Youth Online Gambling Bibliography

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YOUTH ONLINE GAMBLING BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gambling Research Exchange Ontario (GREO) December 4, 2017

Prepared by: David Baxter, MI Page | 2

Contents

General Youth Online Gambling ...... 3 Psychological Factors ...... 11 Social Factors ...... 13 Gambling Exposure and Advertising ...... 15 Gambling Resources ...... 19 Prevalence Studies ...... 22 Social Casino Games and Simulated Gambling ...... 27 Youth Gambling and Internet Use/Video Games ...... 31

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General Youth Online Gambling

Ariyabuddhiphongs, V. (2013). Adolescent Gambling: A Narrative Review of Behavior and Its Predictors. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 11(1), 97-109. doi:10.1007/s11469-012-9401-6

This narrative review summarizes current knowledge on adolescent gambling for the period 1990-2010, assesses adolescent gambling behavior and person and environment predictors, and suggests directions for future research. The review includes 99 studies that identified their subjects as adolescents, children, youth, and students, and discusses adolescent gambling behavior, male and female adolescent gambling, and person and environment variables relating to adolescent gambling. Results reveal that most past research was conducted in Australia, North America, and Europe under the hypothesis of behavior as a function of person and environment variables. Future research should examine the mediated effects of person and environment variables, gambling cessation, gambling in other countries, and internet gambling. Intervention and prevention of adolescent gambling need parental involvement with parents not gambling themselves. © 2012 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.

Beutel, M., Dreier, M., Duven, E., Giralt, S., Muller, K., & Wolfling, K. (2012). Gambling and internet addiction in adolescents: A representative survey of 4,000 German students. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 72(6), 472-472.

Brunelle, N. (2014). Deviant trajectories of Quebec youth: a portrait adapted to their current reality? Revue Internationale de Criminologie et de Police Technique et Scientifique, 67, 305-316.

The current reality of adolescents is entirely different from what it was 20, or even 10, years ago. To understand their deviant trajectories today, the impact of technologies, particularly the Internet, must be considered. Beyond delinquency and psychoactive substance use, youth’s Internet gambling and cyber addiction habits must be added to their deviant portrait. Their prevalence, associations and risk factors, but also their evolution through adolescence and what explains the maintenance or change in their course, must be included. Although a majority engage in these behaviours during adolescence, what do we know about the minority of youth who develop serious problems with these deviant conducts? What knowledge do we need to develop on these issues? The author proposes a review of the current knowledge and of the results of her studies on these issues.

Brunelle, N., Leclerc, D., Cousineau, M. M., Dufour, M., Gendron, A., & Martin, I. (2012). Internet gambling, substance use, and delinquent behavior: An adolescent deviant behavior involvement pattern. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 26(2), 364-370. doi:10.1037/a0027079

Internet gambling among adolescents is a growing phenomenon that has received little attention to date. This study examines associations between Internet gambling and the severity of gambling, substance use (SU), and delinquent behavior among 1,870 Quebec students aged 14 to 18. The results show a higher proportion of Internet-gambling (IG) students reporting problematic substance use and delinquency, compared with nongamblers (NG) and non-Internet gamblers (NIG). Furthermore, a higher proportion of at-risk and probable pathological gamblers are found among IG compared with NIG. A moderating effect (Baron & Kenny, 1986) of the gambler categories (NIG, IG) was found in the relationship between the associated problems and the severity of gambling. Among IG, the severity of delinquency and of substance use contributes to explaining gambling severity whereas, among NIG, the severity of delinquency is the only factor that significantly contributes to such an explanation. Discussion of the results is based on Jessor, Donovan, and Costa's (1991) general deviance syndrome theory. © 2011 American Psychological Association.

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Butler, L. (2015). Taking chances. Online gambling addiction and students; Causes, consequences and treatment. In L. G. Chova, A. L. Martinez, & I. C. Torres (Eds.), Inted2015: 9th International Technology, Education and Development Conference (pp. 2891-2894). Valenica: Iated-Int Assoc Technology Education & Development.

This paper will explore the fascinating issues behind compulsive gambling disorders in youth including the seductive nature of online gambling, why youth are at higher risk for developing the disorder, and the serious consequences facing gambling addicts. Readers will have a more thorough understanding of the social and biological interactions that make gambling so appealing to our youth. The paper discusses distorted thinking, the hidden nature of problematic gambling and the prevalence of its occurrence as well as treatment strategies and resources for recovery for both the addict and the family. There are many youth who are affected by gambling, either because they themselves struggle with the behaviour or because a family member does. It is important for educators to have an understanding of the dynamics behind this insidious and interesting behavioral problem. As a result of younger generations being "digital natives", youth have access to online gambling and cyber gaming at an unprecedented rate. Being online allows the gambler anonymity, accessibility and availability, making it easier for the individual to rationalize their behaviour and deny any problems associated with their gambling. The lengths some addicts will go to in order to hide their behaviour is extraordinary; this paper will delve into this hidden world to leave the reader with a better understanding of the struggles many of our students are quietly facing.

Caillon, J., Grall-Bronnec, M., Bouju, G., Lagadec, M., & Venisse, J. L. (2012). Pathological gambling in adolescence. Archives de pediatrie : organe officiel de la Societe francaise de pediatrie, 19(2), 173-179. doi:10.1016/j.arcped.2011.11.020

Today's juveniles are the first generation to be raised in an environment where gambling is very accessible and socially acceptable. The recent legalization of Internet gambling has increased this accessibility. With 28,8 millions of gamblers in France in 2010, many believe that gambling is an innocent leisure activity. The first results of the national survey on the prevalence of gambling practices conducted in France show that in 2010, 1.3% of the population had a gambling problem. Also, despite the prohibition of gambling to minors, the mean age of onset of gambling behavior in the world is 11.5 years. Gambling (even non-problematic) in adolescence is associated with poor school performance, criminal behavior and family conflict. Recreational gambling shares with pathological gambling high rates of psychiatric comorbidities in adults, and risk behaviors among adolescents. Similarly, international studies show prevalence of problem gambling 2 to 4 times higher among adolescents than among adult, 3.5% to 8% of adolescents between 12 and 17 are pathological gamblers. The validity of the screening instruments and the frequency of spontaneous recovery in adulthood are discussed to explain the high prevalence in adolescence. This article proposes a focus on the practice of gambling in adolescence and its characteristics when the practice becomes pathological. We discuss the epidemiological, diagnostic, etiologic and therapeutic aspects of this problem. Three major types of risk factors implicated in gambling problems are identified: some of them are related to the subject (individual factors), others are related to the object of the addiction, here the gambling activity by itself (structural factors) like Internet with the recent legalization of gambling online, and the last are related to environment (contextual or situational factors). Thus, the development and maintenance of pathological gambling in youth seems to be conditioned by the interaction of a person and a gambling activity, in a particular context. This conceptual model is based on the well-known theory of Olivenstein on toxicomania, which was proposed in the seventies. In France, very few is known about problem gambling in this age and its implications in terms of treatment, prevention and research. There is little in the way of specific treatments for adolescent pathological gamblers so we briefly reviewed possibilities and limits. We discuss the importance to develop prevention, in particular to delay the initiation, and the necessity of research to develop screening instruments and news studies to have a better knowledge of this population. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

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Derevensky, J. L., & Gupta, R. (2007). Internet gambling amongst adolescents: A growing concern. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 5(2), 93-101. doi:10.1007/s11469-007- 9057-9

Gambling researchers have often reported that research in the field of gambling remains in its infancy compared with other addictive behaviors. Twelve years ago Dr. Mark Griffiths' seminal research on understanding adolescent gambling and problem gambling behaviors was published. Today, adolescent gambling research is no longer in its infancy. Research in the field has made great strides and has evolved as a result of Dr. Griffiths' work. His qualitative investigations and insight into understanding the situational, environmental and social contexts associated with adolescent problem gambling has inspired continued efforts to better understand this phenomenon. Dr. Griffiths' insights and predictions of the impact of technological advances associated with changing structural characteristics in electronic gaming machines and the widespread impact of Internet and mobile gaming has spurred new research. For most adolescents gambling remains a form of entertainment without serious negative consequences. Yet, adolescent pathological gamblers, like their adult counterpart and independent of the negative consequences resulting from their excessive gambling, continue to engage in a wide variety of gambling activities. Internet gambling amongst adolescents clearly represents new challenges and problems. Some recent research concerning the risks associated with adolescent Internet gambling is provided. © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2007.

Duven, E., Giralt, S., Muller, K. W., Dreier, M., Beutel, M. E., & Wolfling, K. (2013). Does the Internet change problematic gambling in adolescence? - A representative survey in Germany. J Behav Addict, 2, 13-14.

Edgerton, J. D., Melnyk, T. S., & Roberts, L. W. (2014). Problem gambling and the youth-to- adulthood transition: Assessing problem gambling severity trajectories in a sample of young adults. Journal of Gambling Studies, 31(4), 1463-1485. doi:10.1007/s10899-014-9501- 2

In this study, using four wave longitudinal data, we examined problem gambling severity trajectories in a sample of young adults. Using latent growth curve modeling, we examined how initial level of problem gambling severity and the rate of change were affected by 11 time-invariant predictors: gender, age of onset of gambling, experiencing a big win early in gambling career, experiencing a big loss early in gambling career, alcohol dependence, drug dependence, anxiety, depression, perceived social support, illusion of control, and impulsiveness. Five of the eleven predictors affected initial levels of problem gambling severity; however only impulsiveness affected the rate of change across time. The mean trajectory was negative (lessening of problem gambling risk severity across time), but there was significant inter-individual variation in trajectories and initial levels of problem gambling severity. The main finding of problem gambling risk diminishing over time challenges the conventional picture of problem gambling as an inevitable “downward spiral,” at least among young adults, and suggests that targeted prevention campaigns may be a cost-effective alternative for reaching treatment resistant youth. © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014.

Floros, G., Paradisioti, A., Hadjimarcou, M., Mappouras, D. G., Karkanioti, O., & Siomos, K. (2015). Adolescent online gambling in Cyprus: associated school performance and psychopathology. Journal of Gambling Studies, 31(2), 367-384. doi:10.1007/s10899-013- 9424-3

This paper presents results from the study of gambling behaviors in a representative sample of Cypriot high-school students. The aim of the study was to ascertain epidemiology of adolescent online gambling in Cyprus and possible correlates. The sample consisted of 2,684 students (48.5% boys, 51.5% girls) from the first grades of junior (Gymnasium) and senior (Lyceum) high school. Our results indicate that gamblers presented with lower school achievement and related expectations while scoring consistently higher on measures of Internet addiction, parental bonding and psychopathology. Discriminant analysis revealed two profiles which explained the most variance in gambling behavior; the first profile that corresponded to more explained variance was the student with higher psychopathology, less prosocial

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behavior, higher Internet addiction score with higher frequencies of online activities and moderate levels of truancy and lower expectation of school achievement. The second profile was that of a student who reported less psychopathology, more prosocial behavior, less involvement with the Internet in general but skipped classes more and his prospects on finishing high school were even slimmer. These results will be utilized in the design of a comprehensive prevention program in an effort to combat online addictive behaviors.

Foster, D. W., Hoff, R. A., Pilver, C. E., Yau, Y. H. C., Steinberg, M. A., Wampler, J., . . . Potenza, M. N. (2015). Correlates of gambling on high-school grounds. Addictive Behaviors, 51, 57-64. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.07.006

Objective: This study examined adolescent gambling on school grounds (GS. +) and how such behavior was associated with gambling-related attitudes. Further, we examined whether GS. + moderated associations between at-risk problem-gambling (ARPG) and gambling behaviors related to gambling partners. Method: Participants were 1988 high-school students who completed survey materials. Demographic, perceptions, attitudes, and gambling variables were stratified by problem-gambling severity (ARPG versus recreational gambling) and GS + status. Chi-square and adjusted logistic regression models were used to examine relationships among study variables. Results: Nearly 40% (39.58%) of students reported past-year GS +, with 12.91% of GS + students, relative to 2.63% of those who did not report gambling on school grounds (GS -), meeting DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling (p < 0.0001). In comparison to GS. - students, GS. + students were more likely to report poorer academic achievement and more permissive attitudes towards gambling behaviors. Weaker links in GS. + students, in comparison with GS -, students, were observed between problem-gambling severity and gambling with family members (interaction odds ratio (IOR) = 0.60; 95% CI. = 0.39-0.92) and gambling with friends (IOR = 0.21; 95% CI = 0.11-0.39). Conclusions: GS + is common and associated with pathological gambling and more permissive attitudes towards gambling. The finding that GS + (relative to GS -) youth show differences in how problem-gambling is related to gambling partners (friends and family) warrants further investigation regarding whether and how peer and familial interactions might be improved to diminish youth problem-gambling severity. The high frequency of GS. + and its relationship with ARPG highlights a need for school administrators and personnel to consider interventions that target school-based gambling. © 2015.

Greenberg, J. L., Lewis, S. E., & Dodd, D. K. (1999). Overlapping addictions and self-esteem among college men and women. Addictive Behaviors, 24(4), 565-571. doi:10.1016/S0306- 4603(98)00080-X

To examine whether there is a tendency for individuals to be multiply addicted, overlapping addictions to common substances (alcohol, caffeine, chocolate, cigarettes) and activities (exercise, gambling, Internet use, television, video games) were studied in 129 college men and women. Contrary to previous research, moderate to large correlations were found, both within and between substances and activities. Self-esteem was positively related to exercise but unrelated to the remaining addictions. Several gender differences in addictive tendencies were also revealed: Men scored higher than women on addiction to alcohol, cigarettes, gambling, television, and Internet use, but women scored higher on caffeine and chocolate. The results have implications for theories of addiction and suggest new directions for the study of addiction among normally functioning young adults.

Griffiths, M. (2011). Adolescent Gambling. In Encyclopedia of Adolescence (Vol. 3, pp. 11-20): Elsevier Inc.

Research into adolescent gambling has now been carried out in numerous jurisdictions across the world. This article reviews adolescent gambling studies that have been carried out in Europe, North America, and Australasia. Cross-cultural comparison shows there are some clear demographic and behavioral characteristics associated with gambling involvement and problem gambling among youth. Male adolescents are more likely than female adolescents to gamble, and more likely to experience problems. It also appears that while adolescents from some ethnic groups are less likely to gamble than other adolescents, they are more likely to gamble regularly when they do gamble and to experience problems.

