the Tihama, there is a short- surface, into the sea. Since it is age of rain and very little fresh ground water, the movement is very water

Diagram showing the long-term consequences of over-exploiting the Tihama Quaternary aquifer.

Fresh -Fresh r :: :::: : w 1 1 1 Tihama ™- . . .: : : : .: : •::.::::;:::::::•: ^.:::;/|$i#i§ ;;.::;:•::•:::•;: :::::.:..•:. v:.: :.::.-:;•:;:• ^^y^^y .=-.•* Fresh I iiiliiilillililiiiSiiiSSiiSi

Red sea ED"

•Dry -Fresh

•Brackish ; 1 . . ' /•r'>V;'>;'- .iV/\. ::/-v',.".

Red sea 35 7. Conservation

In this Profile attention is paid region that is widely represented in southern Tihama are under serious separately to the natural resource the Yemen flora and fauna. Gener- attack from land clearing and com- of flora and fauna. It is evident that ally speaking, it is the Sahora- mercial fuelwood cutting. much of the wildlife which lived in Araoian and Sudanian species Yemen in earlier centuries has which predominate in the Tihama. Fauna completely disappeared. In this Only a fragmented and incomplete section the most important infor- picture can be presented in this mation is brought together on the 7.2 Flora and fauna section because very little infor- natural vegetation and wild fauna Vegetation and flora mation on the subject is available. of the Tihama as far as this is Many different vegetation types Most of the information was col- relevant tor nature conservation and plant species are found in the lected during the Tihama expedi- purposes. Tihama. For conservation, the rem- tion in 1982'(Stone, 1985). This The Yemen Arab Republic is very nants of mangrove swamps arc of and the ornithological expedition in rich in plant and animal species. particular importance. Remnants of 198b of the Ornithological Society Some 2000 plant species have these swamps are found North of of the Middle East provided infor- already been identified as being Kamaran Island and especially near mation almost exclusively on birds. present in the country, but the real Al Luhayya, the white mangrove The almost complete disappear- figure may well be a few hundreds being the dominant tree. Forest ance of Lhe last remnants of larger higher. A more systematic inven- remnants in the Tihama foothills mammals in even the relatively tory of some animal groups was are important because they are the uninhabited areas of the Tihama started only recently. The number last pockets of natural vegetation indicate that the need for conser- of invertebrates (insects, etc.), but in this area. The Jebel Bura valley vation of what is left is an urgent also vertebrates is continuously forest is an outstanding example of prority for this area. Birdlife con- growing. a relic of the tropical forest, which centrates along the shoreline. The once extended in large stretches mangrove and other wetlands are This great diversity of species, below the foothills on the upper of particular importance in this certainly in relation to other parts parts of the Tihama. The intensive respect. of the Arabian Peninsula, is due on clearing of Dober (Dobera glabra) the one hand to the geographical on cultivated lands, has left only In an area near Az Zuhrah, popula- position of the country. On the solitary and scattered trees of this tions of Gazella gazella still appear oLher hand, the great variation in species. The Commifora woodlands to occur on the rangelands. climate and topography leads to a along the eastern fringe in the wide range of habitats (environments that create the living conditions for a certain animal or plant).

Pelicans in the Red Sea 7.1 Biogeographical position The Yemen Arab Republic is the meeting point for African, Mediter- ranean and Oriental species. In addition, it is at a key position on migratory bird routes. The creation of distinct land use patterns by man and new surface water conditions, has not only resulted in local land resource (including plants and animals) degradation, but also to a further diversification of habitats in places and the intro- at. duction of new (exotic) species. ^^^Pr In the Yemen, the Holarctic and Paleotropic Regions meet. For dif- •A ferent lifeforms the namegiving is different but for the Paleotropic Regions it is the Sudanian sub- 36

Steppe Eagle 37

7.3 Patterns of change The vegetation and animal life as it is currently found in the Tihama is more endangered than 20 years ago, but even before this period, animal life and natural vegetation was dwindling in the Tihama, because the area has been in intensive use for a very long time.

In modern Yemeni society people are becoming more and more aware of the necessity to conser- vate flora and fauna. This necessity is felt even more strongly in the towns than among the rural population. It most certainly belongs to the tasks of the Environmental Pro- tection Council to increase the awareness of the public in this direction.

