African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: The Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo Oral Literature in a Contemporary Perspective
Ph.D. Dissertation
By
Eshete Gemeda
Syddansk Universitet, 2008
Institut for Litteratur, Kultur og Medier
iii
CONTENTS
List of Maps vi List of Figures vi Preface vii Acknowledgements xi Introduction 1 1. The Features of Oral Literature: Literary Genres as Transparent Medium 11 The Formulation of Verbal Narrative: The Expressive Aspect 14 The Formal Properties of Oral Art: Stylistic Criticism 15 The Content and Thematic Variation 18 The Formal Principle (Organic Unity) and the Problems of Formalist Theory 20 2. Oral Narrative Tradition within the Context of Development 26 The Transformation of Verbal Narrative: The Representative Role of Identity in Education 26 3. Literary Efficiency and the Interpretation of Oral Literature in Its Own Right: Verbal Repertoire as Socio-Historical Evidence 36 Oral Literature Defined 36 Textual Dimension: A New Critical Approach to Oral Tradition 38 Translation, Interpretation and Deconstruction 42 The Continuity and Relevance of Oral Art: Literary Culture in the Changing Social Climate 49 4. The Comparative Approach to Animal-Centred Narrative: Sophistry and Ruse in Oromo Trickster Tales (Fables) 60 The Nature of Oromo Trickster Narrative 60 Plot Analysis and Styles 64 iv
The Ambiguous Journey: Malaan Duula 66 Take Not the Dreamer at Face Value: Mootii Saree 74 The Retribution: The Reversal of Fortune 76 The Disunity: The Insincere Generous 80 The Reward of the Unwise 85 Generalization 87 5. The Aesthetic Qualities of Proverbial Folklore: Linguistic Features, Thematic Structure and Parallelism 91 The Major Aspects of Proverbial Literature 91 Origin and Functions 91 Internal Organization 94 The Pursuit of Moral Quality in Life 95 The Structural Analysis of Proverbial Lore: Semiotics, Narrative Syntax and Semantics 96 The Antithetical Relations of Parallel Categories 97 A Comparison of Parallel Constituents 117 Summary: An Overview of the Universal Character of Oromo Proverbial Lore 144 6. Folk Songs and Poems: Poetic Language and Narrative Style 148 The Functions of Poetry: Poetic Theory and Practice 148 Folk Song Performance as a Genre 155 Poetic Imagery 157 Linguistic Characteristics: Prosodic Features 158 The Love Lyrics: The Arsii Weelluu and the Weedduu of Macha Tuulama 159 The Work Song (Solidarity Song)-‘Weedduu Hujii’ 171 The Satirical and Humorous Poem ‘Suunsuma’ 177 The Social value of Satire 177 Oromo Folklore Genres Classified: The Feature Matrix of Literary Forms 183 v
7. Heroic Literature as Social Protest: A Historical and Cultural Analysis of the Genre of Geerarsa 186 Generalities about the Heroic Epic 186 The Characteristics of Geerarsa 189 The Geerarsa Narrative in Response to Violently Marginalized Identity: Modernism, Empire and the Historical Development of Protest Literature 196 Literary History: The Geerarsa as a Genre of the Heroic Age 201 The Heroic Tales of Eastern Oromo (Hararge) 201 The Protest Narrative of the Southern Oromo (Arsii) 210 The Heroic Literature of Central and Western Oromo (Macha and Tuulama): The Geerarsa within the Context of the Gabbaar System 217 Recapitulation 230 Conclusion 235 Appendix : Oromiffa Tropes as Essential Ingredients of Oral Literary Criticism 249 An Oromiffa Literary Glossary 283 Bibliography 287
vi
LIST of MAPS
1. Oromiyaa xxi
LIST of FIGURES
1. Aesthetic Response to Oromo Oral Tradition 9 2. The Way Oral Literature Functions 59 3. Character Revelation and the Plot of the Trickster Story (Malaan Duula) 73 4. The Constituent Structure Analysis of Proverbs 125
vii
PREFACE
In order for oral literary studies in Africa to make sense, it is always necessary to have insight into, and a feeling for, aspects of African experience and cultural life, which transcend the work itself and are the foundation for successful research. This kind of approach in the broadest sense implies that oral literary criticism should take into account everything within the societies that can lead to realistic investigation. It is probably more rewarding to try to trace the literary sensibility and aesthetic quality of African oral tradition from history, the established values and identities. Until the late 1960s, African indigenous literature was studied exclusively by traditional anthropologists and understood as casual utterance rather than being discussed in terms of aesthetic roots and national character. Such inadequate attempt not only limited oral tradition to the mythical level, but also separated the artists from the nature and