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There are other clear demographic patterns. For example, the most popular youth gambling activities tend to be private, peer-related activities such as card games and betting on sports. Older youth are more likely to engage in accessible forms of age-restricted gambling, and perhaps of greatest concern is the fact that the prevalence of problem gambling in adolescents tends to be approximately three to five times higher than that in adults. © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Griffiths, M., & Wood, R. (2007). Adolescent internet gambling: Preliminary results of a national survey. Education and Health, 25(2), 23-27.

Griffiths, M. D., & Parke, J. (2010). Adolescent gambling on the internet: A review. International journal of adolescent medicine and health, 22(1), 59-75.

Internet gambling is a relatively under-researched area. While our current knowledge remains in its infancy and the prevalence rates are relatively low, researchers and clinicians are predicting greater involvement among youth. A comprehensive search of the relevant literature was undertaken. The resulting relevant literature was classified into four areas. These were (a) the empirical studies on adolescent internet gambling, (b) online gambling-like experiences in adolescence, (c) adolescent gambling via social networking sites, and (d) adolescent gambling via online penny auction sites. Age verification in relation to prevention and regulation is also examined. It is concluded that young people appear to be very proficient in using and accessing new media and are likely to be increasingly exposed to remote gambling opportunities. These young people will therefore require education and guidance to enable them to cope with the challenges of convenience gambling in all its guises. ©Freund Publishing House Ltd.

Haß, W., Orth, B., & Lang, P. (2012). Relationship between different gambling activities and gambling associated problems: Results from three representative surveys conducted by the Federal Centre for Health Education (BZgA). Sucht, 58(5), 333-345. doi:10.1024/0939- 5911.a000207

Aims: For the purpose of analyzing the relationship between having participated in particular gambling activities, the overall gambling involvement and the occurrence of associated gambling problems, data of three representative surveys on gambling behaviour in the population aged 16 to 65 in Germany 2007, 2009 and 2011 were matched. Methods: Telephone sampling (CATI) surveying the most relevant gambling activities, standardized instruments: South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) for screening on gambling addiction, bi- und multivariate logistic regression analyses, dependent variable: problem gambling behaviour (problematic or pathological classification by SOGS). Results: Compared to recreational gamblers most gambling activities in the preceding 12 months were stated far more often by problem gamblers. Even more the latter report a higher overall gambling involvement (number of different gambling activities). Highest proportions of problem gamblers are to be found among those respondents, who used internet casino games, electronic gaming machines (EGMs), sports betting from private providers, casino games, and the lottery 'Keno' (percentages in descending order: 11,7% to 6,5%). Accordingly bivariate regression analyses reveal for these gambling activities in roughly the same order the highest risks for problem gambling. Though lowering down considerably when additionally controlling for overall gambling involvement the risks of the mentioned gambling activities with the exception of casino table games remain significant. Looking at all gambling activities simultaneously in multivariate analyses, thereby taking into account the individual combination of gambling activities, reveal highest risks for EGMs in gambling halls, pubs etc., followed by internet casino games (Odds Ratios 4.77 resp. 3.75). Independent of statistical modelling, the risks for lotteries are comparatively low. Conclusions: If analyzing relations between the occurrence of problem gambling and the use of distinct gambling types, by reason of frequent multiple gambling activities of problem gamblers, the overall gambling involvement should also be taken into account. Following the results regulation and prevention actions should predominantly address gambling at EGMs in gambling halls, pubs etc., and internet casino games. © 2012 Verlag Hans Huber, Hogrefe AG.

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Khundadze, M., Geladze, N., & Kapanadze, N. (2017). Impact of internet gambling on mental and psychological health of children of various ages. Georgian medical news(264), 50-53.

The aim of the study was to assess the impact of internet gambling on children's mental and physical health and find correlation between the age, duration of internet use and type of comorbidity associated with internet gambling. The study assessed 50 patients with internet gambling (35 boys, 15 girls) from 2013-2016 y. The age range was 3-15 years. 15 patients were from 3-7 y of age, 20 patients from 7-12 y and 15 - from 12-15 y of age. The core problem common for all patients were internet overuse by computer games, mobile device and other gadgets. The main problem occurring in these children were insomnia, language delay, stuttering, behavioral disturbances, aggressive behavior phobias. These complaints were correlated with age of patients. The group of patients from 3-7 years of age exhibited sleep disturbances and language impairment, mainly presented with stuttering. The complaints occurring in children from 7-12 y of age are: tics, insomnia, phobias, emotional disturbances, daily fatigue, and attention-deficit. The group of children aged 12-15 years mainly revealed poor academic performance, refuse to play sport games, refuse to play music, insomnia, aggressive behavior, attention deficit, conflict with parents, coprolalia. Thus internet overuse affects physical and psychological aspects of child development which has to be managed by parental and psychologist's joint effort.

Lehmann, S., Akre, C., Berchtold, A., Flatz, A., & Suris, J.-C. (2016). The winner takes it all? Characteristics of adolescent at-risk/problem gamblers in Switzerland. International journal of adolescent medicine and health, 29(5). doi:10.1515/ijamh-2015-0100

BACKGROUND: Gambling has and still entertains people in almost all societies throughout the world. Western societies have faced considerable changes in the amount and accessibility of gambling possibilities during the last decades, and the rates of both adolescent gamblers and problem gamblers have increased significantly.; OBJECTIVE: To determine the characteristics of at-risk and problem adolescent gamblers in Switzerland.; SUBJECTS: The study population consisted of 3134 students (1669 females) attending post-mandatory education in 15 randomly chosen centres. Participants were divided into non- (n=2207), non-problematic (n=754) and at-risk/ problematic gamblers (n=176).; METHODS: Both gambling groups were compared to non-gamblers on socio-demographic measures, substance use and Internet use. Overall, 29.6% had gambled during the past year and 5.6% had gambled in a risky or problematic way. Compared to non-gamblers and after controlling for potential confounders, non-problem gamblers were significantly more likely to be male, apprentices and to misuse alcohol. At-risk/problematic gamblers were additionally more likely to smoke cannabis, to be problematic Internet users and to be non-Swiss than non-gamblers.; CONCLUSION: At-risk and problematic adolescent gambling is associated with other health risk behaviours. Health practitioners should include gambling in the psychosocial screening and preventive counselling of adolescents.

Messerlian, C., Byrne, A. M., & Derevensky, J. L. (2004). Gambling, youth and the internet: should we be concerned? The Canadian child and adolescent psychiatry review = La revue canadienne de psychiatrie de l'enfant et de l'adolescent, 13(1), 3-6.

INTRODUCTION: The recent growth of gambling problems among youth around the world is alarming. Researchers, clinicians, educators and the public have only begun to recognize the significance of this risky adolescent behaviour. With the continuous rise in gambling technology and the expansion of the gambling industry, more gambling opportunities exist today than ever before.; METHOD: The literature on gambling and youth was reviewed.; RESULTS: Given the greater accessibility, availability, and promotion of gambling, more and more youth have become attracted to the perceived excitement, entertainment, and financial freedom associated with gambling. While Internet gambling is a recent phenomenon that remains to be explored, the potential for future problems among youth is high, especially among a generation of young people who have grown up with videogames, computers, and the Internet.; CONCLUSION: Our current knowledge and understanding of the seriousness of gambling problems, its magnitude, and its impact on the health and well-being of children and youth compels us to respond to these new forms of gambling in a timely and effective manner.

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Petry, N. M., & Gonzalez-Ibanez, A. (2015). Internet Gambling in Problem Gambling College Students. Journal of Gambling Studies, 31(2), 397-408. doi:10.1007/s10899-013-9432-3

Internet gambling is popular in college students and associated with problem gambling behaviors. This study evaluated Internet gambling in 117 students participating in study evaluating brief interventions to reduce gambling; the brief interventions consisted of minimal advice, motivational enhancement therapy, and cognitive-behavioral therapy (1-4 sessions). Compared to their counterparts who did not gamble via the Internet (n = 60), those who reported recent Internet gambling (n = 57) wagered in greater frequencies and amounts and reported missing school more often and more problems with family and anxiety due to gambling. Recent Internet gamblers demonstrated similar reductions in gambling over time and in response to the brief interventions as non-Internet gamblers. These data suggest that Internet gambling is common in problem gambling college students, and students who wager over the Internet can benefit from brief interventions.

Potenza, M. N., Wareham, J. D., Steinberg, M. A., Rugle, L., Cavallo, D. A., Krishnan-Sarin, S., & Desai, R. A. (2011). Correlates of at-risk/problem internet gambling in adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 50(2), 150-159. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.11.006

Objective The Internet represents a new and widely available forum for gambling. However, relatively few studies have examined Internet gambling in adolescents. This study sought to investigate the correlates of at-risk or problem gambling in adolescents acknowledging or denying gambling on the Internet. Method Survey data from 2,006 Connecticut high school student gamblers were analyzed using χ2 and logistic regression analyses. Results At-risk/problem gambling was found more frequently in adolescent Internet gamblers than in non-Internet gamblers. Compared with at-risk/problem gambling in the non-Internet gambling group, at-risk/problem gambling in the Internet gambling group was more strongly associated with poor academic performance and substance use (particularly current heavy alcohol use; odds ratio 2.99; p = .03) and less strongly associated with gambling with friends (odds ratio 0.32; p = .0003). At- risk/problem gambling in the Internet and non-Internet gambling groups, respectively, was associated at p < .05, each with multiple adverse measurements including dysphoria/depression (odds ratios 1.76 and 1.96), getting into serious fights (odds ratios 2.50 and 1.93), carrying weapons (odds ratios 2.11 and 1.90), and use of tobacco (odds ratios 2.05 and 1.88 for regular use), marijuana (odds ratios 2.02 and 1.39), and other drugs (odds ratios 3.24 and 1.67). Conclusions Clinically, it is important to assess for teenagers' involvement in Internet gambling, particularly because adolescent at-risk/problem Internet gambling appears specifically associated with nonpeer involvement, heavy alcohol use, and poor academic functioning. © 2011 American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

Pugh, P., & Webley, P. (2000). Adolescent participation in the U.K. National Lottery games. J Adolesc, 23(1), 1-11. doi:10.1006/jado.1999.0291

This study investigated illegal participation in the two U.K. National Lottery games (on-line game and scratchcards) by children under the age of 16 years. The sample consisted of 256 children aged between 13 and 15 years from four mixed-sex comprehensive schools/colleges, which serve city, town, rural and coastal catchment areas in the county of Devon, U.K. Pupils completed a questionnaire in a controlled environment at their respective schools/colleges. The findings indicated that 56% of the sample had participated in the National Lottery on-line game and 54% in the National Lottery Instants scratchcards. Regression analysis revealed that the best predictors of participation in the on line game were income, household participation, whether the TV show was watched and whether a retailer had ever refused to sell a child a lottery ticket. The same variables (minus watching of the TV show) were also the best predictors of buying scratchcards. (C) 2000 The Association for Professionals in Services for Adolescents.

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Tozzi, L., Akre, C., Fleury-Schubert, A., & Suris, J.-C. (2013). Gambling among youths in Switzerland and its association with other addictive behaviours. A population-based study. Swiss medical weekly, 143, w13768. doi:10.4414/smw.2013.13768

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of problem gambling in a population of youths in Switzerland and to determine its association with other potentially addictive behaviours.; METHODS: Cross-sectional survey including 1,102 participants in the first and second year of post-compulsory education, reporting gambling, socio-demographics, internet use and substance use. For three categories of gambling (nongambler; nonproblem gambler and at-risk/problem gambler). socio-demographic and addiction data were compared using a bivariate analysis. All significant variables were included in a multinominal logistic regression using nongamblers as the reference category.; RESULTS: The prevalence of gamblers was 37.48% (n = 413), with nonproblem gamblers being 31.94% (n = 352) and at-risk/problem gamblers 5.54% (n = 61). At the bivariate level, severity of gambling increased among adults (over 18 years) and among males, vocational students, participants not living with both parents and youths having a low socio-economic status. Gambling was also associated to the four addictive behaviours studied. At the multivariate level, risk of nonproblem gambling was increased in males, older youths, vocational students, participants of Swiss origin and alcohol misusers. Risk of at-risk/problem gambling was higher for males, older youths, alcohol misusers, participants not living with both parents and problem internet users.; CONCLUSIONS: One-third of youths in our sample had gambled in the previous year and gambling is associated with other addictive behaviours. Clinicians should screen their adolescent patients for gambling habits, especially if other addictive behaviours are present. Additionally, gambling should be included in prevention campaigns together with other addictive behaviours.

Villella, C., Martinotti, G., Di Nicola, M., Cassano, M., La Torre, G., Gliubizzi, M. D., . . . Conte, G. (2011). Behavioural addictions in adolescents and young adults: results from a prevalence study. Journal of Gambling Studies, 27(2), 203-214. doi:10.1007/s10899-010-9206-0

Our study aims to assess the prevalence of behavioural addictions in an adolescent population, evaluating the effects of gender and age, and to assess the correlations among different behavioural addictions. 2853 high school students were assessed in order to evaluate the prevalence of behavioural addictions such as Pathological Gambling (PG), Compulsive Buying (CB), Exercise Addiction (EA), Internet Addiction (IA), and Work Addiction (WA), in a population of Italian adolescents. The South Oaks Gambling Screen-Revised Adolescent (SOGS-RA), the Compulsive Buying Scale (CBS), the Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI), the Internet Addiction Test (IAT), and the Work Addiction Risk Test (WART), were compiled anonymously by the students. Overall prevalence was 7.0% for PG, 11.3% for CB, 1.2% for IA, 7.6% for WA, 8.5% for EA. PG and EA were more common among boys, while gender had no effect on the other conditions. CB was more common among younger (<18years old) students. The scores of all of these scales were significantly correlated. The strong correlation among different addictive behaviours is in line with the hypothesis of a common psychopathological dimension underlying these phenomena. Further studies are needed to assess personality traits and other clinical disorders associated with these problems behaviours.

