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New Issues in Refugee Research NEW ISSUES IN REFUGEE RESEARCH Working Paper No. 39 The trafficking and smuggling of refugees: the end game in European asylum policy? John Morrison and Beth Crosland e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] April 2001 These working papers provide a means for UNHCR staff, consultants, interns and associates to publish the preliminary results of their research on refugee-related issues. The papers do not represent the official views of UNHCR. They are also available online at <http://www.unhcr.org>. ISSN 1020-7473 Summary This report analyses the response of European governments to the increasing problems of human trafficking and smuggling, and concludes that much of existing policy-making is part of the problem and not the solution. Refugees are now forced to use illegal means if they want to access Europe at all. The direction of current policy risks not so much solving the problem of trafficking but rather ending the right of asylum in Europe, one of the most fundamental of all human rights. Any comprehensive approach that tackles trafficking and smuggling successfully requires legal and safe migration opportunities for all refugees, as well as necessary enforcement measures. Europe is in urgent need for political and moral leadership on this issue and it is hoped that the final recommendations contained in this report might stimulate some reflection. Trafficking in people and the smuggling of migrants have both become major topics of international governmental attention. As facets of transnational organised crime they strike at the very heart of national sovereignty, which was described during a recent G-8 meeting as the ‘dark side’ of globalisation. European Governments, increasingly interested in controlling irregular migration to their continent, have witnessed the growing sophistication of trafficking and smuggling networks, partly in response to their own border enforcement measures. Irregular migration is now an issue of pre-border, border and post-border control, as well as a major focus of international attempts to fight organised crime syndicates. Lost amongst these pressing agendas is the very future of European asylum policy itself. There are very few legal possibilities for refugees to enter the European Union and so the majority are required to attempt ever more clandestine forms of entry. Yet, despite reassurances about the right of ‘justifiable access’ given by the Finish Presidency of the European Union in Tampere, the overwhelming tendency in Governmental policy-making is towards keeping refugees in the region neighbouring their country of persecution. Comprehensive approaches towards specific refugee-generating countries do stress the need for eliminating the ‘root causes’ of instability and oppression; but they are much less comprehensive when discussing the durable solutions available to refugees. There are no systematic proposals for the resettlement of refugees to the European Union. Rather the effects of blanket enforcement measures, such as common visa policies, readmission treaties, carrier sanctions and airline liaison officers, act to deny refugees the possibility of illegal exit from the regions of their persecution. As international policy currently stands, if European governments were ever successful in stopping organised illegal migration at source or in transit countries, they would have ended European asylum policy as we know it. The criminals that exploit and abuse the human rights of migrants through human trafficking deserve the full approbation of international law and criminal justice. The broader international human rights lobby has clearly demonstrated the particular vulnerability of women and children to trafficking for the purposes of sexual exploitation or bonded labour. Such exploitation is growing within Europe itself, with the trafficking of many young women from Eastern Europe and the CIS westwards. The division that has emerged between ‘smuggling’ and ‘trafficking’, although extremely difficult to enforce, 1 makes important safeguards to protect the victims of trafficking. Yet, there has been much less human rights interest in migrants that enter into smuggling or trafficking to escape persecution, or how the trafficking process itself might be grounds for asylum. Again the emphasis is on closing down criminal activities but without providing alternative means of migration for those with no choice other than to flee. The right of asylum in Europe, whilst symbolically and historical important, is often dismissed as a fringe issue in contemporary European realpolitik. European host societies are perceived to have no appetite for the quarter of a million asylum claims received each year (in the European Union alone), especially when only a minority of asylum claimants go on to be recognised as Convention refugees. But when specific nationalities are taken in isolation, the statistics are often reversed and it can be the majority of such irregular migrants that are in need of international protection. Therefore, country specific policies that deny these refugees the opportunity of leaving the country of their persecution, or a transit country in which they are still unsafe, undermine the whole spirit of international refugee protection and might be accurately called presumptive refoulement. The onus is on Governments to explain why the right of asylum, a fundamental human right enshrined by the United Nations, is increasingly being denied by the effects of European Governmental policy. Given financial and humanitarian migratory risks that must be endured to reach the European Union, is this the end of asylum as an accessible form of refugee protection? This report argues that the right to asylum cannot be dismissed easily on political and humanitarian grounds and recognises that the current status quo is practically and ethically bankrupt from all positions. It explores the European responses to trafficking and smuggling from the perspectives of border enforcement, organised crime and human rights and then analyses a series of comprehensive proposals for reforming refugee and other migration to Europe. A pragmatic assessment of ‘regional solutions’ leads to a critique of the compatibility of the competing European agendas. Recommendations are made to European Governments, UNHCR and other refugee agencies in this report. 2 Introduction It is common practice for a growing number of reports on human trafficking and smuggling to attempt to quantify the size and nature of the problem. The most often cited figure, in reports and media articles, is that originally made in 1994, describing a global business worth between US$ 5- US$ 7 billion annually to the ‘gangster syndicates’ involved.1 The calculation behind this estimate is an extrapolation from an estimate for Western Europe of anything between $ 100 million to $ 1.1 billion in 1993, and is derived from an analysis of European asylum statistics, the number of smugglers arrested and average fees of between $ 2,000 to $ 5,000 per migrant.2 Although the methodology requires very careful scrutiny3, such fees are known to be modest compared to those cited in reports by US and Canadian officials relating to Chinese4 and Sri Lankan5 smuggling networks, respectively. There is now an international political consensus that trafficking in/smuggling of human beings has become a significant facet of transnational organised crime. The growth of such activities has been called ‘the dark side of globalisation’6 and the scale of judicial penalties imposed on those guilty of human trafficking offences are, in many countries, already on a par with other great international criminal practices such as drugs and firearms smuggling, money laundering and terrorist activity.7 Whilst there is nothing new historically about human trafficking and smuggling in Europe, it has recently become the subject of much international attention. The last five years of the twentieth century have seen a substantial amount of rhetoric on the issue by European political leaders and the involvement of over 30 intergovernmental fora in Europe alone (the most significant of which are listed in Table Two). The hinterland and borders of the European Union are known to be permeated by several trafficking and smuggling routes that have grown according to factors such as ‘geographical position, distance between countries of departure and destination, political situation and law 1 Jonas Widgren (1994) Multinational Co-operation to Combat Trafficking in Migrants and the role of international organisations, International Response to Trafficking in Migrants and Safeguarding of Migrant Rights, International Organisation for Migration (IOM) Seminar on International Responses to Trafficking in Migrants and Safeguarding of Migrant Rights, Geneva, 26-28 October 1994. 2 Ibid. 3 See John Salt and Jennifer Hogarth (2000) Migrant Trafficking in Europe: A Literature Review and Bibliography, IOM, forthcoming. 4 According to Bimal Ghosh (1998) an estimated 100,000 Chinese were smuggled into the USA during 1994, each paying between US$25,000 to US$35,000 and so generating for these operations alone some US$ 3 billion; in Huddled Masses and Uncertain Shores: Insights into Irregular Migration, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers: The Hague. 5 In 1996, the average fee for Tamils from Sri Lanka to Toronto was generally between Can$24,000 to Can$26,000; in ‘Sri Lanka: Alien Smuggling’, Question and Answer Series, Canadian Immigration and Refugee Board, Ottawa, May 1996. 6 Communiqué
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