Wetlands

Changes at Upper Klamath Lake, OR

N. Stan Geiger, Kale G. Haggard, and Allen J. Milligan

Wetland Loss and Water Quality Changes at Upper Klamath cumulatively, and without mitigation, Lake, Oregon isolated from the lake and transformed through diking and draining for Oregon’s Largest Lake and Largest the idiosyncrasies of the UKL condition agricultural uses. That radical eco-surgery and Longest Reoccurring HAB is that the lake has been a major source encouraged by federal policies in the late he largest freshwater lake in Oregon of algal dietary supplements (super 1800s and early 1900s ended in 1971, but (Figure 1), Upper Klamath Lake blue-green algae) since the early 1980s. the consequences continue through the (UKL) (61,543 ac; over 76,340 Aphanizomenon and other cyanobacteria 25-mile length of the lake, down the 230 Tac including Agency Lake), has had have been the primary algae ingredients miles of the Klamath River to the Pacific potentially harmful algae blooms (HABs) in harvested quantities of over 1 million Ocean off California. for over 50-60 years, and severe blooms kg (dry wt.) per year (Carmichael et al. The ability of littoral marshes to for the past 30 years. Blooms dominated 2000). regulate or even influence lake water by the cyanobacterium, Aphanizomenon HABs of this magnitude began quality depends on a variety of factors, flos-aquae, typically start in May and to happen at UKL when over 35,000 including the size of the marsh relative to often persist through October. One of acres of wetlands were systematically, the lake area and volume, location of the marsh in the lake or adjacent to inflowing streams, and seasonal changes in the marsh.

Wetland Loss at UKL Basin Lake Level In the mid-1990s the U.S. Geological Survey initiated a study of drained marshland around UKL. The purpose of this study was to quantify the contribution of nutrients from drained wetlands to UKL relative to other sources of nutrients in the lake. An estimate was developed of where wetlands once were in the lake below UKL full pool. This estimate included the dates when diking and draining occurred from 1889-1971. The study was a significant step in providing definition of the extent of Upper Klamath Lake before diking and draining began in the late 1800s (Snyder and Morace 1997). The study findings (Figure 2) made it clear where and when 35,390 acres of wetlands had been lost from the lake, resulting in a smaller and changed lake. Table 1 provides an overview of how the lake changed in area through this loss. Figure 1. View of UKL from near Caledonia Marsh toward northwest June 25, 2007. Suspected The littoral wetland area of the organic products of Aphanizomenon bloom on wave crests in foreground. lake once comprised 51,510 acres (46.2

28 Spring 2011 / LAKELINE image and connected to UKL by a narrow isthmus). There is general agreement that during the first half of the 1900s UKL changed from a eutrophic to a hypereutrophic lake. This change altered the habitat of algae, zooplankton, benthos, and fish of this largest lake in Oregon. Two of the sucker species in the lake were listed as endangered in 1988 (Lost River sucker [Deltistes luxatus] and shortnose sucker [Chasmistes brevirostris]).

Marsh Dissociation Hypothesis: Change of Lake Water Quality Resulted from Wetland Loss and Transformation Our perspective is that the elimination of over 35,000 acres of wetland from within the lake, and the transformation and loss of other UKL basin wetlands, was the primary factor changing the lake from eutrophic to hypereutrophic and altering algae populations to dominance by the cyanobacterium, Aphanizomenon flos-aquae. A suggestion of this relationship is shown in Figure 5, which shows the unique and persisting reproductive structure of Aphanizomenon (the akinete) in dated UKL sediment layers and the accumulating wetland losses.

Pre- and Post-Loss Wetland Nutrient Retention In the absence of basin studies addressing the function of marsh wetlands in the littoral zone under specific hydrologic conditions, we can still Figure 2. Snyder and Morace (1997) project map showing the extent of drained (red), drained estimate annual nitrogen and phosphorus and flooded (orange), restoration in progress (pale green), and undrained (dark green) former uptake by in-lake wetlands. Measurements wetland, restored or existing wetland areas. of nitrogen and phosphorus annual net retention rates are readily available percent) of the total lake area of 111,510 ac-ft; a reduction of 65.9 percent. Figure in wetland treatment literature. The acres at maximum pool surface elevation. 3 shows accumulating wetland losses following average to low-end estimates Following dam construction in 1921 and 1889-1971, losses of which came to an were selected from recent literature (Table after the last diking and draining in 1971, end as national environmental legislation 2). the lake area at maximum pool elevation was enacted to prevent such loss without Isolating ~35,390 ac (14,322 ha) of of 4143.5 ft had decreased to 76,343 public scrutiny, or without mitigation. in-lake UKL wetlands through diking and acres, with littoral marsh area decreased Figure 4 is a high-altitude color draining, and severing their connection to 16,120 acres (21.1 percent of the total infrared image acquired from a U2 with UKL, would have meant a loss of lake area). In other words, the lake lost aircraft in 1974 just three years after nitrogen and phosphorus uptake capacity 31.5 percent of its area, and the lake the last diking and draining project was of 9,882 metric tons of total nitrogen and volume associated with this area, through completed in the northern part of the lake 143 metric tons of total phosphorus per diking and draining. The in-lake wetland system (Agency Lake Ranch). Swirls of year. The implications of these estimates area was reduced by 68.7 percent. In the cyanobacteria Aphanizomenon are are that if loading from the basin would addition, there was a reduction of littoral visible in the northern end of UKL and have remained constant through the period lake volume from 82,000 ac-ft to 28,000 in Agency Lake (shown in the top of the of diking, draining, and dam construction,