Weinberger, A. H., Franco, C. A., Hoff, R. A., Pilver, C. E., Steinberg, M. A., Rugle, L., . . . Potenza, M. N. (2015). Gambling behaviors and attitudes in adolescent high-school students: Relationships with problem-gambling severity and smoking status. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 65, 131-138. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.04.006

Background and aims: Smoking is associated with more severe/extensive gambling in adults. The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between smoking and gambling in adolescents. Methods: Analyses utilized survey data from 1591 Connecticut high-school students. Adolescents were classified by gambling (Low-Risk Gambling [LRG], At Risk/Problem Gambling [ARPG]) and smoking (current smoker, non-smoker). The main effects of smoking and the smoking-by-gambling interactions were examined for gambling behaviors (e.g., type, location), and gambling attitudes. Data were analyzed using chi-square and logistic regression; the latter controlled for gender, race/ethnicity, grade, and family structure. Results: For APRG adolescents, smoking was associated with greater online, school, and casino gambling; gambling due to anxiety and pressure; greater time spent gambling; early gambling

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onset; perceived parental approval of gambling; and decreased importance of measures to prevent teen gambling. For LRG adolescents, smoking was associated with non-strategic gambling (e.g., lottery gambling); school gambling; gambling in response to anxiety; gambling for financial reasons; greater time spent gambling; and decreased importance of measures to prevent teen gambling. Stronger relationships were found between smoking and casino gambling, gambling due to pressure, earlier onset of gambling, and parental perceptions of gambling for ARPG versus LRG adolescents. Discussion: Smoking is associated with more extensive gambling for both low- and high-risk adolescent gamblers. Conclusion: Smoking may be a marker of more severe gambling behaviors in adolescents and important to consider in gambling prevention and intervention efforts with youth. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd.

Wong, I. L., & So, E. M. (2014). Internet gambling among high school students in Hong Kong. Journal of Gambling Studies, 30(3), 565-576. doi:10.1007/s10899-013-9413-6

The study investigated Internet gambling involvement and pathological gambling among Hong Kong adolescents aged 12-19 years. The diagnostic and statistical manual (4th edition) multiple response format for juveniles (DSM-IV-MR-J) (Fisher in J Gambl Stud 16:253-273, 2000) was filled by 1,004 students (597 boys, 407 girls) recruited by random selection of classes. The response rate was 86.6 %. Results indicate that more respondents participated in land-based gambling than Internet gambling (63.5 vs. 3.5 %) but online gamblers are 1.5 and 3.2 times more likely to develop pathological and at-risk gambling than non-Internet gamblers. Using the DSM-IV-MR-J criteria, 5.7 and 22.9 % of the Internet gamblers could be classified as at-risk gamblers and pathological gamblers, respectively. Majority (94.3 %) wagered online at home, and 91.4 % made their first bet before 18 years. Many perceived Internet gambling as a trendy (71.4 %) and safe entertainment (54.3 %). Problematic Internet gambling was significantly associated with the male gender, school grades, online gambling frequency, amount wagered and a gambling family environment. Survey results have implications for gambling research and preventive programs.

Psychological Factors

Janikian, M., Beratis, I. N., Syngelaki, E. M., Vousoura, E., & Apergi, F. S. (2016). Adolescent Internet gambling and related internalizing and externalizing symptoms. J Behav Addict, 5, 20-20.

Kim, S. M., Han, D. H., Lee, Y. S., Kim, J. E., & Renshaw, P. F. (2012). Changes in brain activity in response to problem solving during the abstinence from online game play. J Behav Addict, 1(2), 41-49. doi:10.1556/JBA.1.2012.2.1

Background and aims: Several studies have suggested that addictive disorders including substance abuse and pathologic gambling might be associated with dysfunction on working memory and prefrontal activity. We hypothesized that excessive online game playing is associated with deficits in prefrontal cortex function and that recovery from excessive online game playing might improve prefrontal cortical activation in response to working memory stimulation. Methods: Thirteen adolescents with excessive online game playing (AEOP) and ten healthy adolescents (HC) agreed to participate in this study. The severity of online game play and playing time were evaluated for a baseline measurement and again following four weeks of treatment. Brain activation in response to working memory tasks (simple and complex calculations) at baseline and subsequent measurements was assessed using BOLD functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Results: Compared to the HC subjects, the AEOP participants exhibited significantly greater activity in the right middle occipital gyrus, left cerebellum posterior lobe, left premotor cortex and left middle temporal gyrus in response to working memory tasks during baseline measurements. After four weeks of treatment, the AEOP subjects showed increased activity within the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and left occipital fusiform gyrus. After four weeks of treatment, changes in the severity of online game playing were negatively correlated with changes in the mean β value of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in response to complex stimulation. Conclusions: We suggest that the

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Parker, J. D. A., Summerfeldt, L. J., Taylor, R. N., Kloosterman, P. H., & Keefer, K. V. (2013). Problem gambling, gaming and Internet use in adolescents: Relationships with emotional intelligence in clinical and special needs samples. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(3), 288-293. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.02.025

The study examined the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and several addiction-related behaviours (gambling problems, Internet abuse, and computer gaming misuse) in two adolescent samples: 270 clinical outpatients (180 males and 90 females) and 256 special needs students (160 males and 96 females). Gambling problems, Internet abuse, and computer gaming misuse were positively inter- correlated in both samples; approximately half of the variability in these addiction-related behaviours could be accounted for by a common dysfunctional preoccupation latent variable. Latent variable path analysis found emotional intelligence to be a moderate predictor of dysfunctional preoccupation in both adolescent samples. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd.

Ranieri, F., & Casini, E. (2014). Social introversion, internet surfing, pathological gambling: a correlative study on italian adolescents. European Psychiatry, 29, 1. Introduction: For some adolescents surfing the web can turn into a psychological defense and to be in contrast with a healthy mental development. It happen if the internet surfing becomes a compulsive need (Drusian, 2005). Massive use of the internet can promote the development of behavioral addictions such as pathological gambling (Cantelmi, D'Andrea, 2000). Objectives and Aims: The study investigates the correlation between social introversion, modality of the internet surfing and propensity to pathological gambling in a sample of Italian adolescents. Methods: The research used a questionnaire divided into four areas: school performance, use of the internet, social introversion (SI scale of the MMPI-A); experiences of gambling (LIE/BET Questionnaire). 583 adolescents (45% males and 54% females, mean age 17 years) responded to the questionnaire. Results: Adolescents with high social introversion (high scores on Si scale) are 7.4% of the sample. These teenagers use the Internet many hours per day. They state that surfing the internet is a way to drive away negative thoughts about their lives. They think that life would be boring without the internet. Many adolescents with social introversion have high scores to LIE/BET Questionnaire. The study does not show a correlation between school performance and the others variables (social introversion, use of internet and propensity to pathological gambling). Conclusions: Social introversion seems to be a predictor of psychological disease such as internet addiction and pathological gambling.

Suissa, A. J. (2011). Vulnerability and Gambling Addiction: Psychosocial Benchmarks and Avenues for Intervention. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 9(1), 12-23. doi:10.1007/s11469-009-9248-7

Defined by researchers as "a silent epidemic" the gambling phenomenon is a social problem that has a negative impact on individuals, families and communities. Among these effects, there is exasperating evidence of comprised community networks, a deterioration of family and social ties, psychiatric comorbidity, suicides and more recently, homelessness. In this context, individual, structural and social vulnerabilities become important markers in understanding the dynamics involved. From a social critical perspective of the literature review, we will highlight some of the major psychosocial stakes underlining the social construction of gambling as pathology. Following a brief definition of the concept of vulnerability, the focus of this paper will be placed on the following issues: 1- the discourse on individual pathology as a marker for vulnerability, 2- the social and ethical contradictions of governments when managing gambling, 3- the heated debate about youth gambling, suicide and Internet gambling, 4- a cultural vulnerability among Asian communities as a demonstration that addiction is a multi factorial phenomenon versus the disease model. Finally, we propose markers for empowerment that can contribute to transferring some power to individuals and their social networks and advance the debate on the complex issues that gambling represents in our society.

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Social Factors

Derevensky, J. L., St-Pierre, R. A., Temcheff, C. E., & Gupta, R. (2014). Teacher Awareness and Attitudes Regarding Adolescent Risky Behaviours: Is Adolescent Gambling Perceived to be a Problem? Journal of Gambling Studies, 30(2), 435-451. doi:10.1007/s10899-013-9363-z

Despite legislative prohibitions, there is empirical evidence that youth gamble on both regulated and unregulated activities. The current survey was designed to assess teachers' awareness and attitudes regarding adolescent gambling and other high-risk behaviours. Three-hundred and ninety teachers from Ontario and Quebec, with experience teaching students aged 12-18, completed an online survey. Results suggest that teachers are aware of the fact that youth gamble. Furthermore, they recognized the addictive nature of gambling and their subsequent consequences. Despite overestimating the proportion of youth experiencing gambling problems, gambling was viewed as being the least serious of issues affecting youth, with drug use and school violence topping the list. Almost half of respondents indicated that gambling in school can constitute a good learning activity. In regards to prevention, all other risky behaviours and academic problems were perceived as issues needing greater attention than gambling. These results, which are largely consistent with findings from a previous study examining parental perceptions of adolescent risky behaviours, suggest a need for greater awareness and teacher education. © 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York.

Floros, G. D., Siomos, K., Fisoun, V., & Geroukalis, D. (2013). Adolescent online gambling: the impact of parental practices and correlates with online activities. Journal of Gambling Studies, 29(1), 131-150. doi:10.1007/s10899-011-9291-8

We present results from a cross-sectional study of the entire adolescent student population aged 12-19 of the island of Kos and their parents, on the relationship between their Internet gambling and respective parental practices, including aspects of psychological bonding and online security measures. The sample consisted of 2,017 students (51.8% boys, 48.2% girls). Our results indicate that gender, parenting practices as perceived by the adolescents and distinct patterns of adolescent Internet activities are among the best predictor variables for Internet gambling. Security practices exercised by the parents failed to make an impact on the extent of Internet gambling, demonstrating the need for specific measures to tackle this phenomenon since the provision of simple education on the dangers of the Internet is not sufficient to this regard.

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Hume, M., & Mort, G. S. (2011). Fun, friend, or foe: Youth perceptions and definitions of online gambling. Social Marketing Quarterly, 17(1), 109-133. doi:10.1080/15245004.2010.546939

This article discusses youth consumption of high-speed Internet technology and online youth gambling based on examination of an Australian youth and young adults sample ranging in age from 13 to 30 years of age. This article explores the impact of online gambling on youth well-being and presents organization of the issues confronting youth and gambling behavior online. The article covers current research related to youth and offers a set of narrative definitions of online gambling as offered by 175 youth and young adults. Coupled with this, is a set of industry comments from Australian gambling sector representatives related to this cohort; these offer clarity on how this cohort interacts with current online gambling service providers. There is no doubt that youth underestimate the possible dangers of online gambling and define gambling and online gambling in terms of fun and gaming rather that fully appreciating the risks related to gambling. It is evident there is some legislation and practice protocols ranging in effectiveness that assist in minimizing the access of youth to online gambling.

Jonkman, J., Blinn-Pike, L., & Worthy, S. L. (2013). How is gambling related to perceived parenting style and/or family environment for college students? J Behav Addict, 2(1), 42-49. doi:10.1556/JBA.1.2012.014

Background and aims: The relationship between college student gambling, parenting styles, and family environments is a neglected area of gambling research. Do parenting styles indirectly influence problem gambling behaviors via family environments? Do poor family environments, characterized by high levels of conflict and low levels of cohesion, increase the likelihood of problem gambling among youth? This study explored the interrelationships among college students' current gambling behaviors and a) having an emotionally close and supportive family environment, b) having nagging and critical parents, c) having an authoritative mother, and d) frequency of alcohol consumption. Methods and results: Survey data were collected from 450 undergraduate students enrolled in introductory psychology classes at two state universities in a southern state. Feeling that one has nagging and critical parents was associated with gambling in more venues, while the opposite was true for having emotionally close and supportive families. However, perceptions of having authoritative mothers were not related to gambling. The results also showed that more frequent alcohol consumption was associated with higher odds of gambling in casinos, playing cards for money, betting on sports, gambling on the Internet, higher gambling losses, and a larger number of gambling venues. Conclusions: As with any exploratory research, there are several unique lines of inquiry that can, and should, follow from these findings, including more research on how college students' attitudes toward gambling activities may have begun prior to college and been influenced by their feelings about their homes and parents. © 2012 Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest.

Valentine, G., & Hughes, K. (2010). Ripples in a pond: The disclosure to, and management of, problem Internet gambling with/in the family. Community, Work and Family, 13(3), 273-290. doi:10.1080/13668803.2010.488107

For every individual with a gambling problem it is estimated that somewhere between a further 5-17 other individuals are adversely affected by it. Yet, despite the fact that this claim is commonly circulated, Krishnan and Orford point out that research into effects of problem gambling on gamblers' families has been limited and has not explored family coping in detail. This paper addresses this lacunae by drawing on qualitative research with problem Internet gamblers and their significant others (partners, parents, children and siblings) to examine the processes through which problem gambling is first disclosed within, and then managed by 'families'. The paper concludes by arguing that because problem Internet gambling is commonly contained as a secret within families to whom it is disclosed, and is 'self-corrected' by many of them, the issue and extent of problem Internet gambling does not become visible in the wider public domain. © 2010 Taylor & Francis.

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Gambling Exposure and Advertising

Buil, P., Moratilla, M. J. S., & Ruiz, P. G. (2015). Online gambling advertising regulations in Spain. A study on the protection of minors. Adicciones, 27(3), 198-204.

This article examines the online gambling advertising regulations in Spain currently in effect to assess the actual protection of underage youth. In recent years, online gambling among youth has increased. Through advertising, online gambling companies incite and encourage an involvement that can be harmful for vulnerable audiences. Some studies have demonstrated that advertising influences youths’ assessment of gambling by increasing its appeal. We demonstrate that the shortcomings of the legal framework in force results in effective vulnerability of minors. We claim that society should seek to implement a regulatory framework to protect children from the risk of developing an addiction. © 2015 Edita Socidrogalcohol. All rights reserved.