7.4 Requirements for nature conservation It has been clearly established that the Yemen is an important geographical area for many plant and animal species. Even the most basic information on distribution patterns, numbers, life histories and conservation requirements with respect to the action of man, is still lacking for most species. There is therefore an urgent need for more detailed information on the present status of plant and animal species and their habitat requirements. This information gathering could be taken up at university level and incorporated in the governmental institutions in the country, supported wherever necessary, by overseas expert assistance. Mangroves near AL Luhayyah Conservation in the Yemen could be pursued through three lines of action: - Organism protection. This requi- - Environmental education. This through the media. A related res amongst other things the should aim at the technical train- action could be to reintroduce, establishment of laws and law ing of professional staff and with the consent of the local popu- enforcement on the hunting of administrators in governmental lation, particular species in areas animals and the gathering of offices and at increasing the plant species. It should also general awareness of the general where they have disappeared include rules for the control of public. through direct human action such trade. Long-term wildlife conservation can as hunting and trapping, rather - Habitat conservation. This should only be achieved with the people's than through habitat destruction. include area protection and moni- understanding and support. The In other Arab countries such initia- toring. It might also include species (and ecosystem) concept tives have been carried out with habitat- and wildlife management. should therefore be promoted great success. 38

Waste collection in Al Hudaydah

Back streets of Bajil

Poster from the Al Hudaydah health education and sanitation campaigns 39 8. Urban environment and environmental health

The rapid rate of development recent mortality figures of the ble progress has been made in the during the last few decades, the Ministry of Health, indicating an technical aspects of urban water introduction of modern technolo- Infant Mortality Rate (birth12 management. However, it is not gies and other blessings of affluent months) of 160 per 1000 and a the size of pipes and channels, the societies, have left a distinct mark Child Mortality Rate (13 - 60 capacity and location of water sup- on the urban and rural environment months) of 50 per 1000. These ply facilities and the construction in Yemen. Clearly, the development rates are among the highest in the of flood control structures which of adequate structures to process world. Although statistics on the guarantee a sustainable exploi- waste and effluent has seriously cause of death and incidence of tation of water resources. The lagged behind. Sanitation, inclu- disease are not very reliable, it is planning and design of urban ding the adequate disposal of generally accepted that poor water supply are frequently attuned excreta and waste, is essential for nutritional status and infectious to available budgets rather than the well-being of urban dwellers. diseases such as gastroenteritis, being based on considerations of Many human diseases are directly measles, pneumonia, intestinal optimal design and conservation related to unhygienic conditions, parasites, malaria, anaemia and and sustainability of the resource. unsanitary disposal of excreta and respiratory tract infections including Technical solutions are designed wastes and impeded drainage of whooping cough are among the within the prescribed limits of surface water. Many diseases, such principal death causes. Obviously, short-term costbenefit analyses. as diarrhoea, hepatitis, amoebic the incidence of some of these Such an approach has the advan- dysentery, helminthic disease, pro- diseases is directly related to sani- tage of simplicity but may prove, in tozoal worm infections are found. tary conditions. the long run, self-defeating. When Polluted sites also favour the Also, the rate of immunization disturbance in the sustainable use spread of animal-vectors of serious among children is still very low. of natural water systems occurs, diseases, such as rats, flies and Trends in infection rates are diffi- for instance, as a result of increa- mosquitos. cult to assess as reliable earlier sed water demands and urban statistics are lacking. expansion, the correction of the disturbance may prove many times 8.1 Health situation more expensive than the initial The general health situation is grad 8.2 Water supply construction. The level of disturb- ually improving. In urban centres, As in most parts of the world, an ance and the necessary corrections many people are exposed to infec- important factor in the location of are strongly correlated: the greater tious diseases related to poor sani- early settlements and the develop- the disturbance, the greater the tation. In the Tiharna, whore ment of early cultures was the correction required. Considering irrigated agriculture is widespread, availability of reliable, good quality the rapid rate of urban develop- the spread of water-borne and water resources, both for human ment and the state of urban plan- water-related diseases forms a uses, transport and agricultural ning in Yemen, this issue deserves serious health hazard unless pre- production. Also, sites were selec- the utmost attention of the autho- ventive and prophylactic measures ted where natural waterrelated rities concerned. are effectively enforced. Malaria disasters were rare or absent. and schistosomiasis are commonly Ironically, in many urban centres of found. Apart from institutional Yemen, water is now a limiting and 8.3 Urban Hydrology constraints, the supply of medicine threatening factor in modern deve- An essential element in the hydro- to remote areas is often irregular lopment. Aquifers are seriously logical cycle for modern urban and unreliable. over-exploited and an alarming areas is that the natural drainage The nufriLional status of young drop in groundwater tables impo- system is altered and impeded by children is, in general, suboptimal. ses major constraints to water constructions and sewerage. This A National Nutrition Survey, carried supply authorities, both in rural results in flooding and pollution, out in 1979, indicated that only 33 and urban areas. On the other problems which can be partly allevi- % of rural children between three hand, because of the impeded ated by technical solutions; storm and 60 months of age could be drainage of surface waters, parts of sewers, detention ponds, septic classified as nutritionally healthy. towns arc flooded after heavy tanks, treatment plants, garbage Anaemia was found in 56 % of storms, damaging houses and buil- collection. Water supply is initially the sampled population, rickets in dings and affecting the health of cheaply provided by local surface 11%. Although exact figures are many people, as puddles of pol- and groundwater resources. But as not available, certain vitamin defi- . luted water are favourable breeding population increases and towns ciencies may also contribute to the grounds for many disease vectors. expand, more costly solutions are poor nutritional status of children. Throughout the world, much atten- required. Both the tapping of water These findings are supported by tion has been given and apprecia- and the disposal of wastes often 40