substance of their work. We are still confronted with many problems and wrong impressions left by old anthropologists and formalist theoreticians. When I say the Oromo oral narrative tradition is the representation of objective reality, I am referring to the practical function of each genre within the context of the daily life of the society. This means, each literary form is the result of what the society has experienced in the process of struggling for survival. It directly reflects problems, glorious times, behaviours, aspirations, identity, attitudes, ideology and values. This is discussed in terms of poetic character and socio- political situations (meta-communication). I have made clear that the non-literary and non-academic approach to folk-literature cannot give the succeeding generation an insight into fundamental creative spirit. Oral literary studies become effective only if a peculiar context in which the deep structure or abstract narrative that has been continuously created by an individual performer is closely examined by a researcher. Without disregarding that there are general cultural conventions operating in the Oromo tradition to which folk-literature is subject, I have preferred to concentrate on giving more attention to re-creativity which the oral narrator has drawn in the scene of his/her performance to viii achieve the intended social meaning. What makes oral literary studies so problematic is that the oral material is organized in a form of complex interpretive range of discourse and performance structures. Many literary scholars are unable to address the issue of making broad alternatives that can create new interests which enable them to make a shift of emphasis from traditional discourse to more possible linguistic patterning and findings. In this regard, I am guided by a pragmatic approach and problematic oriented considerations in the analysis of every genre. If a writer or folklorist scholar adheres to the traditional stereotypes and is convinced by an attitude of inequality, he or she may end up with negativity; and in this case, it is likely that lack of expanding appreciation of oral art disfigures the creative power of an individual performer. The ultimate goal of pursuing folklore studies must be directed toward comprehending the role of language in the conduct and constitution of social life. For the effective study of literary culture, there should be the liberation of scholarly vision from an abstractionist tone and the narrow constraints of an old model towards a broad frame of reference and new trends of the recognition of structural continuities. The contextual and functional study of the oral tradition is always recommendable simply because such an approach guides us to the view that verbal genres are the collective possessions of a society; and in this perspective, there is a possibility of recognizing its active role as identity marker. In the treatment of literary tradition, as we do in the criticism of modern fiction, one of the major issues to be addressed is the interplay between linguistics and literary criticism and bringing the two related disciplines together within a broader range of national and international situations. For a theory of literary criticism to be adequate and effective, it should give an account of the nature of a particular work of art and provide readers with a framework of analysis and mode of evaluation. In stylistic terms, the artistic effect of any literary language is tested by what its particular scheme of concepts allows us to say in a practical criticism. The term practical here refers to the realistic approach which involves the analysis of constituent elements, sets out what is exactly to be evaluated in terms of history, culture, themes, subject-matter, aesthetics and attitudes. In the context of the interest of a humane society, not only of a society and mankind as such, but of a free society and mankind, the interesting quality of the Oromo literary tradition is that it serves as a medium of all kinds of educative discourses that help perpetuate the continuity of the binding common ethos of a pluralistic democracy. The prose narratives and poems have been carefully preserved throughout generations merely because they contain the records of the whole ix body of knowledge and valuable deeds that justify the people’s sense of collective glory, identity, dignity, social justice (free social life), liberty and the fundamental cultural values which ensure social solidarity. The unique characteristics of Oromo oral literature is that it encompasses qualities that we find in all democratic