Deans, E. G., Thomas, S. L., Daube, M., Derevensky, J., & Gordon, R. (2016). Creating symbolic cultures of consumption: an analysis of the content of sports wagering advertisements in Australia. BMC Public Health, 16, 208. doi:10.1186/s12889-016-2849-8

BACKGROUND: Since 2008, Australia has seen the rapid emergence of marketing for online and mobile sports wagering. Previous research from other areas of public health, such as tobacco and alcohol, has identified the range of appeal strategies these industries used to align their products with culturally valued symbols. However, there is very limited research that has investigated the tactics the sports wagering industry uses within marketing to influence the consumption of its products and services.; METHOD: This study consisted of a mixed method interpretive content analysis of 85 sports wagering advertisements from 11 Australian and multinational wagering companies. Advertisements were identified via internet searches and industry websites. A coding framework was applied to investigate the extent and nature of symbolic appeal strategies within advertisements.; RESULTS: Ten major appeal strategies emerged from this analysis. These included sports fan rituals and behaviours; mateship; gender stereotypes; winning; social status; adventure, thrill and risk; happiness; sexualised imagery; power and control; and patriotism. Symbols relating to sports fan rituals and behaviours, and mateship, were the most common strategies used within the advertisements.; DISCUSSION/CONCLUSIONS: This research suggests that the appeal strategies used by the sports wagering industry are similar to those strategies adopted by other unhealthy commodity industries. With respect to gambling, analysis revealed that strategies are clearly targeted to young male sports fans. Researchers and public health practitioners should seek to better understand the impact of marketing on the normalisation of sports wagering for this audience segment, and implement strategies to prevent gambling harm.

García Ruiz, P., Buil, P., & Solé Moratilla, M. J. (2016). Risk consumption: Children and online gaming. The problem of "responsible gambling". Politica Y Sociedad, 53(2), 551-575. doi:10.5209/rev_POSO.2016.v53.n2.47921

Online gambling is a popular activity among adolescents. However, there has been a notable increase in the number of young people who suffer or are on the verge of pathological gambling. We review the impact of online gambling on young people and discuss the desiderability of the concept of "gambling responsibly" in order to alert of their risks and effectively prevent access to minors. The main factors associated with pathological gambling are the age of start, the family environment, the influence of advertising, the consumption of stimulants, and the attitudes of the peer group. Both the government and the gaming industry itself should consider these factors and develop comprehensive plans that ensure a safe and controlled model game. In this context, advertising must take into account criteria of consumer protection knowing that even if they are not allowed, children can easily have access to online gambling. All agents involved, including public and social agents, must provide mechanisms for prevention and awareness of a problem that arouses little social consciousness and excessive carelessness.

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King, D., Delfabbro, P., & Griffiths, M. (2010). The convergence of gambling and digital media: Implications for gambling in young people. Journal of Gambling Studies, 26(2), 175-187. doi:10.1007/s10899-009-9153-9

Adolescents' use of the Internet and other digital media for the purpose of gambling represents a serious concern in modern society. This paper overviews some of the available monetary and non-monetary forms of gambling within new digital and online media and monetary forms of games with gambling-like experiences. With reference to current psychological knowledge on the risk factors that promote adolescent gambling, it is suggested that new gambling technologies may: (a) make gambling more accessible and attractive to young people, (b) may promote factually incorrect information about gambling, (c) provide an easy escape from real world problems such as depression and social isolation, (d) create a gambling environment that easily facilitates peer pressures to gamble, (e) ease parental transmission of gambling attitudes and beliefs, and (f) make gambling more ubiquitous and socially acceptable. The unique risks of Internet gambling for young people are critically discussed, as well as the lack of restricted classification for video games and other media that feature interactive, non-monetary forms of gambling. © 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.

Kristiansen, S., & Trabjerg, C. M. (2017). Legal gambling availability and youth gambling behaviour: A qualitative longitudinal study. International Journal of Social Welfare, 26(3), 218-229. doi:10.1111/ijsw.12231

In many countries, gambling has gained status as a socially accepted form of entertainment. Studies of how and to what extent young people are influenced by changes in gambling availability are relatively inconclusive, and knowledge of why youth gambling behaviours increase or decrease under changing conditions is sparse. This study addressed this situation by examining qualitatively how young people experience and respond to changes in gambling opportunities. The research presented in the article is part of a large longitudinal study of gambling behaviours among Danish adolescents. Data were collected over a period of 3 years with three waves of interviews with a 10- to12-month frequency. A number of issues were identified and these were integrated into four overarching analytical themes: legislation, conditions of entry, proximity and technological innovations. Implications for further research and policy are considered.

McMullan, J. L., Miller, D. E., & Perrier, D. C. (2012). "I've Seen Them So Much They Are Just There": Exploring Young People's Perceptions of Gambling in Advertising. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 10(6), 829-848. doi:10.1007/s11469-012-9379-0

This study contributes to the emerging literature on commercial advertising and youth gambling by exploring adolescent's exposure to and perceptions of gambling advertisements. We analyzed a sample of 50 youth in six focus groups between the ages of 13 and 18 to examine the process by which youth perceived, received or rejected the form and content of advertising and to determine what these ads meant to their social identities. We found that youth had considerable exposure to commercial gambling advertising, decoded for the most part, the gambling messages offered by advertisers and identified themselves with the gambling experiences as they aged and well before they reached the age of majority. We also found that about one-third of gambling advertisements were not received by youth as intended and were ignored, not understood or rejected. The youngest age cohort (13-14) were the most likely to evince a social distance from the tone, style or look that many older youth found attractive in the ads and the least likely to identify themselves with the cultural capital of gambling such as social friendship, economic gain and fun and entertainment. We concluded that socially responsible advertising for youth protection should be heterogeneous and not assume that all youth are alike or will be influenced by single messages.

Nairn, A. (2008). “It does my head in … buy it, buy it, buy it!” The commercialisation of UK children's web sites. Young Consumers, 9(4), 239-253. doi:10.1108/17473610810920461

Purpose Against a background of social concern about the commercialisation of childhood, the purpose of the paper is to analyse the commercial activity on the favourite web sites of UK children and report the

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views of a sample of parents and children. Design-methodology-approach The paper reviews the theory underpinning current debate over risks to children from online commercialism and summarises the key provisions laid out in current international regulatory guidelines. The broad principles of protection from harm and deception are identified. This review is used to frame a research design encompassing web site observation and qualitative data collection from children and parents. Findings A great deal of advertising is poorly labelled and deceptively integrated into content. Most sites visited by children are created for an adult audience which means 25 percent of adverts were for dating, gambling, loans, surgery and age- restricted products. There was also evidence of pester power, dubious “free” offers and incitement to make impulse purchases using mobile phone credit. Research limitations-implications Surveys of commercial activity on children's web sites must be ongoing as technology, advertising techniques and regulation change at a fast pace. Practical implications Companies which attract a child audience (inadvertently or not) should revise their strategy for selling advertising space. Advertisers should review potentially deceptive techniques such as advergames, product placements and embedded commercial content. “Wish lists” should be reviewed in the light of guidelines on pester power. Online payment methods available to children should be reviewed. Originality-value This is one of the first overall assessments of the commercial content of UK children's web sites. © 2008, Emerald Group Publishing Limited

O’Loughlin, I., & Blaszczynski, A. (2017). Comparative Effects of Differing Media Presented Advertisements on Male Youth Gambling Attitudes and Intentions. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 1-15. doi:10.1007/s11469-017-9753-z

Gambling advertisements posted on social media websites such as Facebook are subject to few regulations. This study examined the differential effects of traditional print media (newspapers), and gambling operator and peer postings on Facebook on gambling attitudes and intentions to gamble in a sample of 120 male first-year university students. Participants were randomly allocated to one of three conditions; gambling operator posting on Facebook, peer posting on Facebook, and print media. Baseline and post-advertisement exposure gambling attitudes and intentions were assessed online. Gambling attitude and intentions did not differ between averaged peer and gambling operator Facebook postings compared to traditional media. However, gambling advertisements appeared to influence gambling attitudes and medium-term gambling intentions when posted by a gambling operator compared to a peer on Facebook. Gambling advertisements in traditional media and social media are equivalent in their effects on gambling attitudes and intentions. This novel finding suggests that regulations applied to gambling advertisements presented in traditional media ought to be extended to those appearing on social media platforms. © 2017 Springer Science+Business Media New York

Pitt, H., Thomas, S. L., & Bestman, A. (2016). Initiation, influence, and impact: Adolescents and parents discuss the marketing of gambling products during Australian sporting matches. BMC Public Health, 16(1). doi:10.1186/s12889-016-3610-z

Background: Harmful gambling is a significant public health issue. Alongside the rapid diversification of gambling products, are rapid increases in the marketing for specific types of gambling products, such as online wagering. While concern has been raised about the impact of gambling promotions during sporting matches on the gambling beliefs and behaviours of adolescents, very little research has explored adolescents' and parents' attitudes towards the marketing of gambling products within sport. Methods: A qualitative study was conducted with 59 family groups comprising of at least one parent and one adolescent (14-18 years old) in Victoria, Australia. Parents and adolescents were interviewed separately and asked questions relating to their gambling attitudes and behaviours. They were then brought together, and advertising reception techniques were utilised to prompt discussions about the marketing of gambling during sport. A thematic approach to analysis was used, constantly comparing similarities and differences between and across groups. Results: Three main themes emerged. First, was initiation of sport as a platform for the promotion of gambling. Adolescents perceived that the use of embedded promotions (for example during the match) and the use of athletes in gambling promotions were significant mechanisms for creating an alignment between gambling companies and sporting teams and codes. Second, was the influence of marketing messages in creating a perception that gambling was always accessible, and was an integral part of the sporting experience. Third was the impact of marketing

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messages on adolescent's discourses about sport. Parents described that they had noticed that wagering, and 'odds' discussions, had become embedded in adolescents narratives about sporting matches. Discussion and conclusions: Gambling marketing during sport has significantly increased. While the gambling industry states that it does not aim to intentionally target young people, adolescents are increasingly aware of the relationship between gambling and sport. Future research should explore the impacts and influence of gambling promotions during sport on the gambling attitudes and consumption intentions of adolescents. Effective public health policy is needed to develop comprehensive regulatory frameworks to protect young people from unnecessary exposure to the marketing for this potentially harmful adult product. © 2016 The Author(s).

Romer, D., & Moreno, M. (2017). Digital Media and Risks for Adolescent Substance Abuse and Problematic Gambling. Pediatrics, 140, S102-S106. doi:10.1542/peds.2016-1758L

Digital media provide increased opportunities for both marketing and social transmission of risky products and behavior. We briefly review what is known about adolescent exposure to favorable presentations of addictive substances, such as alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana, as well as behaviors such as gambling, on social and other online media. Our understanding of these influences and whether they require greater regulation is still developing, and recommendations for future research to address these gaps in our understanding are described. Potential strategies to intervene in these environments to protect adolescents and young adults from the adverse effects of these products are described, as well as future challenges for developing interventions. Copyright © 2017 by the American Academy of Pediatrics.

Slater, A., Tiggemann, M., Hawkins, K., & Werchon, D. (2012). Just one click: A content analysis of advertisements on teen web sites. Journal of Adolescent Health, 50(4), 339-345. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.08.003

Purpose: The current study provides a comprehensive analysis of the content of advertisements on Web sites targeted at adolescents, with a particular focus on the female beauty ideal. Methods: Advertisements (N = 631) from 14 Web sites popular with adolescents were analyzed with respect to product advertised, characteristics of people presented, and emphasis on appearance and the thin beauty ideal. Results: Although a wide variety of products were featured, advertisements for cosmetics and beauty products were the most frequent. Further, many of the products advertised (e.g., dating services, weight loss products, gambling games) might be considered inappropriate for the intended audience (i.e., teenagers) of the Web site. People who were a part of advertisements were generally female, young, thin, and attractive. Advertisements for games, weight loss products, and cosmetic and beauty products strongly focused on appearance and laid emphasis on the thin ideal. Conclusions: Like advertisements in mainstream media, advertising on the Internet perpetuates the stereotypical ideal of feminine beauty. Adolescents using the Internet are likely to be exposed to numerous advertisements that reinforce the importance of beauty and thinness, which could have a detrimental impact on how they feel about their bodies. © 2012 Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine. All rights reserved.

Wijesingha, R., Leatherdale, S. T., Turner, N. E., & Elton-Marshall, T. (2017). Factors associated with adolescent online and land-based gambling in Canada. Addiction Research and Theory, 25(6), 525-532. doi:10.1080/16066359.2017.1311874

Background: With the development of new gambling technology, and increased internet accessibility, online gambling has rapidly emerged as a new gambling market. Governments in numerous jurisdictions have moved to legalize online gambling, yet little is known about the impact of online gambling availability particularly for adolescents. To date, few studies have identified the characteristics of adolescent online gamblers and even fewer have looked at whether these characteristics differ from land-based adolescent gamblers. This study examined socio-demographic and factors associated with online gambling for adolescents and compared this to land-based gamblers to examine whether the profile of online gamblers are unique. Method: Data for the current study comes from the 2012–2013 Youth Gambling Survey (YGS) (n = 10 035) and consists of students in Grades 9 to 12 from three Canadian provinces: Newfoundland and Labrador, Ontario, and Saskatchewan. Results: Compared to adolescents who did not have a gambling problem, those who had low to moderate (OR = 2.21, p <.001) or high problem gambling

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severity (OR = 13.60, p <.001) were significantly more likely to gamble online. Adolescents who played free games were also significantly more likely to gamble online (OR = 2.75, p <.001). Females were significantly less likely to gamble online compared to males (OR = 0.31, p <.001). Other than gender, problem gambling severity and playing free games, when compared to land-based adolescent gamblers, the profile of online gamblers are not that different. Conclusions: Current prevention efforts for adolescents should focus on gambling across modalities. © 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.

Gambling Resources

Binde, P. (2012). A Mutual Support Group for Young Problem Gamblers. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 10(4), 524-536. doi:10.1007/s11469-011-9346-1

A Swedish mutual support group for young problem gamblers is described and discussed. During the study period, 116 weekly meetings occurred, usually involving six to ten participants; in total, 69 problem gamblers (66 male and three female), aged 17-25, and 23 partners and friends attended the meetings. Half the gamblers had problems with Internet poker, one fifth with electronic gambling machines, and the rest with other forms of gambling and computer gaming. Nearly half the problem gamblers participated in under five mutual support meetings, while just over a third attended ten or more meetings. Gambling problems ceased or lessened among most participants in ten or more meetings. In some cases, attending just one or a few meetings had a positive impact on the problems. This mutual support group provides relatively effective help to adolescents and young adults with gambling problems, offering a valuable alternative and complement to professional treatment. © 2011 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.