Spring 2011 / LAKELINE 29 Table 1. The Area of Littoral Marsh and Limnetic Open Water of Upper Klamath Lake (including Agency Lake) Before Commencement of Diking (~1889) and After Diking, Draining and UKL Outlet (Link River) Dam.

Lake Area (Ac) Condition of Lake Lake Surface Elevation Littoral Limnetic Total

Before Diking Minimum (BR datum, ft) 4140.0 20,320 (30%) 47,400 (70%) 67,720

Before Diking Maximum (BR datum, ft) 4143.0 51,510 (46.2%) 60,000 (53.8%) 111,510

After Diking and Dam Minimum (BR datum, ft) 4136.0 0.0 (0.0%) 55,800 (100%) 55,800

After Diking and Dam Maximum (BR datum, ft) 4143.3 16,120 (21.1%) 60,223 (78.9%) 76,343

80% of the lake water. This coloration is very apparent in standing water of large 70% marshes in the upper basin (Klamath Forest Marsh, for example). The quantity 60% of wetland vegetation in the upper basin transformed marshes along with the 50% existing in-lake marshes and seasonal TOTAL LOSS 35,390 AC pumped discharges from diked and 40% drained wetlands is still of sufficient quantity to produce measurable dissolved 30% organic carbon (DOC) in lake water (Table 3). 20% Since humic carbon or humates can

Percent Reduction in UKL Wetlands Reduction Percent comprise over 50 percent of the DOC 10% concentrations (Perdue and Ritchie 2005), the loss of in-lake wetlands, would have 0% resulted in lower seasonal and base 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 lake concentrations of dissolved humic substances. These wetland vegetation Date Span of Wetland Diking and Draining decomposition products have been identified as agents that suppress the Figure 3. Cumulative wetland loss from original 51,510 acres within Upper Klamath Lake 1889- 1971 (Snyder and Morace 1997). growth of Cyanobacteria (Kim and Wetzel 1993; Scully et al. 1996). Complicating aspects of our the loss of wetland and the associated movement of dissolved phosphorus into hypothesis are the multiple possible loss of nutrient uptake capacity would the lake. This seasonal requirement and inhibitory mechanisms related to wetland have resulted in increasing amounts uptake of phosphorus by aquatic plants vegetation decomposition products DOM, of phosphorus and nitrogen becoming would occur at approximately the same DOC, and humates and the interactions available to plants within the undiked season as the need for phosphorus by of these with other compounds and portions of the lake, e.g., phytoplankton the phytoplankton in the lake. Uptake processes. These mechanisms could be and particularly Aphanizomenon. of nitrogen and phosphorus in winter acting individually or in combinations The seasonality of wetland uptake associated with wetland detritus also to have produced the net end-effect of or retention of nitrogen and phosphorus, occurs (Kadlec and Knight 1996). Cyanobacteria suppression. the plant nutrients of primary interest to wetland treatment scientists, is well Wetland Decomposition Products Testing the Marsh Dissociation documented (e.g., Kadlec and Knight and Cyanobacterial Growth Hypothesis 1996 and Mitsch, Horne, and Nairn Aside from visually apparent It’s one thing to hypothesize that the 2000). The seasonal uptake of phosphorus Aphanizomenon blooms, one of the amount of wetland loss from UKL had by the extensive pre-colonial wetland continuing signature characteristics of the profound consequences for the water plants would have desynchronized the lake has been the brownish appearance quality of the lake and the mechanisms

30 Spring 2011 / LAKELINE Figure 5. Relationship between the relative abundance of A. flos-aquae akinetes and the percent of wetlands lost from UKL over time (Eilers et al. 2004).