cultures and the open-ended narrative techniques which contain egalitarian ideals give us more space for comparative analysis. In this study, I have made efforts to examine various problems, instructive moral issues, social and political concerns raised by traditional Oromo poetics within local, national and international contexts. Though the preoccupation of every society may differ depending on its peculiar characteristics, we need to make tireless efforts to project the beauty of all cultures and literatures so that we can overcome the differences for bad. “Though the vagaries of global politics have so painfully shaken our faith in universal ideals, there is still room for an honest observation of two ways of life that impress us by the degree to which they mirror each other” (Okpewho, 1979: 242). The burden of explaining the beauty of human cultures, traditions and literatures rests with writers and scholars who see diversity as the centre of fascination and pleasure. Every time I compare Oromo oral literary narrative with others, I have endeavoured to reflect the positive image that can bring us together. Like the religious crises in England during the mid-Victorian period, after the conquest of Oromiyaa in the 1880s, cultural confusion debilitated Oromo national feelings; and I think the language of literary culture can energize the fragile harmonious life and social solidarity. The Oromo dreams and basic principles that have been dislocated may be revived if the oral tradition is constructed as an academic subject to minimize and/or alleviate cultural crises. As part of the Gadaa tradition, oral literary narrative usually deals with the significant national issues that reflect Oromo values. I often stress the importance of studying Oromo literary tradition in its own right because it is a tool for preserving and enhancing social, cultural, and moral riches, which empower the people to have a greater control over their lives. In order to discuss the Oromo oral literature as a field of scholarship and make some important new discoveries, we need to have useful sources and/or basic research tools which help us develop intellectual curiosity about the subject. Since this is a newly emerging field of research in the ‘Federal State’ of Oromiyaa, it is hard to find specialist intellectuals who are trained in the field of oral literary studies. I have made explicit that a lot of people tried to collect this body of literary culture, but it is hardly possible to find any Oromo scholar who has treated this corpus of narrative x as academic subject and field of scholarship. The problem of a comprehensive research work in this field of study shows that every researcher is obliged to start from scratch. He/she makes a long journey and invests unnecessary energy to put together and interpret the corpus of literature in a new fashion. In general, the scarcity of authentic documentation and lack of a broad range of reliable research sources have been one of the serious challenges I have witnessed in the course of writing this project. It is, therefore, so vital to develop a new research strategy (method) that can address aesthetic principles and guide scholars to acquire profound knowledge concerning the broader issues of the theory and practice of oral literary narrative. In dealing with Oromo oral narrative tradition, I have used both primary and secondary sources. As far as the former is concerned, I have largely depended on my own personal observation over years, together with the recorded materials of Tashite A. Adema, Wariyo, Kedir and Gaaddisa. In the treatment of the first part of this work (cultural tradition), Tufa A. Adema co-operated with me as informant. As regards the secondary sources, I have relied on several published and unpublished materials, especially African oral literature.
xi
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The following people have given me encouragement and assistance to complete this work, which I am profoundly grateful for. I am extremely grateful to Associate Professor Jan Nordby Gretlund, my supervisor, for his sincerity, valuable comments, suggestions and effective guidance at a crucial stage of my work; and whose deep insight into the subject has broadened the scope of my study. I have benefited much from his co-operation and scholarly advice. I must gratefully acknowledge the personnel of “The Institute for Literature, Cultural Studies and Media,” especially the leader of the institute, Associate Professor Johs. Nørregaard Frandsen, and the leader of the H. C. Andersen Research School for Ph.D Studies, Associate