Canale, N., Vieno, A., Griffiths, M. D., Marino, C., Chieco, F., Disperati, F., . . . Santinello, M. (2016). The efficacy of a web-based gambling intervention program for high school students: A preliminary randomized study. Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 946-954. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.10.012

Early onset in adolescent gambling involvement can be a precipitator of later gambling problems. The aim of the present study was to test the preliminary efficacy of a web-based gambling intervention program for students within a high school-based setting. Students attending a high school in Italy (N = 168) participated in the present study (58% male - age, M = 15.01; SD = 0.60). Twelve classes were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: intervention (N = 6; 95 students) and control group (N = 6; 73 students). Both groups received personalized feedback and then the intervention group received online training (interactive activities) for three weeks. At a two-month follow-up, students in the intervention group reported a reduction in gambling problems relative to those in the control group. However, there were no differences in gambling frequency, gambling expenditure, and attitudes toward the profitability of gambling between the two groups. In addition, frequent gamblers (i.e., those that gambled at least once a week at baseline) showed reductions in gambling problems and gambling frequency post-intervention. Frequent gamblers that only received personalized feedback showed significantly less realistic attitudes toward the profitability of gambling post-intervention. The present study is the first controlled study to test the preliminary efficacy of a web-based gambling intervention program for students within a high school- based setting. The results indicate that a brief web-based intervention delivered in the school setting may be a potentially promising strategy for a low-threshold, low-cost, preventive tool for at-risk gambling high school students. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Clarke, C., & Skokauskas, N. (2009). CBT for adolescent pathological gambling - lessons from adult research. Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine, 26(3), 140-146. Objectives: Features of gambling, particularly among young people have changed over the past decade and, while there are no data from Ireland, there are suggestions from those working in the field that pathological gambling is increasing among adolescents. Relatively little is known about the effective treatment of pathological gambling in adolescents. This paper aims to review research in cognitive

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behavioural treatments with a view to their application in adolescents. Research among adolescence is given prominence when this is available. Methods: The methodology comprised a literature search of Medline, Psycinfo, and EMBASE databases, using the search terms: 'cognitive behavioural therapy'; 'gambling; 'psychology'; 'epidemiology'; 'adolescent'; 'motivation'; 'effectiveness'; 'outcome'; 'relapse'; and 'internet'. In addition, a hand search of Clinical Psychological Reviews, Journal of Gambling Studies, Addiction, Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, and International Gambling Studies (1997-2007) was performed. Results: A total of 23 studies comprising various cognitive and behavioural approaches were identified, all but three of them confined to adult subjects. Study methodology and quality varied greatly, with many case studies or small case series, and only three randomised control trials. None used an intention-to-treat analysis, and there was little long-term follow-up. Almost all indicated, with more or less evidence, that cognitive behavioural strategies might be beneficial. Conclusions: Many varieties and modifications of cognitive behavioural therapy have been applied to pathological gambling, though there are few studies of any psychological treatments for adolescent gamblers. Methodological problems surround much of the research. Notwithstanding these reservations cognitive behavioural approaches seem to offer promise in managing this serious problem.

Hayer, T. (2017). Prevention of problem gambling in adolescence: Measures and experiences from Germany. Pravention und Gesundheitsforderung, 12(3), 145-153. doi:10.1007/s11553-017- 0583-4

Background: Despite legal age restrictions, German adolescents participate in diverse forms of gambling, to some degree in a risky or even problematic way. Objectives: The present contribution aims to provide a comprehensive overview of national prevention efforts to counteract the development of gambling- related problems in adolescence. Methods: A broad, systematic literature and Internet search was conducted to identify and assess available universal, selective and indicated prevention approaches. Results: Among all prevention activities, universal school-based programmes are the most common. In addition, modern information and communication technology is increasingly used to reach prevention goals. However, significant prevention deficits that encompass certain high-risk groups (e. g. youths with migration background) as well as specific settings (e. g. sports clubs) and selected multipliers (e. g. teachers) could also be observed. In Germany, only three summative evaluations have been conducted, implying a lack of evidence-based measures in use. Conclusions: In future, it will be necessary to close the identified gaps in practice and research to better guide prevention strategies for adolescents in terms of theoretical assumptions and empirical findings, and thus to serve important public interests. © 2017, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.

Korn, D., Murray, M., Morrison, M., Reynolds, J., & Skinner, H. A. (2006). Engaging youth about gambling using the Internet - The YouthBet.Net website. Canadian Journal of Public Health-Revue Canadienne De Sante Publique, 97(6), 448-453. Objective: YouthBet.net's (www.youthbet.net) goal is to prevent gambling problems among youth through an interactive, multimedia website based on a public health approach. Participants: YouthBet.net was designed by youth for youth. A youth working group spent several months designing the look and feel of the site to ensure that it would appeal to youth aged 10-19. In total, 34 youth from the Greater Toronto Area participated in the first 3 phases of the usability testing of the site using Video Capture of User Site Interaction methodology. Setting: Urban Toronto. Intervention: Utilizing public health strategies such as health promotion, harm reduction and problem prevention, YouthBet.net features games, information and help resources to protect youth from gambling-related harm. Outcomes: Youth participants indicated that they liked the interactive way gambling information was presented via realistic games and quizzes, often citing that YouthBet.net would be a fun and educational tool to be used by teachers in the classroom. Participants had no difficulties navigating the site, finding content and playing games. Additionally, all youth said that they would return to the site and would recommend it to a friend if they were having a problem with gambling. Conclusion: YouthBet.net is one of the first comprehensive websites designed for youth gambling. Findings from this research will inform future health promotion, harm reduction and problem prevention efforts for youth gambling using Internet technology.

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Lee, C. B. P. (2011). Online Help for Problem Gambling Among Chinese Youths. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 9(6), 672-681. doi:10.1007/s11469-010-9297-y

The objectives of this study were to determine the perceptions and accessibility of online help for problem gambling among Chinese youths. A group of undergraduates participated in a survey cum laboratory exercise to search for help for problem gambling in Macao, Hong Kong, and China. Online search engines were used. During the search process, participants found they had to sieve through a long list of search results, many of which were links to articles rather than help organizations. The key findings of this study were: (1) online help was a popular resource but it was not perceived as the most effective form of help, (2) there were no sponsored links in the search results and it took some effort to locate the relevant help organizations, and (3) certain website features and online tools were useful to attract potential users to online help. This paper discussed the implications of the findings. © 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.

McKinley, C. J., Luo, Y., Wright, P. J., & Kraus, A. (2016). Problem Gambling Messages on College Counseling Center Websites: An Over-Time and Cross-Country Comparison. Journal of Gambling Studies, 32(1), 307-325. doi:10.1007/s10899-015-9526-1

Gambling problems remain more prevalent among college students than any other adult population. Among the different informational services available to students struggling with this issue, the convenience, anonymity, and accessibility of the college counseling center website (CCW) make this a particularly appealing resource. This updated assessment explored the nature and frequency of problem gambling messages on U.S. CCWs. and assessed whether differences existed between U.S. and U.K. sites. Results showed that problem gambling remains disproportionately underrepresented on U.S. CCWs compared to other mental health concerns. Furthermore, in only one instance—links to pamphlets—did findings indicate any over-time increase in website communications. Overall, <11 % of U.S. CCWs mentioned anything regarding this topic. When assessing U.K. CCWs, results were relatively consistent with U.S. CCWs. Specifically, while significantly more U.K. sites mentioned anything regarding problem gambling than U.S. CCWs, this was mostly limited to links to self-help groups and issue-specific websites. Given the substantial health, social, and financial consequences linked to problem gambling behaviors, universities must focus on incorporating more information about this issue on CCWs and pursue initiatives to promote this service. © 2015, Springer Science+Business Media New York.

Monaghan, S., & Wood, R. T. A. (2010). Internet-based interventions for youth dealing with gambling problems. International journal of adolescent medicine and health, 22(1), 113- 128. A substantial proportion of adolescents and young adults gamble and rates of problem gambling amongst youth are significantly higher than found in adult populations. Despite this, few youth seek treatment suggesting that traditional services are failing to help this vulnerable population. Youth are progressively active online and use the Internet for social networking, recreation, and increasingly, to seek help for health and mental health issues where they would not be comfortable seeking traditional forms of professional help. In recognition of this, Internet-based therapy and guided interventions have been launched specifically for adolescents and young adults in an attempt to reduce high-risk behaviors and increase program utilization. Research has demonstrated that online therapeutic support is perceived to be acceptable and useful by youth. Furthermore, online interventions have demonstrated success in reducing smoking and heavy drinking amongst this typically hard to reach population. Given the success of similar programs, online problem gambling services are predicted to be effective in increasing youth awareness of their potentially problematic gambling behavior and assist adolescents and young adults in retaining control and minimizing and reducing gambling-related problems. ©Freund Publishing House Ltd.

Thompson, C. R., & Reba-Harrelson, L. (2012). Emerging Clinical Conditions. In Clinical Handbook of Adolescent Addiction (pp. 247-264): John Wiley and Sons.

Based on their length of existence, research base, and a variety of other factors, binge eating disorder, pathological gambling, Internet addiction, and video game addiction in children and adolescents have achieved varying degrees of acceptance by the psychiatric community. This chapter reviews the limited

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Walther, B., Hanewinkel, R., & Morgenstern, M. (2013). Short-term effects of a school-based program on gambling prevention in adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(5), 599- 605. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.11.009

Purpose: To evaluate short-term effects of a school-based media education program for sixth- and seventh-grade adolescents on gambling knowledge, attitudes, and behavior. Methods: A two-wave cluster randomized control trial with two arms (intervention vs. control group) was conducted in the German Federal State of Schleswig-Holstein. The intervention group received a four-unit media education program, which contained one unit on gambling. The program was implemented by trained teachers during class time. The control group attended regular classes without any specific intervention. Survey data from 2,109 students with a mean age (SD) of 12.0 (.85) years was collected before and shortly after the intervention. Results: Thirty percent of the sample reported lifetime gambling; 6.7% were classified as current gamblers. Results of multilevel mixed-effects regression analyses revealed significant program effects in terms of an increased gambling knowledge (d =.18), decreased problematic gambling attitudes (d =.15), as well as a decrease of current gambling (d =.02) in the intervention group compared to the control group. The program had no significant influence on lifetime gambling. Conclusions: A 90-minute lesson about gambling can improve gambling knowledge and change attitudes toward gambling and gambling behavior among adolescents. Studies with a longer follow-up period are needed to test the long-term effects of such an intervention. © 2013 Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine. All rights reserved.

Yaghmaie, F., & Weinstock, R. (2012). Clinical Assessment of Addiction in Adolescents. In Clinical Handbook of Adolescent Addiction (pp. 25-35): John Wiley and Sons.

Adolescents engage in experimental substance use, exhibit addictive behaviors, like problematic gambling, video gaming, and internet use and meet criteria for substance use disorders at rates that exceed older populations. In addition, studies confirm that most common addictive disorders found in adults have their initial age of onset in adolescence or young adulthood. Thus, targeting adolescents for clinical assessment, during the early stages of addiction when disease is more manageable, can reduce the severity and persistence of addiction and prevent secondary disorders from developing. Given this, disseminating evidence-based clinical guidelines for evaluating addiction in adolescent populations and enhancing the institutional awareness of adolescent substance use disorders is a priority. This chapter summarizes current knowledge regarding the assessment of addiction in adolescents and serves as an overall guide for physicians assessing adolescents in the outpatient clinical setting. The use of screening tools and interviewing strategies that facilitate accurate reporting by adolescents are reviewed. An overview of the "red flags", signs, and symptoms of common substance use disorders and behavioral addictions seen in adolescents is provided here. © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Prevalence Studies

Canale, N., Griffiths, M. D., Vieno, A., Siciliano, V., & Molinaro, S. (2016). Impact of Internet gambling on problem gambling among adolescents in Italy: Findings from a large-scale nationally representative survey. Computers in Human Behavior, 57, 99-106. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.12.020

Aims The primary aim of the present study was to understand the impact of online gambling on gambling problems in a large-scale nationally representative sample of Italian youth, and to identify and then further examine a subgroup of online gamblers who reported higher rates of gambling problems. Design Data from the ESPAD®Italia2013 (European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs) Study were used for analyses of adolescent Internet gambling. Setting Self-administered questionnaires were

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completed by a representative sample of high school students, aged 15-19 years. Participants A total of 14,778 adolescent students. Measurements Respondents' problem gambling severity; gambling behavior (participation in eight different gambling activities, the number of gambling occasions and the number of online gambling occasions, monthly gambling expenditure); Socio-demographics (e.g., family structure and financial status); and control variables were measured individually (i.e., use of the Internet for leisure activities and playing video games). Findings Rates of problem gambling were five times higher among online gamblers than non-online gamblers. In addition, factors that increased the risk of becoming a problem online gambler included living with non-birth parents, having a higher perception of financial family status, being more involved with gambling, and the medium preferences of remote gamblers (e.g., Internet cafes, digital television, and video game console). Conclusions The online gambling environment may pose significantly greater risk to vulnerable players. Family characteristics and contextual elements concerning youth Internet gambling (e.g., remote mediums) may play a key role in explaining problem online gambling among adolescents. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Castren, S., Basnet, S., Pankakoski, M., Ronkainen, J.-E., Helakorpi, S., Uutela, A., . . . Lahti, T. (2013). An analysis of problem gambling among the Finnish working-age population: a population survey. BMC Public Health, 13, 519. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-519

BACKGROUND: Gambling problems currently affect approximately 100,000 Finns. In order to prevent and reduce gambling-related harms it is crucial for the Finnish public health authorities to gain a stronger understanding of the association between gambling problems and related socio-demographic factors, other commonly co-occurring dependencies (e.g. alcohol and nicotine) and the type of games gambled. In this article the prevalence of problem gambling in Finland and the socio-demographic profiles of problem gamblers are studied.; METHOD: An annual postal survey entitled Health Behaviour and Health among the Finnish Adult Population AVTK was sent to a random sample of Finnish adults (N=5000) aged between 15 and 64. The sample was derived from the Finnish Population Register. The survey was mailed to the participants in April 2010. Gender differences in socio-demographic variables and Problem Gambling Severity Index PGSI were assessed. A multinomial regression model was created in order to explore the association between socio-demographic factors and the severity of gambling.; RESULTS: A total of 2826 individuals (1243 males and 1583 females) replied to the survey. Of the respondents, 1.1% (2.1% of males, 0.3% of females) were identified as problem gamblers. Those who were of younger age, gender, had less than twelve years of education, consumed alcohol at risk level and smoked had higher odds of having low or moderate levels of gambling problems. Whereas, unemployment and smoking predicted significantly for problem gambling. Females gambled Lotto and slot machines less frequently than males and had more low level gambling problems. Males gambled more with a higher frequency and had a more severe level of gambling problems. Females were more attracted to scratch card gambling and daily Keno lotteries compared to males. In comparison, males gambled more on internet poker sites than females. Overall, a high frequency of gambling in Lotto, daily lotteries, slot machines, horse race betting and internet gambling was significantly associated with a more severe level of problem gambling.; CONCLUSION: Gambling problems affect tens of thousands of individuals annually, therefore certain vulnerabilities should be noted. Comorbid dependencies, smoking in particular, ought to be screened for and recognised in the public health sector. Regulating the availability of slot machine gambling and enforcement of the age limit should be acknowledged. In establishing new gambling venues, prevalence rates in those particular areas should be actively monitored.