The town of Zabid is one of the legislation should be drafted allowing Preservation of oldest population centres in the Tiha- for the preservation of structures ma, where outstanding examples of selected as National Monuments or Yemeni cultural heritage can be Historic Sites. Third, a management cultural heritage found. Witnesses of the rich history plan for the restoration, preservation of the region are the many old hou- and maintenance of these monu- ses and buildings, city walls, gates, ments and sites should be prepared. mosques and ruins. The state of pre- The status of a National Cultural servation of many of these cultural Preservation, Authority should be monuments is precarious and many enforced and institutionalised and its are damaged or on the verge of members should be involved in plan- collapse. ning urban development projects. There is no clear and unambiguous Staff should be trained for the imple- policy to preserve these cultural mentation of the programme. monuments. Moreover, enforcement Considering the urgency of the situa- of existing regulation seems weak, tion, it is likely that financial and which has resulted in the removal of technical support from abroad will be some buildings for new construe required for the implementation of tions. The preservation of remaining such of a programme. Cooperation historical monuments should be insti with the World Heritage Site tutionalised. First, an inventory programme of UNESCO could be should be made by specialists in lo- considered. cal archeology and history. Second,

Interior of the the great mosque in Zabid. Decaying architectural heritage in Zabid. 41

extends beyond the urban area. sal. No waste is directly dumped in have been invaded by plants and Four major hydrological problems the sea. shrubs. are encountered: No adequate sewerage system - adequate supply of good quality The Health Education programme exists. The situation has worsened water; is successful. Video tapes, cinema since the installation of modern - flood prevention; spots, posLers etc. are being used water supply systems, i.e. water - disposal of wastes without impair- to create people's awareness of pipes, taps and water closets. This ing the quality of local water the need to keep the urban envi- has led to a dramatic increase of resources; ronment clean and to improve water wastage, as compared to - changes in the urban micro- hygiene. Various approaches have former times when people drew climate, including impacts on been tested to educate the public their water from wells near their public health and urban flora and in aspects of environmental health. homes. fauna. Target groups (women associa- Household and other waste is still These primary effects may all have tions, school children) have been being dumped in the streets. No secondary impacts on man and his identified and information on envi- containers are available for waste environment. Moreover, some of ronmental health has been attuned collection. Sweepers clean the these impacts spread rapidly be- to local concepts. Video tapes on streets and one truck and one cause of high population density. various subjects are shown in the small van are available for waste For this reason, stringent water streets, with appreciable results. disposal. The waste is dumped in quantity and quality standards Vector-borne diseases, such as a valley a few kilometres outside should be set for urban water sup- malaria, hepatitis etc. are common. town. ply systems. For this reason special attention is given to the control of mosquitos, flies, flees and rats. 8.4 Al Hudaydah's environmental problems Active participation of the popula- Al Hudaydah currently has a popu- tion in waste collection is promo- lation of approximately 200,000. ted through crash programmes The population grows at the rate of organised by town-sector chiefs. 7 % per year. A health improve- The main aim of these program- ment and waste disposal project is mes is to encourage people to join currently being implemented. the project of cleaning up the city. About 100 to 120 tons of waste is being collected each day. The waste is dumped in trenches out- 8.5 Zabid's environmental side the town, which are covered problems with earth when full. Sometimes, Zabid is an old and quiet town waste is burned and when floods with approximately 13,000 inhabi- occur some waste is washed into tants. Solid waste pollution and the sea. flooding are serious problems in Because of the urgency of the the old parts of the town. Streets waste problem, the project so far in most parts are very narrow, could not pay much attention to making it impossible to use con- possibilities of recycling, selection tainer trucks for waste collection. of waste material, burning and After five dry years, the 1988 rains composting of waste. For this rea- were abundant and serious flood- son, all types of waste are collec- ing of the unpaved streets occur- ted and disposed of together. This red. The impeded drainage of makes it unsuitable for composting stormwater was such that tank- because heavy metals and other lorries had to be used to suck the substances toxic or harmful to water from the streets. Clearly, humans, animals and crops may these puddles of dirty water pro- be included. Moreover, farmers in vide excellent breeding grounds for the area are not yet familiar with mosquitos and other disease vec- the use of compost. tors. In the lower parts of the Chemical waste in the area comes town, a number of old buildings mainly from industrial waste water, collapsed because flooding weak- but increasingly, industrial plants ened the basements. arrange the disposal of waste The existing drainage channel themselves and some treat their around the old town wall is block- waste in the factory before dispo- ed and silted up and some parts 42 9. Concluding statements for further action