Professor Sven Halse, whose generosity of creating convenient situations and opportunities enabled me to complete my work smoothly and effectively. The two scholars have facilitated all the paths for me to carry out this research project without which the effective completion of my work would have been almost impossible; and I owe them a great debt of gratitude for their scholarly support and co- operation. My deepest thank goes to Professor Elin Fredsted, who has contributed a lot to my further study here in Europe; and whose encouragement and suggestions are invaluable. Professor Elin Fredsted’s scholarly interest in African studies and her unreserved support encouraged me to work more; and I appreciate her noble contribution, greater effort and generosity. I am immensely grateful to Professor Dr. Dr. Siegbert Uhlig, who has shared my enthusiasm for research work on Oromo studies. The serious consideration, encouragement and generous support Professor Uhlig has given to my effort are greatly appreciated and rewarding. My greatest debt is to my entire family, my wife, Amane Tufa, my two daughters, Mary and Rachel, whose unreserved assistance, additional encouragement, affection, care and support have
xii been a great moral force and stimulus for me. Amane’s valuable suggestions have nourished my work. I am highly indebted to Dr. Tibebu Benyam Saddo, who supplied me with some relevant materials, including the picture of part of the ancient historical and cultural place of the Oromo, ‘Madda Walaabuu.’ Mr. Qaasim Abdella Wariyo, provided me with many reference materials concerning Oromo oral literature, especially proverbial narrative and heroic tales (geerarsa) and I thank him for that. He has contributed a great deal to my work, and in fact his lofty endeavour and co-operation cannot be measured in words. I am especially grateful to Mr. Tufa A. Adema, one of the most brilliant and cultural nationalists of his generation whose sharp memory about Oromo culture and oral literature is rewarding. Mr. Tufa has provided me with the historical and cultural background of Oromo oral narratives, as well as detailed explanations of the key issues of the Gadaa tradition. I would like to thank the staff members of the Asian-Africa Institute Library of Hamburg University and Sønderborg Library personnel who have tirelessly co-operated with me by making all the documents and essential sources available to me. I am particularly indebted to the library personnel of Kolding and Sønderborg Universities whose genuine co-operation enabled me to get access to many relevant references. I have received invaluable help from Genet Benyam Saddo. Miss Genet co-operated with me to get access to much new material dealing with Oromo poems; and I am greatly indebted to her for that. Miss Genet provided me with these materials while she was busy with her Masters study in Norway.
xiii
A Note on Transcription
There are the original texts written in the Oromo language (Oromiffa), which are difficult for non-natives. In order to minimize the problem of pronunciation, I have transcribed Oromiffa orthography and the sound system on the basis of “International Phonetic Alphabet” (IPA).
I. The Vowel (A). Short Vowel Sound The orthographically “non-geminated” vowels are pronounced as ‘short.’
a /ă/= central open vowel; neutral posture of lips. It is pronounced as /ʌ/ or /Ə/.
• arba /ʌ'rbƏ or ărbă/→ elephant
• bara /bʌrƏ or bără/→ year
e /ě/= half-open front vowel; half-spread lips. It is pronounced as /e/ or /ɛ/
• Ebla /eblƏ or ěblă/→ April
• edana /e'dʌnƏ or ědănă/→ tonight
i /ĭ or ɪ/= half-open front vowel; spread lips. It is pronounced as /ɪ/
• isa /'ɪsƏ or ĭsă/→ he
• ibsa /ɪbsƏ or ĭbsă/→ explanation, verification
o /Ɔ/= half-open back vowel; rounded lips. It is pronounced as /o/ or /Ɔ/.
• orma /ƆrmƏ or ŏrmă/→ alien
• ona /ƆnƏ or ŏnă/→ empty house u /ŭ/= close back vowel; rounded lips. It is pronounced as /u/.
• ulee /uleː or ŭlē/→ stick
• umrii /'um'riː or ŭmrī/→ age
xiv
(B). Long Vowel Sound If the vowels are “geminated or doubled orthographically,” their sounds are always ‘long.’
aa / aː or ā/= central open vowel; neutral posture of the lips. It is pronounced as /aː/
• gaala /'gaːlƏ or gālă/→ camel
• karaa /kʌ'raː or kărā/→ road, path, street
ee /eː or ē/= open front vowel; half-spread lips. It is pronounced as /eː/ or /ɛː/
• eegi /'eːgɪ or ēgĭ/→ wait
• eebba /'eːbbƏ or ēbbă/→ blessing
ii /iː or ī/= half-open front vowel; spread lips. It is pronounced as /iː/.
• biifuu /'biː'fuː or bīfū/→ spray
• doonii /'dƆːniː or dōnī/→ ship
oo /Ɔːor ō/= open back vowel; rounded lips. It is pronounced as /Ɔː/ or /oː/.