Dowling, N. A., Youssef, G. J., Jackson, A. C., Pennay, D. W., Francis, K. L., Pennay, A., & Lubman, D. I. (2016). National estimates of Australian gambling prevalence: findings from a dual- frame omnibus survey. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 111(3), 420-435. doi:10.1111/add.13176

BACKGROUND, AIMS AND DESIGN: The increase in mobile telephone-only households may be a source of bias for traditional landline gambling prevalence surveys. Aims were to: (1) identify Australian gambling participation and problem gambling prevalence using a dual-frame (50% landline and 50% mobile telephone) computer-assisted telephone interviewing methodology; (2) explore the predictors of sample frame and telephone status; and (3) explore the degree to which sample frame and telephone status moderate the relationships between respondent characteristics and problem gambling.; SETTING

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AND PARTICIPANTS: A total of 2000 adult respondents residing in Australia were interviewed from March to April 2013.; MEASUREMENTS: Participation in multiple gambling activities and Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI).; FINDINGS: Estimates were: gambling participation [63.9%, 95% confidence interval (CI)=61.4-66.3], problem gambling (0.4%, 95% CI=0.2-0.8), moderate-risk gambling (1.9%, 95% CI=1.3-2.6) and low-risk gambling (3.0%, 95% CI=2.2-4.0). Relative to the landline frame, the mobile frame was more likely to gamble on horse/greyhound races [odds ratio (OR)=1.4], casino table games (OR=5.0), sporting events (OR=2.2), private games (OR=1.9) and the internet (OR=6.5); less likely to gamble on lotteries (OR=0.6); and more likely to gamble on five or more activities (OR=2.4), display problem gambling (OR=6.4) and endorse PGSI items (OR=2.4-6.1). Only casino table gambling (OR=2.9) and internet gambling (OR=3.5) independently predicted mobile frame membership. Telephone status (landline frame versus mobile dual users and mobile-only users) displayed similar findings. Finally, sample frame and/or telephone status moderated the relationship between gender, relationship status, health and problem gambling (OR=2.9-7.6).; CONCLUSION: Given expected future increases in the mobile telephone-only population, best practice in population gambling research should use dual frame sampling methodologies (at least 50% landline and 50% mobile telephone) for telephone interviewing. © 2015 The Authors. Addiction published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society for the Study of Addiction.

Gainsbury, S. M., Russell, A., Wood, R., Hing, N., & Blaszczynski, A. (2015). How risky is Internet gambling? A comparison of subgroups of Internet gamblers based on problem gambling status. New Media & Society, 17(6), 861-879. doi:10.1177/1461444813518185

Internet gambling offers unique features that may facilitate the development or exacerbation of gambling disorders. Higher rates of disordered gambling have been found amongst Internet than with land-based gamblers; however little research has explored whether Internet disordered gamblers are a distinct subgroup. The current study compared problem with non-problem and at-risk Internet gamblers to understand further why some Internet gamblers experience gambling-related harms, using an online survey with a sample of 2799 Australian Internet gamblers. Problem gambling respondents were younger, less educated, had higher household debt, lost more money and gambled on a greater number of activities, and were more likely to use drugs while gambling than non-problem and at-risk gamblers. Problem gamblers had more irrational beliefs about gambling, were more likely to believe the harms of gambling to outweigh the benefits, that gambling is morally wrong and that all types of gambling should be illegal. For problem gamblers, Internet gambling poses unique problems related to electronic payment and constant availability, leading to disrupted sleeping and eating patterns. However, a significant proportion of Internet problem gambling respondents also had problems related to terrestrial gambling, highlighting the importance of considering overall gambling involvement when examining subgroups of gamblers. It is argued that policy makers should consider carefully how features of Internet gambling contribute to gambling disorders requiring the implementation of evidence-based responsible gambling strategies.

Gonzalez-Roz, A., Fernandez-Hermida, J. R., Weidberg, S., Martinez-Loredo, V., & Secades-Villa, R. (2017). Prevalence of Problem Gambling Among Adolescents: A Comparison Across Modes of Access, Gambling Activities, and Levels of Severity. Journal of Gambling Studies, 33(2), 371-382. doi:10.1007/s10899-016-9652-4

The high availability and accessibility of online gambling have recently caused public concern regarding the potential increase of gambling-related problems among young people. Nonetheless, few studies among adults and none among adolescents have explored specific characteristics of gamblers as a function of gambling venues to date. This study sought to analyze the prevalence of gambling among a sample of adolescents in the last year, as well as sociodemographic and gambling-related characteristics as possible predictors of at-risk and problem gambling. The sample comprised 1313 adolescents aged 14-18 years. Participants were asked to respond to several questions regarding their gambling behavior. Chi square and ANOVA tests were performed in order to explore differences between groups, and a set of multinomial regressions established significant severity predictors. The prevalence of at-risk and problem gambling was 4 and 1.2 %, respectively. Regression analyses showed that having a relative with gambling problems predicted at-risk gambling. Both living with only one parent or not living with parents at

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all, and the prevalence of Electronic Gambling Machines in the last year were associated with problem gambling. Mixed-mode gambling was a predictor of both at-risk and problem gambling. Our findings extend previous research on gambling among adolescents by exploring gambling behavior according to different modes of access. Although the prevalence of exclusive online gambling among the total sample was low, these results support the need to consider specific subgroups of gamblers and their concrete related features when conducting both indicated prevention and treatment protocols for adolescents.

Griffiths, M., Wardle, H., Orford, J., Sproston, K., & Erens, B. (2009). Sociodemographic correlates of internet gambling: Findings from the 2007 British gambling prevalence survey. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 12(2), 199-202. doi:10.1089/cpb.2008.0196

This study provides the first analysis ever made of a representative national sample of Internet gamblers. Using participant data from the 2007 British Gambling Prevalence Survey (n = 9,003 adults aged 16 years and over), all participants who had gambled online, bet online, and/or used a betting exchange in the last 12 months (n = 476) were compared with all other gamblers who had not gambled via the Internet. Overall, results showed a number of significant sociodemographic differences between Internet gamblers and non-Internet gamblers. When compared to non-Internet gamblers, Internet gamblers were more likely to be male, relatively young adults, single, well educated, and in professional/managerial employment. Further analysis of DSM-IV scores showed that the problem gambling prevalence rate was significantly higher among Internet gamblers than among non-Internet gamblers. Results suggest that the medium of the Internet may be more likely to contribute to problem gambling than gambling in offline environments. © 2009 Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.

Lupu, V., & Todirita, I. R. (2013). Updates of the Prevalence of Problem Gambling in Romanian Teenagers. Journal of Gambling Studies, 29(1), 29-36. doi:10.1007/s10899-012-9296-y

The aim of this study was to find out what is the prevalence of pathological in Romanian teenagers. We questioned one thousand thirty-two teenagers in Cluj-Napoca and Harghita counties. Participants completed a questionnaire with 40 items including gamblers anonymous twenty questions. The sample included teenagers aged 11-19 years; 65. 57% were male and 34. 43% were female. The subjects were divided into three groups: non-gambling/recreational gambling or occasional gambling (0-1 positive answers -Level 1)-753 subjects (72. 96%) [316 females and 437 males]; problem gambling (2-6 points- Level 2)-243 subjects (23. 54%) [43 females and 200 males]; pathological gambling (above 7 points-Level 3)-36 subjects (3. 48%) [3 females and 33 males]. The mean age of pathological gamblers was 16. 48 years. Gender differences were as expected, males engaging in pathological gambling (91. 66% from pathological gamblers) more than females did (8. 33% from pathological gamblers). Data revealed that the most encountered games practiced weekly were sport bets and slot machines in the case of 36. 11% of the pathological gamblers; lotto, internet casino and pool bets each with 25%, followed by roulette and black-jack with 22. 22%. From those who reported practicing gambling at a pathological level 66. 66% engaged in alcohol consumption, 13. 88% illicit drug use and 19. 44% licit drugs. Just 16. 66% smoke cigarettes. Data revealed higher rates of prevalence in Romanian teenagers than in other Central and Eastern European countries. A prevalence study at a national level should be designed. © 2012 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.

Olason, D. T., Kristjansdottir, E., Einarsdottir, H., Haraldsson, H., Bjarnason, G., & Derevensky, J. L. (2011). Internet Gambling and Problem Gambling Among 13 to 18 Year Old Adolescents in Iceland. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 9(3), 257-263. doi:10.1007/s11469-010-9280-7

This study reports findings on Internet gambling and problem gambling among Icelandic youth. Participants were 1.537 13-18 year-old students, 786 boys and 747 girls. Results revealed that 56.6% had gambled at least once in the past 12 months and 24.3% on the Internet. Gender and developmental differences were found for Internet gambling, as boys and older age-groups were more likely to gamble on the Internet than girls or younger age groups. Problem gambling for the total sample was 2.2%, but Internet gamblers were more likely to be classified as problem gamblers (7.7%) than non-Internet gamblers (1.1%). A comparison of the findings of this study to earlier studies on adolescents conducted in

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2003 and 2004 reveals that Icelandic adolescents are gambling less in land-based types of gambling and more on the Internet. In general, the results of this study thus suggest that the gambling habits of Icelandic youth are changing. © 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.

Planzer, S., Gray, H. M., & Shaffer, H. J. (2014). Associations between national gambling policies and disordered gambling prevalence rates within Europe. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 37(2), 217-229. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2013.11.002

Policymakers and other interested stakeholders currently are seeking information about the comparative effectiveness of different regulatory approaches to minimising gambling-related harm. This study responds to this research gap by exploring associations between gambling policies and disordered gambling prevalence rates. We gathered information about gambling policies for thirty European jurisdictions and past-year prevalence rates for disordered gambling for twelve of these jurisdictions. We present policy trends and prevalence rates and then describe the level of association between policy and prevalence. We observe one statistically significant association between policy and prevalence: rates of sub-clinical (i.e., Level 2) disordered gambling were higher within environments that mandated less strict regulation of advertising for online gambling. Finally, we discuss the implications of our research in the context of the current process regarding the pan-European regulation of gambling. Our findings do not offer evidence for certain assumptions made in the past by the European judiciary. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd.

Tara, E. M., Leatherdale, S. T., & Turner, N. E. (2016). An examination of internet and land-based gambling among adolescents in three Canadian provinces: Results from the youth gambling survey (YGS). BMC Public Health, 16(1). doi:10.1186/s12889-016-2933-0

Background: With the rapid proliferation of new gambling technology and online gambling opportunities, there is a concern that online gambling could have a significant impact on public health, particularly for adolescents. The aim of this study is to examine online and land-based gambling behaviour among adolescents in 3 Canadian provinces (Ontario, Newfoundland and Labrador, Saskatchewan) prior to the implementation of legalized online gambling. Methods: Data are from 10,035 students in grades 9 to 12 who responded to the 2012-2013 Youth Gambling Survey (YGS) supplement, a questionnaire administered as part of the Canadian Youth Smoking Survey (YSS, 2012) in 3 provinces: Newfoundland and Labrador (n = 2,588), Ontario (n = 3,892), and Saskatchewan (n = 3,555). Results: Overall, 41.6 % of adolescents (35.9 % of females and 47.4 % of males) had gambled in the past 3 months. 9.4 % of adolescents had gambled online in the past 3 months alone (3.7 % of females and 15.3 % of males). The most popular form of online gambling was online sports betting. Adolescents also engaged in online simulated gambling including internet poker (9.1 %) and simulated gambling on Facebook (9.0 %). Few adolescents participated in online gambling exclusively and online gamblers were more likely than land- based gamblers to engage in multiple forms of gambling. A higher proportion of adolescent online gamblers scored "high" or "low to moderate" in problem gambling severity compared to land-based only gamblers. Conclusions: Despite restrictions on online gambling at the time of the study, adolescents were engaging in online gambling at a significantly higher rate than has been previously found. Adolescents were also using technology such as video games to gamble and free online gambling simulations. © 2016 Elton-Marshall et al.

Wong, I. L. K. (2010). Internet gambling: A school-based survey among macau students. Social Behavior and Personality, 38(3), 365-372. doi:10.2224/sbp.2010.38.3.365

Internet gambling was examined among 422 Macau students (240 male; 182 female) aged 12-22, who were recruited from 6 schools. Results indicated that 6.6% of the participants had gambled online in the past year, wagering on soccer matches (50%), mahjong (35.7%), and casino games (14.3%). They were attracted by the operators' acceptance of low wagers (39.3%), anonymity assurance (28.6%), and convenience and accessibility (25%). Using the Massachusetts Gambling Screen (MAGS; Shaffer, LaBrie, Scanlan, & Cummings, 1994), 10.7% and 25% of the Internet gamblers could be classified as problem and pathological gamblers, respectively. Males were twice as likely as females to gamble online and have gambling problems. Rates of participation and problem gambling increased with school grades. Survey results shed light on prevention. © Society for Personality Research (Inc.).

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Yazdi, K., & Katzian, C. (2017). Addictive potential of online-gambling. a prevalence study from Austria. Psychiatria Danubina, 29(3), 376-378. doi:10.24869/psyd.2017.376

There are hints, that online-gambling has a higher addictive potential than offline-gambling. In this study prevalence and sociodemographic distribution of online-vs. offline-gambling in Austria are gathered and possible relations discussed. Problematic gambling-behavior was assessed via Lie-And-Bet questionnaire from Johnson. The results indicate a tendency of younger gamblers and particularly problematic gamblers towards online-gambling. Considering the substantial addictive potential of online-gambling and hints of a future trend away from offline-towards online-gambling, preventive measures like public restrictions for online providers and awareness campaigns for consumers about the dangers of online-gambling offers are reasonable. © Medicinska naklada-Zagreb, Croatia.