As in all intensively used areas of poor. To improve the quality of life the geographical distribution and the world, mankind causes degra- and prevent environmental degra- level of services will strengthen the dation of the resource base. There dation is a very difficult but most basis for more sustainable devel- is no doubt that the degradation of challenging task, and one that the opment the resource base in the Tihama is government should consider as also rnanrmade. It is the result of a one of its most urgent problems. Environmental health combination of human activities in Child mortality is high and the nutri- the area, particularly during the Urban development tional status of children is rather last twenty years. However, the im- The Tihama contains a number of poor. Health in the large, but espe- pact of human use on the resour- the most dynamic and thriving cially in the smaller, towns is threat- ces of the Tihama differs according towns in the country. The empha- ened by heaps of waste. Environ- to the resource, some impacts are sis of the national government and mental health education is of great reversible, others have caused per- foreign assistance is focused on Al importance for improving the qual- manent degradation or change Hudaydah. The town is a motor for ity of live in the Tihama. Also over the centuries. The situation the economy of the whole country advice to farmers in the wise use around groundwater resources may and many problems, including envi- of pesticides is a point of major even be a time bomb under the ronmental ones, have to be solved concern in this respect. agricultural development of the urgently. However, the planned Tihama. The following statements development of secondary and ter- Diversification of economy indicate the conditions necessary tiary towns in the Tihama is as There are many indications that for a more sustainable develop- important, and may provide a more the economy of the Yemen Arab ment of the Tihama. sustainable infrastructure for deve- Republic, and in particular of the lopment. Tihama,is developing rapidly. Wage remittances and the internal eco- 9.1 Sustainable development Services nomy are a driving force for agri- The "World Commission on Envi- The present health and educational cultural development: money ronment and Development (1987)" services do not yet meet the needs earned abroad or in sectors of the of the UN has defined sustainable of the population. Improvement of economy other than agriculture is development as "development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". In the case of the Tihama, it means that man, in requiring an enduringly good quality of life has to formu- late and enforce rules and regulations in order to prevent further degradation of the environment, which is not only a threat to future generations but already a threat to the present one.

9.2. Socio-economic factors Population growth and quality of life The Tihama population is growing rapidly. It is expected that there will be well over 2 million people in the Tihama by the year 2000. The increasing needs of this growing population may accelerate the degradation of those environmental resources that are already under The old town of Zabid was great pressure. Child mortality is entirely constructed with bricks. Nowadays, there is still very high and the nutritional no longer firewood availa- status of children is often rather ble to make bricks 43