for the change in the lake seem reasonable and feasible. However, it is another thing Figure 4. 1974 color infrared aerial photograph of northern end to test the hypothesis. The relationship of UKL including Agency Lake. This photograph was obtained on a U2 aircraft overflight at 65,000 ft in July 3, 1974. Note swirls between sediment akinete numbers and of Aphanizomenon in Agency Lake (northern bean-shaped lake accreting wetland loss also looks good, extension) and upper end of UKL. Source: D.W. Larson, Portland, OR. but just because most men wear belts doesn’t mean that pants would fall if belts weren’t worn. Table 2. Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) Emergent Wetland Net Retention Rates (kg/ha/yr) We felt we needed first to determine and Estimated Quantities of Nitrogen and Phosphorus Retained in Pre-diking Wetlands (51,510 whether we detect a suppressing effect ac/20,846 ha) and Post-diking Wetlands (16,120 ac/6,524 ha) at Upper Klamath Lake. of the brown water from Klamath Basin marshes on the growth of UKL N and P Retention Rate Pre-Diking Post-Diking Aphanizomenon flos-aquae. We didn’t Forms (kg/ha/yr) (metric tons) (metric tons) Rate References need to identify mechanisms for the Ammonia-N 576.7 12,022 3,762 Kadlec and Knight 1996 suppression but we did need to keep these in mind and select marsh water Nitrate-N 401.5 8,370 2,619 Kadlec and Knight 1996 and conditions for the assays that would Total N 689.9 14,382 4,500 Kadlec and Knight 1996 approach optimum conditions. We first did Total P 10.0 208 65 Mitsch, Horne and Nairn 2000 replicated jar assays (Figure 6) in 2005 in controlled conditions in a greenhouse at Oregon State University, then developed Table 3. Dissolved Organic Carbon (mg/l) Measurements from Lake Open Water, Diked a limnocorral (Figure 7) to conduct Wetland Winter Pump Discharge, Diked Wetland Ground Water and Marsh Water (Two in-lake assays at a protected location Locations) (Carpenter et al. 2009 [Wood River Wetland WWR]). near Caledonia Marsh. Effects were Source Water DOC (mg/l) determined by measurements of water quality (pH, DO, SpC, temp, phosphorus, UKL Open Water 6-12 and nitrogen) dry weight filtered biomass, Diked Wetland: and measurements of Aphanizomenon Winter Pump Discharge (WWR) 22-44 biovolume. The assays were the research for the MS degree of K. Haggard, Oregon Ground Water (peat soils) (WWR) 8-26 State University (Haggard 2008). Figure Marsh Water: 8 shows the results of a jar assay where Caledonia Marsh (CM) 32-93 dried wetland plant material was added to Wood River Wetland (WRW) 44-99 lake water dominated by A. flos-aquae.

Spring 2011 / LAKELINE 31 will trigger interest in an unrecognized and beneficial role that wetlands may play in protecting water resources from cyanobacterial blooms.

Caveats and Implications In an attempt to compensate for these wetland losses, both the federal government and privately funded organizations have purchased former farmed and ranched wetlands areas and are reclaiming these areas as wetland (see Figure 2 for locations). The present total of this intended reclaimed wetland area is in excess of 17,500 acres. The land surfaces of these areas to be reclaimed are often at elevations six or more feet below maximum lake elevations. The total investment to acquire these former wetland areas has been $19-20 million. The cost of reclaiming and developing wetlands is additional. Purchasing and restoring these once- Figure 6. Replicate jar assays conducted in an Oregon State University greenhouse, September wetland areas has proceeded very slowly. 2005. The 1 gal. jar aerated assays included controls, marsh plant extracts, barley straw extracts, However, the spectacular dike-breaching and Aphanizomenon flos-aquaetransported from UKL to the greenhouse (Haggard 2008). explosions at four locations at the perimeter of the TNC Williamson River Preserve in fall of 2007 is significant progress in reconnecting wetlands behind dikes to the lake (see YouTube videos “Explosive Conservation: Restoring Wetlands with a Big Bang!”). The Upper Klamath Lake system cannot be restored to what it was in its pre-colonial condition, but the awareness of the importance of wetlands in this system has already produced new management strategies.