• looni /'lƆːnɪ or lōnĭ/→ cattle
• goota /'gƆːtƏ or gōtă/→ brave
uu /ū or uː/= close back vowel; rounded lips. It is pronounced as /uː/.
• fuula /'fuːlƏ or fūlă/→ face
• duula /'duːlƏ or dūlă/→ campaign, expedition
II. The Consonant: Digraphic and Non-digraphic Representations The “geminated” (doubled) consonants are always ‘heavily stressed.’
• tokko /'tƆkkƆ or tŏkkŏ/→ one
• ganna /'gʌnnƏ or gănnă/→ winter
• amma /ʌmmƏ or ămmă/→ now xv
• madda /mʌddƏ or măddă/→ source (A). Non-digraphic Representation
c /cʼ/= as in caasaa/'cʼaː'saː/→ structure • alveopalatal • glottalized
q /kʼ/= as in qaama /'kʼaːmƏ/→ body • uvular • voiceless glottalized stop
x /tʼ/= as in xaarii /'tʼaː'riː/→ effort, endeavour, labouring hard • dental • voiced stop (B). Digraphic Representation
ch /ʧ/= as in bakkalcha /bʌ'kkƏlʧƏ/→ full moon • alveopalatal • voiceless affricative
dh /dʼ/= as in haadha /'haːdʼƏ/→ mother • alveolar • voiced stop
ny /ñ/= as in nyaara /'ñaːrƏ/→ eyebrow(s) • alveopalatal • nasal stop
ph /pʼ/= as in hirpha /hirpʼƏ/→ donation • bilabial • voiceless stop
sh /∫/= as in shakkii /∫Ə'kkiː or ∫ă'kkī/→ suspicion, doubt • alveopalatal • voiceless fricative xvi
Explanation for phonological Properties of Folklore The Standard Feet 1. Iambic =A light/weak syllable followed by a heavy/stronger syllable (unstressed +
stressed =⌣+╵) 2. Anapestic =Two light syllables followed by a heavy syllable (unstressed + unstressed +
stressed = ⌣+⌣+╵)
3. Trochaic =A heavy syllable followed by a light syllable (stressed + unstressed =╵+⌣) 4. Dactylic =A heavy syllable followed by two light syllables (stressed + unstressed +
unstressed =╵+⌣+⌣) 5. Spondaic = A heavy syllable followed by another heavy syllable (stressed + stressed =
╵+╵) 6. Rising Metre =A heavy syllable at the beginning with long/extra-long sound followed by a light syllable having long/extra-long sound For further understanding of long and short sounds, see note on transcription (p. xi). Types of Feet 1. Rhythmic feet with one branch = Unary feet 2. Rhythmic feet with two branches = Binary feet 3. Rhythmic feet with three branches = Ternary feet In the context of the rhyming verses, the three types of feet also represent the pattern of prominence in Oromiffa pronunciation. This means the syllables in a word are not all pronounced with the same degree of being noticeable in the level of stress. They vary in emphasis, length and tone of voice or pitch (see proverbs and folk songs). Metric Feet (Poetic Measure) 1. Rhythmic feet having two syllables = Double Meter 2. Rhythmic feet having three syllables = Triple meter 3. Rhythmic feet having more than three syllables = Multiple Meter The Sign/symbol
An asterisk (∗) I have placed in front of the chorus stands for ‘repeating two times.’ xvii
A Brief Account of the Oromo and Oromiyaa
The People and History
The Cushitic Oromo constitute one of the largest ethnic groups in the Horn of Africa, and are approximately 32,000,000- of the 73,908,000 inhabitants of Ethiopia. With the exception of Begemdir and Tigray, they inhabit all the regions (provinces) of the country. They make up the largest proportion in Arsii, Bale, Hararge, Shawa, Wallegga, Wollo, Ilu-Abbabor, and Kafa; but they constitute the minority in Gamu Gofa, Gojjam and Kenya (see the map). Following the power shift of the 1880s, the name “Oromo” vanished and was replaced by the derogatory term “Galla.” The Oromo have been called by this fabricated name nearly for a century, though the natives have not called themselves so. Huntingford (1955: 9) who witnessed the shifting of discourse of the post-conquest period has pointed out that the origin of this unrelated term was uncertain. Moreover, the destructive land-holding system of several decades and the imposition of the gabbaar (serfdom) relegated the rural population to landlessness. It was during the Ethiopian Revolution of 1974 that the Oromo got back their true name and their land though marginalization continued. The Oromo have developed a complex socio-political and ritualistic system (the Gadaa) in which the male members of the society are organized on the basis of age groups (hiriyyaa). This ritualized egalitarian system had effectively been in use in Oromiyaa for the last 587 years (1300- 1887); but it came to an end when Emperor Menelik of Ethiopia took political upper hand and empowered warlords and landed gentry. Genealogically, the Oromo refer their origin to two great ancestors; namely “Borena” and “Barentumma,” and these lines of ancestors or ancestral divisions characterize the cultural and national identity of the nation. Like other black Africans, the Oromo people have inhabited the Horn of Africa for as long as recorded history-that is from time immemorial and are indigenous to Africa.