used to buy agricultural products are related to these irrigation sche- There is a risk of further overgraz- from the Tihama, though farmers mes. These problems are not only ing if this integration is loosened may (or may not) invest their earn- of a technical nature, such as the by, for example, expanding the area ings in their farms in a way that design and maintenance of canals cultivated with cash crops, at the leads to greater sustainability. It is and structures, but they are also cost of fodder production while, crucial for the Tihama future that related to environmental health, at the same time, maintaining the government gives close guid- land tenancy, agricultural exten- livestock numbers. ance to agricultural development sion, fertilizers, etc. In land use planning with respect in this sense, more than is the For the future development of to livestock production, the role of case at the moment. these and other systems, it is im- nomadic livestock is still of impor- portant to learn from experience. tance. The nomadic lifestyle offers Urban development is only partly From an environmental point of the Tihama a versatile livestock triggered by economic develop- view, the systems provide a sustain- production system, though in the ment. Many people go to the able basis for agricultural develop- long term, rangeland resources of towns, hoping to build up a new ment when farmers' experience is the Tihama will be integrated life, but soon become disappoin- combined with those of the irriga- within the other agricultural pro- ted, when they realize that there tion engineers and adapted to local duction systems and the nomadic are hardly any jobs open to them. situations. lifestyle is bound to disappear. The presence of so many people Planning of the use of rangeland who do not participate in the eco- The increasing number of share resources and a stronger attach- nomic growth adds to the prob- croppers in the wadi irrigated and ment of individuals or communities lems of the towns. However, well irrigated areas may cause a to certain rangelands is the only these people left their rural envi- future problem in land manage- way in which incentives can be ronment because there were no ment. The dependency of share created for adequate use and jobs there either; Lhere is no way croppers on livestock grazing in the management of the rangelands. back for them. Emphasis on eco- immediate surroundings and fuel- nomic diversification is important, wood collected from the same area There is limited scope for an not only for urban development, increases the total pressure on increase in animal production on but indirectly maybe even more for those areas. Attention of the man- the natural rangelands, but they agricultural development. agers of the schemes and of the arc already under intensive use. government in general, to integrate However, livestock production, livestock production and wood pro- based on on-farm produced 9.3 Changes in resource use duction inside the agricultural areas Yemeni cattle for meat, may be, or and management is required. The fact that there is a will become, attractive once the Rainfcd farming good tradition in this respect is a imports of cheap African livestock Traditional rainfed farming still pro- great advantage. are restricted. vides the food for an important part of tho Tihami. The current Deep and shallow groundwater Tree resources situation of rainfed farming in an farming Fuolwood is already a scarce com- often rather seriously degraded Agricultural development of the modity in the Tihama, It will be- environment is partly due to the Tihama depends to an important come more scarce in the future. : droughts of the period 73-'87 and extent on groundwater resources. Currently, the Tihama is still an for another part to the lack of con- A sustainable development of exporting area of fuelwood and sistent ideas and possibilities for groundwater based agriculture charcoal, but it is likely that the the management of these areas. In depends on the permanent avail- self-sufficiency of the Tihama will fact, the management issue only ability of fresh groundwater. A not continue for more than 5 became of importance when the framework of regulations for con- years. Energy requirements of rural population started to grow rapidly. trolled groundwaler exploration and Tihami will increasingly be fulfilled The authorities need to give sepa- exploitation is urgently required by owned woodlots and urban rate attention to this farming and so is the monitoring of population will increasingly make system by Lhe authorities and local groundwater resources. use of other fuel for cooking, such land management plans have to be as gas and electricity. The govern- formulated with the villagers Range management and livestock ment can assist in stimulating this involved. production shift in energy resources. From the Livestock production is rather well point of view of nature conser- Wadi irrigated farming integrated within agricultural pro- vation it is important to set areas The Tihama Development Authority duction: grown fodder is an impor- aside where natural vegetation may has built up much experience with tant animal feed. For the manage- regenerate and tho classical the implementation and mainte- ment of the rangelands it is crucial Tihama forest can be admired by nance of new irrigation systems. It that this integration of livestock future generations. The same is recognized that many problems and crop production continues. applies to the mangrove forests. 44

Wildlife resources groundwater level decline within as technical ones, and it has high- It is important to set aside areas acceptable limits, lighted the need for sufficient and for wildlife conservation, while - conjunctive management of reliable basic information on all there is still room for them in the groundwater and surface water relevant aspects. Tihama. Possibilities for nature resources, It is expected that many ideas will reserves in the Tihama foothills, - co-ordination between water gradually be incorporated into a near Jebel Bura, part of the nor- •• resource development in the well-defined water resources them Tihama, and the mangrove Tihama and in the catchment strategy for the area, which will areas, need to be investigated. areas upstream, beone of the cornerstones for - allocation of the scarce resources regional development planning. Groundwater resources among the potential water users The groundwater of the Tihama is (including the planning for long 9.4 Implementation of environ- the fundament for both agricul- term domestic water supply) tural, urban and industrial develop- - protection of the aquifer against mental policies ment this area. Issues for the pollution. Legislative aspects management of Tihama ground- Coherent laws and regulations, water are: The experience gained by the stud- their implementation and, in parti- - reduction of water losses by ies carried out in recent decades cular, their enforcement are either improvement of the conveyance and by the, in the meantime, com- absent or not functioning. Consid- and farm irrigation efficiencies, pleted wadi irrigation improvement ering the place of development in - control of groundwater abstrac- projects has greatly contributed to the Yemen Arab Republic and in tion rates and the optimization of the development of thinking on the the Tihama in particular, priority the spatial abstraction pattern, role of water in the Tihama's deve- should be given to the formulation with the objective of minimizing lopment and of how to deal with of a coherent modern environmen- the losses due to coastal ground- it. Among others, it has revealed tal legislation, dealing with groundwater discharge, while at the the importance of an integrated water related issues, land use and same time keeping sea water approach to water resources, inclu- pollution. Enforcement of these intrusion, saline upconing and the ding non-technical aspects as well laws is a second indispensable