References Carpenter, K.D., D.T. Snyder, J.H. Duff, F.J. Triska, K.K. Lee, R.J. Avanzino and S. Sobieszczyk. 2009. Hydrologic and water-quality conditions during restoration of the Wood River Wetland, upper Klamath River basin, Oregon 2003-05: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2009- 5004, 66 p (available at http://pubs. Figure 7. Deployed limnocorralls at UKL in the embayment adjacent to the Skillet Handle at usgs.gov/sir/2009/5004). Caledonia Marsh June 25, 2007. Carmichael, Wayne W., Chistian Drapeau and Donald M. Anderson. 2000. Harvesting of Aphanizomenon flos- Native wetland plant tissues can annual blooms of A. flos-aquae in UKL. aquae Ralfs ex Born. & Flah. var. flos- clearly cause mortality of A. flos-aquae. Not only are wetlands nutrients sinks, but aquae (Cyanobacteria) from Klamath This finding, and others in the studies, may have additional value by providing Lake for human dietary use. Journal of supports our hypothesis that the loss of dissolved organic carbon that can suppress Applied Phycology,. 12:585-595. wetlands could contribute to the massive cyanobacteria. We hope that these results

32 Spring 2011 / LAKELINE Eilers, J.M., J. Kann, J. Cornett, since 1985. He has extensive experience K. Moser and A. St Amand. in photosynthetic physiology of algae. Allen 2004. Paleolimnological can be reached at Allen.Milligan@science. evidence. Hydrobiologia, 520: oregonstate.edu. 7-18. Haggard, Kale. 2008. Response Kale Haggard has of the Cyanobacterium primarily worked in Aphanizomenon flos-aquae to the terrestrial realm of vascular plant decomposition barley breeding. Many products. MS Thesis, October inquiries to the Oregon 31, 2008 Oregon State State University Barley University, Crop Science, Project regarding the Corvallis, OR. 48 pages. use of barley straw for Kadlec, Robert and Robert algae control led to Knight. 1996. Treatment his involvement in this wetlands. CRC Lewis research. Kale is currently a faculty research Publishers, Boca Raton, FL. assistant for the Oregon State University 893 pages. Barley Project. He can be reached at Kim, Bomchul and Robert G. [email protected]. x Wetzel. 1993. The effect of dissolved humic substances on the alkaline phosphatase and Figure 8. Comparison of A. flos-aquae growth rates the growth of microalgae. Verh. for controls and those with 2.5 grams per liter of dried Internat. Verein. Limnol., 25: plants. Plant species were 75 percent bulrush (Scirpus 129-132. acutus) and 25 percent cattail (Typha latifolia). The dried wetland plant material was cut into 1 - 2 cm Mitsch, William J., Alex J. Horne pieces and added to jars. Error bars show 95 percent and Robert W. Nairn. 2000. confidence intervals for four replicates. Nitrogen and phosphorus retention in wetlands – ecological approaches to solving excess nutrient problems. N. Stan Geiger Ecological Engineering., 14:1-7. is a professional NRC. 2004. Endangered and threatened wetland scientist We'd like to hear fishes in the Klamath River Basin: with the Society of Causes of decline and strategies for Wetland Scientists, from you! recovery. National Academies Press. a phycologist, and Washington, D.C. pp. 425 owner of Aquatic Tell us what you think Perdue, E. Michael, and Jason D. Ritchie. Scientific Resources, of LakeLine. 2005. In: J.I. Drever (Ed.). Treatise on Portland, OR. He has geochemistry. Dissolved organic matter worked in Oregon as a consulting aquatic We welcome your in fresh waters. Volume 5: Surface and scientist since 1974. He supervised wetland comments about ground water, weathering, erosion and restoration at Running Y Ranch and Resort specific articles and soils, Chapter 5.10, pages 273-318. at Caledonia Marsh on UKL beginning in about the magazine Scully, N.M., D.J. McQueen, D.R.S. 1997, conducted other wetland-related in general. Lean and W.J. Cooper. 1996. Hydrogen investigations for public and private entities peroxide formation: The interaction at UKL, and served on the technical advisory What would you like of ultraviolet radiation and dissolved committee for the ODEQ 2002 TMDL for to see in LakeLine? organic carbon in lake waters along a UKL. Stan can be reached at annsstang@ 43-75°N gradient. Limnol. Oceanogr., frontier.com. 41(3):540-548. Send comments by letter Snyder, Daniel T. and Jennifer L. Morace. Allen J. Milligan, Ph.D., or e-mail to editor 1997. Nitrogen and phosphorus loading is an associate research Bill Jones from drained wetlands adjacent to professor in botany (see page 7 for Upper Klamath and Agency Lakes, and plant pathology at contact information). Oregon. U.S. Geological Survey, Oregon State University. Water-Resources Investigations Report He has been working on x 97-4059. Prepared in cooperation with harmful algal blooms in the Bureau of Reclamation. Portland, both lakes and oceans Oregon.

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