xviii
The Families and Social Structure
The Oromo are known for their solid social and cultural ties and corporate identities. Besides the material and ideal interests characterized by corporate affiliations, most activities in the society are carried out on a highly organized co-operative basis. Like other Sub-Saharan Africans, the majority Oromo reside in scattered homesteads or thatched houses; and the basic unit is the patrilineal extended nuclear family unit. Next to the family are relatives (fira), neighbours (ollaa), lineage (balbala or qomoo), community (ganda) and clan (gosa) are important social networks. All these social groups act as the corporate identity- that is, as the collective image in which all the members share common interests and values. The lineage groups not only work to bring about the welfare of the society and locate Oromo with respect to one another, but also to take action as corporate bodies so as to protect the collective interests and benefits of the society. They are agents of social, cultural and moral control over their members. In every community, the senior men, especially the hayyuus (wise men) often hold meetings to settle dispute, discuss offences and determine punishments when an individual or a group has committed an offence within a community. They also debate on the day-to-day social, political and economic affairs. The Gadaa cultural tradition emphasizes the importance of checking everyday problems in the society; and hence negotiations and reconciliations are often carried out by the prominent figures and leaders who are elected by the community. The Oromo are both polygamous and monogamous. The Christians are monogamous whereas the Muslims and those who hold the traditional religion (waaqeffataa) are monogamous and/or polygamous. Almost all the educated sections of Muslims and the followers of traditional religion are monogamous. The Oromo marriage does not often end in conflict and divorce simply because sharp contradictions between the couples rarely occur. The relation between the families is more friendly and harmonious. Though deference among the members is observable, we do not see the conservative type of deference, which instead of true respect and love may create superordinate positions and fear. Though the totalitarian regimes of years, especially the uncultured communist way of life of 17 years have eroded the harmonious life of the society, the Oromo families are generally stable. xix
Language
The Oromo people speak ‘Oromiffa,’ a language that belongs to the extensive family of the Cushitic languages. The name ‘Cushitic’ is derived from “Nubia” or “Cush,” that is, the Biblical term for ancient Ethiopia or ‘Africa South of the Sahara.’ The Oromo language, Oromiffa, is akin to the eastern Cushitic group of languages: Saho, Afar, Konso and Somali. It is the mother tongue of the majority of the population in eight provinces of Oromiyaa: Shawa, Arsii, Hararge, Bale, Wallegga, Ilu-Abbabor, Wollo, and Jimma. It is natively spoken by the minority Oromo in Kenya and three other provinces; namely Gamu Gofa, Sidamo and Gojjam. Generally, the major Oromo dialects fall into four groups: southern (Borana, Arsii, Shawa), eastern (Hararge), western (Wallegga, Ilu-Abbabor, Jimma) and northern (Wollo). Like other indigenous African languages, Oromiffa is written in “Latin Script.” “With the exception of a small minority who adopted Amharic as their language, Oromo speak a mutually intelligible language of their own” (Sumner, 1995: 32).