Quiet streets when the Luhayya market is finished. 45

step. Especially with respect to the establishment of new industries or the enlargement of existing ones, environmental impact assessment procedures have to be developed and implemented.

Institutional aspects The traditional institutional system is not capable of dealing with the problems of the environment of the Tihama as a whole. At a local scale, however, the traditional system is of utmost importance, but it cannot function without a comprehen- sive framework of rules and regulations to be set forth by the national government. Local, traditional administration may have an important role in law enforcement. Institutional improvements should The upper Tihama used to be a parkland with these "Dobr" trees concern issues such as: - strengthening of the planning capabilities of the provincial government and the Local Coor- Extension, raising awareness and This should result in a suitable dinating Committees for Develop- environmental education monitoring system. ment with respect to the land Private initiative in resource man- use planning of urban and rural agement is vital. Therefore it has A better insight is needed into the environments, monitoring and to be stimulated and guided. This socio-economic and environmental environmental assessments of development of environmental aspects of the major farming development, awareness requires acuminate systems, in order to define suitable - sensible coordination of central extension services in both rural starting points for environmental and provincial government con- and urban environments as well as management by the resource trolled activities, societies for environmental conser- users. - use of existing traditional admini- vation. Environmental education strative structures at the local needs to be incorporated in educa- Research on the possibilities for level. tion at all levels. nature conservation should be - The responsibilities for environ- looked into urgently. mental management have to be Role of women made clear at all levels of admini- Because of their social and cultural stration. Each ministry has to position women have a specific recognize its own responsibilities and strong perception of environ- towards their activities that have mental problems and accordingly or may have consequences for their own set of priorities towards the environment. environmental problems. This makes them an important target Conflicting objectives group tor resource management There is of course a conflict and rehabilitation strategies. between short term commercial opportunities and sustainable use of the environment. The govern- 9.5 Research ment is the only body who may be The environmental study has able to protect the environment in encountered limited data availability such a way that sustainable use is on every important issue. In order achieved. A balance has to be to establish sound natural resource achieved between the economic management research existing i goals both in the short term and information needs to be compiled the long term. and missing information supplied. 46 10, Summary

This Environmental Profile des- urban development are discussed cribes the environment of the in view of the scale and pace of Tihama, the coastal zone along the development in the Tihama. The Red Sea in the Yemen Arab Repub- Profile concludes with a series of lic. It also gives an analysis of the statements that affect sustainable environmental problems. Emphasis use and management of the is placed on the role of man in his natural resources. interaction with the environment: how do Tihami use and manage The Tihama is a flat area extending the available natural resources, and from the coast to the foothills of why do they do it the way they the mountain belt. From these do? mountains, large wadis drain excess By describing the motives, patterns water into the Tihama, thus creat- and trends of use of natural resour- ing an enormous ground water ces in regard to their sustainability, reservoir and, at the same time, the Environmental Profile creates a creating the possibility for exten- framework for decision making by sively practised wadi and ground- the authorities. water irrigated agriculture. How- ever, the cultivated area under rain- The Environmental Profile introdu- fed cultivation is more than twice ces the ecological principles of the the size of the irrigated surface. area as well as the most important Eighty percent of the Tihama sur- demographic, socioeconomic, face is covered by rangelands, pro- historic, cultural, legislative and viding forage for livestock. The institutional features and trends. If livestock thai is also tod for 10 - the population continues to grow 50 % on fodder grown for the pur- at the current rate, the Tihama will pose, depending on the farming contain 2.2 million people by the system, uses these rangelands year 2000, instead of the 1.1 mil- rather intensively. There is little lion registered in 1986. scope for an increase in livestock production that feed from these Much attention is given to the rangelands. balance between the use of the resources and the natural produc- The traditional wadi irrigation is a tivity. For this reason, land use in most sustainable form of agricul- the Tihama has been studied with ture in which livestock production respect to agriculture, livestock is very well integrated. This will production, use of rangelands and also apply to the modernized wadi wood. Their development in space irrigation schemes, if this integra- and time is taken into account. tion is maintained and when mine- The present stale of the natural ral fertilizers can be financed by resources is assessed at the level the individual farmer. of land units. These land units are delineated with the help of satellite Modern well irrigation certainly imagery and field verification. They creates the risk of an overexploita- are based on natural character- tion of groundwater resources and istics, predomonant human activi- of creating problems of desertifi- ties and changes associated with cation, caused by overgrazing by these activities. The state of the livestock owned by the farmers resources is described in terms of themselves. sustainability, use or misuse, degradation and desertification. Atten- Rainfed farming is under pressure tion is given to the present resour- due to population increases. Natu- ce management practices and the ral vegetation no longer gets the incentives and disincentives for chance to regenerate and large separate groups of resource users. scale desertification occurs, not in The problems of nature conserva- the least part due to the recurrent tion, environmental health and droughts in the period 1973 -1987. 47 11. References