Social Casino Games and Simulated Gambling

Abarbanel, B., Gainsbury, S. M., King, D., Hing, N., & Delfabbro, P. H. (2017). Gambling Games on Social Platforms: How Do Advertisements for Social Casino Games Target Young Adults? Policy and Internet, 9(2), 184-209. doi:10.1002/poi3.135

Social casino gaming, which simulates gambling games on social platforms, has become increasingly popular and is rapidly merging with the gambling industry. Advertisements for social casino games, however, are not bound by the same regulations as real money gambling, despite their similarities. We performed a content analysis of a sample of 115 unique social casino gaming advertisements captured by young adults during their regular Internet use. The results showed that the advertisement imagery typically featured images likely to appeal to young adults, such as bright colors, character images of young adults, cartoon animal characters, gambling and sporting activities, references to popular culture, and references to Las Vegas. Latent and manifest message themes included glamorization of gambling, winning, normalization of gambling, play for free, and a general encouragement to play. Notably, nearly 90 percent of the advertisements contained no responsible or problem gambling language, despite the gambling-like content. As young people are receptive of messages that encourage gambling, we recommend that gaming companies recognize the potential harms of advertisements and embrace corporate social responsibility standards. This includes adding warning messages to advertisements for gambling-themed games and ensuring that marketing messages do not encourage excessive gambling. © 2016 Policy Studies Organization

Derevensky, J. L., & Gainsbury, S. M. (2016). Social casino gaming and adolescents: Should we be concerned and is regulation in sight? International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 44, 1-6. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2015.08.025

While gambling has traditionally been viewed as an adult activity, there is a growing body of research that a significant number of adolescents are not only gambling but are experiencing gambling related problems. As ease of access via Internet wagering has increased, so too have some of the concomitant problems. Social casino gambling, often thought of gambling without risking one's money through the use of virtual currency, has become increasingly popular. The current review examines whether we should be concerned over its widespread use and whether such social games should be regulated. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd.

Dussault, F., Brunelle, N., Kairouz, S., Rousseau, M., Leclerc, D., Tremblay, J., . . . Dufour, M. (2017). Transition from playing with simulated gambling games to gambling with real money: a longitudinal study in adolescence. International Gambling Studies, 17(3), 386- 400. doi:10.1080/14459795.2017.1343366

Digital technology advances have supported an expansion of gambling activities, which is notable via the advent of simulated gambling games. Simulated gambling reproduces 'real' gambling activities, which

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enables the users to gamble without investing money. According to research evidence, a certain number of adolescents are playing with these games, but until now little has been known about how they could facilitate the migration to gambling with real money. Using a longitudinal design with a one-year interval period, the goal of this study was to assess the potential transition between playing with simulated gambling and the initiation to gambling with real money. The final sample was constituted of 1220 adolescents (age range = 14 to 18 y.o.) who had never played with real money at the first measurement time. At the second measurement time, 28.8% of the participants had gambled for the first time with real money. Logistic regressions revealed that the predictive association between simulated gambling and gambling with real money only holds for adolescents who transitioned from simulated poker to poker with real money. These findings highlight the need for regulation and monitoring on Internet gambling poker sites, as well as further research to assess the mechanisms at work.

Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Adolescent gambling and gambling-type games on social networking sites: Issues, concerns, and recommendations. Aloma-Revista De Psicologia Ciencies De L Educacio I De L Esport, 33(2), 31-37. Research indicates that compared to the general population, teenagers and students make the most use of social networking sites (SNSs). Although SNSs were originally developed to foster online communication between individuals, they now have the capability for other types of behaviour to be engaged in such as gambling and gaming. The present paper focuses on gambling and the playing of gambling-type games via SNSs and comprises a selective narrative overview of some of the main concerns and issues that have been voiced concerning gambling and gambling-type games played via social network sites. Overall, there is little empirical evidence relating to the psychosocial impact of adolescents engaging in gambling and gambling-type activities on SNSs, and the evidence that does exist does not allow definitive conclusions to be made. However, it is recommended that stricter age verification measures should be adopted for social games via SNSs particularly where children and adolescents are permitted to engage in gambling-related content, even where real money is not involved.

Kim, H. S., Wohl, M. J. A., Gupta, R., & Derevensky, J. (2016). From the mouths of social media users: A focus group study exploring the social casino gaming-online gambling link. J Behav Addict, 5(1), 115-121. doi:10.1556/2006.5.2016.014

Background and aims: The potential link between social casino gaming and online gambling has raised considerable concerns among clinicians, researchers and policy makers. Unfortunately, however, there is a paucity of research examining this potential link, especially among young adults. This represents a significant gap given young adults are frequently exposed to and are players of social casino games. Methods: To better understand the potential link between social casino games and online gambling, we conducted three focus groups (N = 30) at two large Canadian Universities with college students who were avid social media users (who are regularly exposed to social casino games). Results: Many participants spontaneously mentioned that social casino games were a great opportunity to build gambling skills before playing for real money. Importantly, some participants expressed a belief that there is a direct progression from social casino gaming to online gambling. Conversely, others believed the transition to online gambling depended on a person's personality, rather than mere exposure to social casino games. While many young adults in our focus groups felt immune to the effects of social casino games, there was a general consensus that social casino games may facilitate the transition to online gambling among younger teenagers (i.e., 12-14 yr olds), due to the ease of accessibility and early exposure. Discussion: The results of the present research point to the need for more study on the effects of social casino gambling as well as a discussion concerning regulation of social casino games in order to minimize their potential risks. © 2016 Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest.

Kim, H. S., Wohl, M. J. A., Gupta, R., & Derevensky, J. L. (2017). Why do young adults gamble online? A qualitative study of motivations to transition from social casino games to online gambling. Asian Journal of Gambling Issues and Public Health, 7(1), 6. doi:10.1186/s40405- 017-0025-4

The present research examined the mechanisms of initiating online gambling among young adults. Of particular interest was whether social casino gaming was noted as part of young adults' experience with

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online gambling. This is because there is growing concern that social casino gaming may be a 'gateway' to online gambling. Three focus groups (N=21) were conducted with young adult online gamblers from two large Canadian Universities. Participants noted the role of peer influence as well as incentives (e.g., sign up bonuses) as important factors that motivated them to start engaging in online gambling. Participants also noted a link between social casino games and online gambling. Specifically, several young adults reported migrating to online gambling within a relatively short period after engaging with social casino games. Potential mechanisms that may lead to the migration from social casino games to online gambling included the role of advertisements and the inflated pay out rates on these free to play gambling like games. The results suggest initiatives to prevent the development of disordered gambling should understand the potential of social casino gaming to act as a gateway to online gambling, especially amongst this vulnerable population.

King, D. L., & Delfabbro, P. H. (2016). Adolescents’ perceptions of parental influences on commercial and simulated gambling activities. International Gambling Studies, 16(3), 424- 441. doi:10.1080/14459795.2016.1220611

Parents can have a major influence on young people’s access to and participation in gambling activities. However, with the rise of digital online gambling, there is greater potential for young people to freely explore and engage in gambling activities without parental oversight. This study examined perceived parental influences on adolescents’ gambling activities, including differences in these influences across commercial and simulated types of activities, and the association between parental influences and problem gambling symptoms. A survey of 824 adolescents from 3 secondary schools was conducted. The results indicated that financial gambling was usually facilitated by a parent, particularly for scratch tickets and sports betting. Simulated gambling activities, such as social casino games, tended to be reported as being unsupervised by parents. Young people’s perceptions of parents’ measures to limit, restrict or oversee online and electronic activities were not significantly associated with youth simulated gambling. Their perceptions of parental influences were not significant predictors of problem gambling behaviours. This study underscores the need to examine potential differences in how adolescents develop an understanding of different gambling activities without parental influences, and adds to the continuing debate on the necessity of regulation and other countermeasures to limit young people’s access to simulated gambling activities. © 2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.

King, D. L., & Delfabbro, P. H. (2016). Early exposure to digital simulated gambling: A review and conceptual model. Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 198-206. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.09.012

Young people are increasingly exposed to interactive simulated gambling activities and promotions via digital and social media. However, the individual harms and social burdens associated with early exposure to simulated gambling activities currently are not well understood. This review presents a two- pathway model that conceptualizes the potential risks and benefits of early exposure to a variety of digital simulated gambling activities (e.g., 'free-to-play' online casinos, gambling-like video games, and social casino games). The catalyst pathway describes risk factors associated with early exposure to simulated gambling that may increase the risk of problem gambling. The containment pathway describes protective factors that may increase the likelihood of disinterest in gambling, or a tendency to engage in safe and responsible gambling. This model emphasises the interaction between cognitive-behavioral processes and the structural design of simulated gambling activities. This foundational work may support three general aims in gambling addiction research and theory: (1) to assist in identifying young simulated gamblers who may be more vulnerable to developing problem gambling in adulthood, while also accounting for those less likely to be at risk, (2) to guide research agendas on the mental health profiles and natural histories of individuals involved in simulated gambling activities, and (3) to inform clinical and public health interventions for gambling addiction. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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King, D. L., Delfabbro, P. H., Kaptsis, D., & Zwaans, T. (2014). Adolescent simulated gambling via digital and social media: An emerging problem. Computers in Human Behavior, 31(1), 305- 313. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.048

Recently, there has been significant expansion in the range of gambling activities supported by digital technology. The convergence of gambling and digital media is of particular concern with respect to the immense potential for earlier age of gambling involvement, and development of positive attitudes and/or behavioral intentions toward gambling. This study examined the prevalence of adolescent involvement in a range of digital and social media gambling activities, and the association between exposure to, and involvement in, simulated gambling and monetary gambling and indicators of pathological gambling risk. A total of 1287 adolescents aged 12-17 years were recruited from seven secondary schools in Adelaide, South Australia. The results indicated that a significant proportion of young people engage in a range of simulated gambling activities via internet gambling sites, social media, smartphone applications, and video-games. A logistic regression analysis showed that adolescents with a history of engagement in simulated gambling activities appear to be at greater risk of endorsing indicators of pathological gambling. These findings highlight the need for further research on the potential risks of early exposure to simulated gambling activities, as well as greater consideration of the need for regulation and monitoring of gambling activity via digital technologies. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

King, D. L., Russell, A., Gainsbury, S., Delfabbro, P. H., & Hing, N. (2016). The cost of virtual wins: An examination of gambling-related risks in youth who spend money on social casino games. J Behav Addict, 5(3), 401-409. doi:10.1556/2006.5.2016.067

Background and aims: Social casino games (SCGs) are not technically considered a form of gambling but they do enable players to spend money in a game that is gambling themed or structurally approximate to gambling. It has been theorized that SCGs could be a gateway to gambling activities or otherwise normalize the experience of gambling for young people, particularly when money becomes involved. The aim of this study was to investigate whether adolescents' financial expenditure in SCGs was associated with broader gambling activity, including level of participation, expenditure, and problem gambling symptoms. Methods: An online survey was administered to 555 adolescents, including 130 SCG players (78 non-paying and 52 paying users). Results: Paying SCG users tended to be employed males who play more frequently and engage in more SCG activities, who report more symptoms of problem gambling and higher psychological distress than non-paying SCG users. Paying SCG users reported more frequent engagement and spending in monetary gambling activities, and two-thirds of SCG payers recalled that their SCG use had preceded involvement in financial gambling. Discussion and conclusions: Spending in simulated gambling activities by adolescents may be a risk factor for problem gambling. Although SCGs may currently defy classification as a form of gambling, these activities will likely continue to be scrutinized by regulators for the use of dubious or exploitative payment features offered in a gambling- themed format that is available to persons of all ages. © 2016 The Author(s).

Meyer, G., Brosowski, T., Von Meduna, M., & Hayer, T. (2015). Simulated gambling: Analysis and synthesis of empirical findings on games in internet-based social networks, in the form of demo versions, and computer and video games. Zeitschrift Fur Gesundheitspsychologie, 23(4), 153-168. doi:10.1026/0943-8149/a000144

Simulated gambling in internet-based social networks, in the form of demo versions of gambling, and computer and video games enjoy growing popularity. Lacking monetary stakes, these forms of games do not fulfill the legal criteria for gambling and thus are not, for example, subject to age restrictions. This article aims at illustrating the presumably health-relevant risk potential of simulated gambling by means of a systematic literature review, summarizing the current knowledge based on empirical findings and identifying potential research gaps. The databases PubMed/MEDLINE, PsycINFO, andWeb of Science were searched for peer-reviewed, empirical articles with relevant keywords and complemented by dissertations and market analyses. In sum, 56 references are included in the analysis. While certain game features, for example, operator-controlled game outcomes, enhance the passion for playing and cognitive bias, an initial longitudinal study confirms the predictive value of microtransactions for the migration from simulated to real gambling. Targeted advertising increases the migration process.

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However, to date, the question ofwhether the involvement of social components has risk-increasing effects remains unanswered. Further findings related to participation motives, consumption patterns, and comorbidity are also summarized. The collection of empirical data on the impact of simulated gambling represents an important aspect of future research to delineate scientific-based prevention and regulatory measures for these games. © Hogrefe Verlag, Göttingen 2015.

Youth Gambling and Internet Use/Video Games

Blaszczynski, A., Russell, A., Gainsbury, S., & Hing, N. (2016). Mental Health and Online, Land- Based and Mixed Gamblers. Journal of Gambling Studies, 32(1), 261-275. doi:10.1007/s10899-015-9528-z

Although high rates of problem gambling have been identified among Internet gamblers, most studies have failed to identify the relative contribution of multiple forms of gambling as opposed to the exclusive participation in online forms. The aim of this study was to investigate differences in mental health status in exclusive online, exclusive land-based, and mixed Internet and land-based samples of gamblers drawn from the general population. A sample of 4594 respondents completing an online survey were categorised as exclusive online, land-based and mixed form gamblers. Participants completed a questionnaire eliciting demographic details, participation on all forms of gambling, use of alcohol, tobacco and drugs, help-seeking, and personal problems experienced due to gambling, as well as measures of problem gambling and psychological distress. Findings indicated that mixed gamblers exhibited higher problem gambling scores, level of gambling involvement, and consumption of alcohol during gambling than exclusive online gamblers. Land-based gamblers experienced higher levels of psychological distress, self-acknowledged need for treatment, and help-seeking behaviour. These findings suggest that exclusive online gamblers represent a different subpopulation at lower risk of harm compared to gamblers engaging in multiple forms. Understanding the characteristics of different problem gambling subpopulations may inform the development of more effective targeted interventions. © 2015, Springer Science+Business Media New York.