The Land, Climate and the Economy
After the crumbling of the communist regime of Mengistu Haile-Mariam in 1991, Biyya Oromoo, Oromiyaa (Oromo homeland), became a ‘Federal State’ having its own regional President. This happened when the American government put pressure on the current minority regime of Ethiopia to give cultural and political space to the marginalized peoples in the country. Oromiyaa covers about 600,000 square miles, and this is nearly more than half of the 1,133,380 square kilometres of the present land area of Ethiopia. It is located approximately between 2 degrees and 12 degrees North, and between 34 degrees and 44 degrees East. Geographically, Oromiyaa consists of chains of mountain ranges and rift valleys in the centre and the north, and flat grassland in most of the lowlands and semi-lowlands of the west, east and south. Oromiyaa is one of the largest and richest lands in the Horn of Africa. “Much of the country’s best land is Oromo land” (Sumner, 1995: 29). Traditional agricultural production, including the raising of livestock, is the most characteristic form of Oromo economy. Due to its favourable climate and rich soil, almost all kinds
xx of cereal crops, cash crops, fruits and vegetables are cultivated. Coffee is the main cash crop. Besides cash crops, minerals are the major sources of revenue for the Oromo. Some of the minerals include gold, iron-ore, silver, sulphur and platinum. Of these, gold is mined in large quantities. Food crops include barley, wheat, pea, bean, xaafii (xeef), soya bean, millet, sorghum, maize, lentil, nuts, false banana and others. The larger species of African birds and wildlife are also native to Oromiyaa. The climate of Oromiyaa varies mainly according to the degree of elevation. The tropical zone below approximately 1,830 metres has an annual average of temperature of about 270c. The sub-tropical zone which includes most of the semi-highland areas is between 1,830 and 2,440 metres in elevation. It has an average temperature of about 220c. Above 2,440 metres approximately, there is a temperate zone with an average temperature of about 160c. The winter season is between June and late August. The summer season occurs between December and late February. The spring season covers September, October and November; and the autumn season starts in March and lasts till the end of May. The great variations in elevation are directly reflected in the kinds of vegetation. The lowland areas of the tropical zone have sparse vegetation consisting of desert shrubs, thorn bushes and coarse savannah grasses. In the valleys, almost every form of African vegetation grows in profusion. The temperate zones or semi-lowland areas are largely covered with grasslands; whereas Afro-alpine vegetation is found on the highest slopes or mountains.
xxii
Explanation for the Map
------Capital city ------Provincial capital ------District Towns ------Other Towns ------Lakes and Dams
------Peaks (Mountains) ------Rivers 1–17 ------Names of rivers
BALE Districts
I Genale IV. Wabe II. Dallo V. Elkarre III. Mandoyu
ARSII Districts
I. Cilao (Chilalo) II. Xicho III. Arba Guugu
HARARGE Districts
I. Harar V. Gursum II. Habbri VI. Jijjiga III Wobarra VII. Chercher & Gaara Gurracha IV. Gaaramulata VIII. Dire Dawa xxiii
SHAWA Districts I. Menagesha III. Selale II. Yerer Kereyu IV. Jibaat &Mecha WOLLO
Districts I. Dese VII. Warra Himeno II. Waag VIII. Ambasel III. Rayya and Azebo IX. Warra Ilu IV. Lasta X. Qaallu V. Wadla Delanta XI. Yejju VI. Borena
WALLAGGA
Districts I. Naqamte III. Gimbi V. Arjo II. Horo Guduru IV. Qeellam
ILU-ABBABOR Districts I. Sor and Gabba III. Buno Baddalle II. Gore IV. Mocha
JIMMA Districts I. Jimma II. Limu
xxiv
RIVERS 1. Awaas (Awash) 10. Muger 2. Wabe Shabele 11. Bulbulaa 3. Weyib 12. Gobebe 4. Ganale 13. Erer 5. Dawa 14. Fafen 6. Guder 15. Jerjer 7. Dhedhessa 16. Bashilo 8. Baro 17. Mile 9. Gibe