Working reports Environmental Profile Study DHV Consultants, 1983 Water Resources Study, Tihama, Coastal Plain (5 vols), Amcrstoort Abboud, Y., 1988 Ecological contribution, Sana'a DHV Consultants, 1979 Wadi Rima Irrigation Development Agbary, A.W., 1988 Agriculture in Tihama, Al Bayda and Feasibility Study, Amersfoort Dhamar, Sana'a van Enk, D.C., Hydrology and Hydrogeology of the Yemen Al-Awadi, A.M.M., 1988 Rapport sur la legislation de I'environne- van der Gun, JAM., 1984 Arab Republic Jominco, TNO ment dans la Republique Arabe du Yemen, concernant I'amenagement fit la Geukens, F, 1966 Geology of the Arabian Peninsula, Yemen protection de I'onvironnement, Sana'a S.D. Bowers (trans), U.S. Government Pn. Office, Washington DC Al-Bar, A., Shatibi, A., 1988 Livestock in Dhamar, Al Bayda Governora- tes and Tihama, Sana'a Grolier, M.J., Geologic Map of the Yemen Arab Republic Overstreet, W.C., 1978 Al-Madhagi, A.A., 1989 Environmental Study of throe regions and their urban centres in Yemen, Karpowicz, J. 1987 Traditionnelle Imkerei in Yemen Sana'a Kessler, J.J., 1987 Sheep herding patterns in relation to Bamatraf, A.M., 1988 Land tenure and water rights in the environmental conditions and land use in Tihama and in the Govemorates ot Al the Dhamar montane plains BLIP Commu- Bayda and Dhamar, Sana'a nication no. 15, DHV Amersfoort

Bos, R.P, 1988 Present land use and trends in Al Bayda Kessler, J.J., Common plant species of the Dhamar Province, Rada' Al-Khuleidi, A., 1987 montane plains, Dhamar

van der Gun, J.A.M., 1989 The Water Resources of Al Bayda and Kessler, J.J., 1988 Mahjur areas: traditional rangeland Dhamar Provinces and the Tihama Regio reserves in the Dhamar montane plains TNO-DGV, Delft, The Netherlands (YAR) Rl IP Communication, DHV Amersfoort Kessler, J.J., 1988 Physical environment and vegetation of Dhamar Govemorato, Al Bayda Govern- Maktary, A.M.A., 1971 Water rights and irrigation practices in orate and Tihama, DHV Amersfoort Lahj: a study of the application of Custo- mary and Shari'a law in south west Arabia van Lavieren, A.P., 1988 Urban environment of Al Bayda and Cambridge University Press Dhamar Govemoiotes and Tihama Oriental Publications no. 21

Scholte, P.T., Kessler, J.J., Use of Natural Vegetation in Tihama, Al Ministry of Agriculture Summary of final results of Agricultural Thalen, D.C.P., 1988 Bayda and Dhamar, Dhamar and Fisheries (MAI ), 1983 Censuses in eleven provinces Agricultural Statistics Project, MAF, Shukry, H., 1988 Population Study in Al Bayda and Dhamar Sana'a, YAR Governorate and Tihama Rands, M., Rands, G., Birds in the Yemen Arab Republic, ICBP Thalen, DC.P., Scholte, P.M., Specialist Report on Conservation, Al Porter, R,, 1987 Publ, expedition report Abboud, Y.M., 1989 Bayda Governorale, Leersum, The Netherlands Resources Information Lab, Agricultural Land Use Inventory for Yemen 1983 Arab Republic AID/NEC 1665 • Cornell University, MD, Washington DC English references RIRDP, 1983 Report on farming systems survey in wado Tha, RIRDP, MAF, YAR Agricultural Census in Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Eleven Provinces, 1983 Sana'a Schutti, B., Fortina, R., Herpetologische Beobachtungen in der 1987 Arabisehen Ropublik Yemen Agricultural Statistics Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Mitt, der Deutsch-Ycminitischen Gesell- Yearbook, 1988 Sana'a schaft (18) 2

Aviation Authority, Meteorological Yearbooks, Sana'a Stone, F, (ed) 1985 Studies on the Tihama. The report of The 1985-1988 Tihama Expedition in 1902 and Related Papers, Longman Group, England Beatty, S.L\, van Dijk, R.E., Childhood malnutrition in rural Dhamar 1988 and mortality survey. DRHP, Dhamar UNDP, FAO, 1987 SPATE IRRIGAI ION Proc. of the Subr. Exp. Cons. Bernhardt, C, et al, Water Policy Initiatives in Yemen, CID, rep. 6-10 December 1987 1980 052 1980-1 AG; UNDP/RAli/84/030, Aden

Bradley Martin, E., 1981 More on the rhino horn trade, WWF UNEP, UNESWA, 1988 National Plan of Action to Combat Monthly Report, project 1936' Desertification in the Yemen Arab Republic E/ESCWA/A6R/88/2 Caponera, D.A., 1973 Water laws in moslim countries FAO Irrigation and Drainage paper 20/1 Varisco, .DM., 1987 Horns and Hilts, Wildlife Conservation for FAO, Rome Norlli Yemen, WWI, Washington DC

Central Planning Organi- Statistical Yearbooks, Sana'a WWF Monthly Report, Rhino Horn and the Yemeni Daggers zation, 1972-1986 September 1981 Project 1948 WWF DHV Consultants, 1988 Tihama Basin Water Resources Study, Tihama Development Authority, DHV Amersfoort 48 12, colophon

Assignment by the Directorate General for International Cooperation, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government of the Netherlands

Supervision by the Environmental Health Department, Ministry of Housing and Municipalities, and the Environmental Protection Council, Government of the Yemen Arab Republic.

Implemented by: DHV Consultants P.O. box 85 3800 AB Amersfoort The Netherlands Phone 033-689111 Telex 79348 dhv nl Fax 033-615047

Editor: Ir. Robert Beck '

Environmental Profile Study team: Abdurahman Mohammed Bamatraf Agricultural Research Authority, Deputy Director Ahmed Alwan Al-Madhagi Sana' University, College of Education, senior lecturer Ali Mohamed Shatibi Ministry of Agriculture, Veterenary AN Al-Bar Sana'University, Faculty of Agriculture, deputy dean :m Ali Mukred M. Al-Awadi Sana' University, Faculty of Law, senior lecturer Abdullah Ba-lssa Sana' University, Faculty of Science, senior lecturer Abdul Waly Agbary Sana' University, Faculty of Agriculture, senior leclurer Hazim Al Shukry Sana' University, Faculty of Science, senior lecturer Yahia Abboud Sana' University, Faculty of Science, senior lecturer Prof. dr. ir, Dik C.P. Thalerrt Research Institute for Nature Management, Leersum, nature conservation Ir. Bart P. van Lavieren Euroconsult, Arnhem, ecologist Ir. Paul T. Scholte Directorate General for International Cooperation, Dhamar, enologist Dr. Jaques A.M. van der Gun TNO Institute for Applied Geoscience, hydrogeologist Ir. Jan J. Kessler Agricultural University Wageningen, ecologist Ir. Ruud Bos Euroconsult, Rada', agronomist Ir. Robert Beck DHV, Amersfoort, ecologist

Supervisors in Yemen: Dr. Abdul Rahman El-Moassib Director General of the Environmental Health Department Drs. Peter Rupert Expert attached to the Environmental Health Department Ir. Hoeke Klaver Environmental expert attached to the Environmental Protection Council

Advisory group in The Netherlands: Ir. Egbert Pelinck Directorate General for International Cooperation Ir. Hans de longh Directorate General for International Cooperation Drs. Joke Waller Ministry for Housing and Environment Ir. Max H. Slingenberg Ministry for Agriculture and Fisheries

Photographs: Prof. dr. ir. D.c.R Thalen, RIN / Ir. R. Ber:k, DHV / Ir. A.P. van Lavieren, Euroconsult / Ir. PT. Scholte, DGIS Secretarial and Typework: DHV, Amersfoort, The Netherlands / Layout: Studio DHV, Amorsfoort, The Netherlands Print: Repro DHV Amerstoort, The Netherlands