Brezing, C., Derevensky, J. L., & Potenza, M. N. (2010). Non-substance-addictive behaviors in youth: pathological gambling and problematic Internet use. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America, 19(3), 625-641. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2010.03.012

Adolescence is characterized by participation in multiple novel and potentially risky behaviors. Amongst these behaviors are gambling and use of the Internet, and excessive engagement in these activities (as seen in pathological gambling and problematic Internet use) may be accompanied by serious impairments in school, mental health, and social functioning. This article reviews the potential impact of pathological gambling and problematic Internet use in youth, the relevance of subsyndromal levels of participation, and how prevention and treatment strategies may be considered and tested within a developmental framework. Copyright (c) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Calado, F., Alexandre, J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Mom, Dad It's Only a Game! Perceived Gambling and Gaming Behaviors among Adolescents and Young Adults: an Exploratory Study. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 12(6), 772-794. doi:10.1007/s11469- 014-9509-y

Gambling and gaming are increasingly popular activities among adolescents. Although gambling is illegal in Portugal for youth under the age of 18 years, gambling opportunities are growing, mainly due to similarity between gambling and other technology-based games. Given the relationship between gambling and gaming, the paucity of research on gambling and gaming behaviors in Portugal, and the potential negative consequences these activities may have in the lives of young people, the goal of this study was to explore and compare the perceptions of these two behaviors between Portuguese adolescents and young adults. Results from six focus groups (comprising 37 participants aged between

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13 and 26 years) indicated different perceptions for the two age groups. For adolescents, gaming was associated with addiction whereas for young adults it was perceived as a tool for increasing personal and social skills. With regard to gambling, adolescents associated it with luck and financial rewards, whereas young adults perceived it as an activity with more risks than benefits. These results suggest developmental differences that have implications for intervention programs and future research.

Critselis, E., Janikian, M., Paleomilitou, N., Oikonomou, D., Kassinopoulos, M., Kormas, G., & Tsitsika, A. (2013). Internet gambling is a predictive factor of Internet addictive behavior. J Behav Addict, 2(4), 224-230. doi:10.1556/jba.2.2013.4.5

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Adolescent Internet gambling is associated with concomitant addictive behaviors. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of Internet gambling practices, its impact upon psychosocial development and to evaluate the association between gambling practices and Internet addictive behavior among Cypriot adolescents.; METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted in a convenience sample (n = 805) of adolescents attending selected public schools (9th and 10th grades) in Cyprus. Anonymous self-completed questionnaires were used including the Internet Addiction Test and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.; RESULTS: Among the study population (n = 805), approximately one third (n = 28; 34.9%) reported Internet gambling. Internet gamblers were twice as likely to utilize Internet cafe portals (adjusted odds ratio for gender and age, AOR: 2.13; 95% confidence interval, 95% CI: 1.56-2.91) for interactive game-playing (AOR: 6.84; 95% CI: 4.23-11.07), chat-rooms (AOR: 2.57; 95% CI: 1.31-4.85), and retrieval of sexual information (AOR: 1.99; 95% CI: 1.42-2.81). Among Internet gamblers 26.0% (n = 73) reported borderline addictive Internet use and 4.3% (n = 12) addictive behavior. Internet gamblers more often had comprehensive psychosocial and emotional maladjustment (AOR: 4.00; 95% CI: 1.97-8.13), including Abnormal Conduct Problems (AOR: 3.26; 95% CI: 2.00-5.32), Emotional Symptoms (AOR: 1.78; 95% CI: 1.02-3.11), and Peer Problems (AOR: 2.44; 95% CI: 1.08-5.48) scores. The multivariate regression analyses indicated that the single independent predictor associated with Internet addictive behavior was Internet gambling (AOR: 5.66; 95% CI: 1.45- 22.15).; DISCUSSION: Internet gambling is associated with addictive Internet use, as well as emotional maladjustment and behavioral problems, among Cypriot adolescents.; CONCLUSIONS: Longitudinal studies are needed to elucidate whether Internet gambling constitutes a risk factor for the development of Internet addictive behavior among adolescents.

Delfabbro, P., & King, D. (2015). On Finding the C in CBT: The Challenges of Applying Gambling- Related Cognitive Approaches to Video-Gaming. Journal of Gambling Studies, 31(1), 315- 329. doi:10.1007/s10899-013-9416-3

Many similarities have been drawn between the activities of gambling and video-gaming. Both are repetitive activities with intermittent reinforcement, decision-making opportunities, and elements of risk- taking. As a result, it might be tempting to believe that cognitive strategies that are used to treat problem gambling might also be applied to problematic video gaming. In this paper, we argue that many cognitive approaches to gambling that typically involve a focus on erroneous beliefs about probabilities and randomness are not readily applicable to video gaming. Instead, we encourage a focus on other clusters of cognitions that relate to: (a) the salience and over-valuing of gaming rewards, experiences, and identities, (b) maladaptive and inflexible rules about behaviour, (c) the use of video-gaming to maintain self-esteem, and (d) video-gaming for social status and recognition. This theoretical discussion is advanced as a starting point for the development of more refined cognitive treatment approaches for problematic video gaming.

Fu, W., & Yu, C. K. C. (2015). Predicting Disordered Gambling with Illusory Control, Gaming Preferences, and Internet Gaming Addiction among Chinese Youth. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 13(3), 391-401. doi:10.1007/s11469-014-9532-z

The application of cognitive therapy in treating gambling disorder pivots on the assumption that maladaptive gambling behavior is to a certain degree governed by flawed information processing. However, if gambling disorder is more predicted by factors other than distortions in thinking, then cognitive therapy might not be the most suitable approach to problem gambling. This study investigated

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the extent to which the illusion of control can predict disordered gambling among Chinese youth. Some key correlates of pathological gambling were considered, including sex, preferences for the type of games, substance use while playing online or offline gambling games, amount of monetary reward, and Internet gaming addiction. An inventory made up of five main sections - such as the Illusion of Control Beliefs scale - was administered to 700 Hong Kong Chinese students to assess their beliefs about gambling, online and offline gambling behaviors, and tendencies to disordered gambling and Internet gaming addiction. The results indicated that the perceived intention to obtain desired outcomes, false attribution of chance-determined outcomes to the self's effort and ability, and perceived loss of control over gambling behaviors can serve as effective predictors of disordered gambling in the Chinese youth population. This held true even with other important parameters being controlled. Accordingly, intervention tactics that zero in on dysfunctional cognitive processes can form a pertinent approach to working with Chinese pathological gamblers.

Griffiths, M., & Wood, R. T. (2000). Risk factors in adolescence: the case of gambling, videogame playing, and the internet. Journal of Gambling Studies, 16(2-3), 199-225. doi:10.1023/a:1009433014881

It has been noted that adolescents may be more susceptible to pathological gambling. Not only is it usually illegal, but it appears to be related to high levels of problem gambling and other delinquent activities such as illicit drug taking and alcohol abuse. This paper examines risk factors not only in adolescent gambling but also in videogame playing (which shares many similarities with gambling). There appear to be three main forms of adolescent gambling that have been widely researched. Adolescent gambling activities and general risk factors in adolescent gambling are provided. As well, the influence of technology on adolescents in the form of both videogames and the Internet are examined. It is argued that technologically advanced forms of gambling may be highly appealing to adolescents.

Griffiths, M., & Wood, R. T. A. (2005). Youth and technology: The case of gambling, video-game playing, and the internet. In Gambling Problems in Youth: Theoretical and Applied Perspectives (pp. 101-120): Springer US.

The field of gambling is certainly not immune to the technological revolution taking place elsewhere in other fields. Technology continues to provide new market opportunities in the shape of advanced slot machines, video-games, Internet gambling, interactive television gambling and telephone/ mobile phone gambling. In addition, other established gambling forms are becoming more technologically driven (e.g. bingo, keno); all of which are appealing to adolescents. The global expansion of gambling coupled with the increased popularity of technology, the Internet, and various digital technologies, has led the gambling industry to invest heavily in Internet gambling. Prospects for new and extended business are potentially large as more people gain access to this technology. Further, it has been alleged that social pathologies are beginning to surface in cyberspace in the form of 'technological addictions' (e.g., Griffiths, 1998). The growth of technological forms of gambling raises pertinent questions particularly when it comes to adolescent participation. This chapter provides on overview of three areas of growing interest to adolescents-slot machines, videogames, and Internet gambling.

Guertler, D., Rumpf, H.-J., Bischof, A., Kastirke, N., Petersen, K. U., John, U., & Meyer, C. (2014). Assessment of problematic internet use by the Compulsive Internet Use Scale and the Internet Addiction Test: a sample of problematic and pathological gamblers. Eur Addict Res, 20(2), 75-81. doi:10.1159/000355076

This study aims to analyze psychometric properties and validity of the Compulsive Internet Use Scale (CIUS) and the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) and, second, to determine a threshold for the CIUS which matches the IAT cut-off for detecting problematic Internet use. A total of 292 subjects with problematic or pathological gambling (237 men, 55 women) aged 14-63 years and with private Internet use for at least 1 h per working or weekend day were recruited via different recruitment channels. Results include that both scales were internally consistent (Cronbach's alpha=0.9) and had satisfactory convergent validity (r=0.75; 95% CI 0.70-0.80). The correlation with duration of private Internet use per week was significantly higher for the CIUS (r=0.54) compared to the IAT (r=0.40). Among all participants, 25.3% were classified as

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problematic Internet users based on the IAT with a cut-off≥40. The highest proportion of congruent classified cases results from a CIUS cut-off ≥18 (sensitivity 79.7%, specificity 79.4%). However, a higher cut-off (≥21) seems to be more appropriate for prevalence estimation of problematic Internet use. © 2013 S. Karger AG, Basel.

Gutiérrez, A. E., Fernández, D. H., Gonzalvo, I. S., & Bilbao, P. J. (2014). Mediating role of emotional regulation between impulsive behavior in gambling, internet and videogame abuse, and dysfunctional symptomatology in young adults and adolescents. Adicciones, 26(4), 282-290. The way emotions are regulated might affect the engagement on risk behaviors in adolescents and young adults. Therefore, studying the relationship between these variables could be of great importance. Some of the less studied risky behaviors are pathological gambling, and Internet and videogame abuse. This research aims to analyze the existing relationship between such risky behaviors, emotion regulation, and dysfunctional psychological symptomatology (depression, anxiety, phobic anxiety, somatization, obsessive–compulsive behavior, interpersonal sensitivity, hostility, paranoid ideation, and psychoticism). In addition, it also looks to assess whether emotional regulation plays a mediating role between pathological gambling, and Internet and videogame abuse, and psychological symptomatology. The sample was composed of 1312 young adults and adolescents, aged between 12 and 30, recruited from scholar centers, universities and free time groups, and from associations and centers associated with FEJAR (Spanish Federation of Rehabilitated Gamblers). Participants completed measurements of impulsive behavior, emotion regulation, and dysfunctional symptomatology. Results showed that there is generally a positive and significant relation between these variables. Moreover, it has been pointed out that emotion regulation mediates the association between impulsive behavior and dysfunctional symptomatology among those young adults and adolescents who engage in these impulsive behaviors, except for the relation between videogame abuse and depressive symptomatology. Training in emotional regulation skills could be useful in dealing with and treating this type of behaviors in adolescents and young adults. © 2014 Edita Socidrogalcohol. All rights reserved.

Johansson, A., & Gotestam, K. G. (2004). Problems with computer games without monetary reward: Similarity to pathological gambling. Psychological reports, 95(2), 641-650. doi:10.2466/pr0.95.2.641-650

An epidemiological study was performed on a representative sample of the Norwegian youth population (12 to 18 years old, N = 3,237; response rate 45.2%). The percentage who were frequent players (weekly) of different computer games was 63.3%, and the percentage of infrequent users was 36.7%. A mean of 2.7% (4.2% of the boys, 1.1% of the girls) could be described as exhibiting "pathological playing" according to the criteria in the 1998 Diagnostic Questionnaire for Internet Addiction of Young, and an additional 9.82% (14.5% of the boys, 5.0% of the girls) were considered to be engaging in "at-risk playing." Of the weekly gamblers, 4.2% fulfilled 5 criteria for pathological playing, and an additional 15.5% 3 to 4 criteria, i.e., at-risk playing. This indicated that frequent gaming on computer games without money rewards may be related to problematic playing even though no monetary reward is involved.

Laconi, S., Andreoletti, A., Chauchard, E., Rodgers, R. F., & Chabrol, H. (2016). Problematic Internet use, time spent online and personality traits. Encephale-Revue De Psychiatrie Clinique Biologique Et Therapeutique, 42(3), 214-218. doi:10.1016/j.encep.2015.12.017

Background. - Internet addiction or problematic Internet use is a recent and increasingly recognized disorder which has been consistently associated with many psychiatric disorders, adding to the documented negative consequences of problematic Internet use. However, very few studies have examined the relationship between problematic Internet use and personality traits and none in a French sample. Moreover, those which have evaluated this relationship have mainly been conducted on small samples. Objective. - The main goal of our study was to explore the relationship between problematic Internet use, time spent online and personality traits in a French sample, taking into account the presence of depressive symptoms, and gender. Methods. - A sample of 276 participants aged from 18 to 50 (M = 28; SD = 8.9) completed a questionnaire assessing problematic Internet use, time spent online, the presence often personality traits and depressive symptoms. Results. - Our results revealed significant

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differences between genders. Among men, problematic Internet use was associated with personality clusters A and B while in women no cluster or personality traits were associated. Time spent online was predicted by schizoid personality traits among men and avoidant personality traits among women. Discussion. - Our results indicate that cluster A (schizoid and schizotypal) and cluster B traits (borderline and antisocial) play a more important role in problematic Internet use than cluster C traits among men. Differences between men and women regarding the relationships between personality traits, time online and problematic Internet use may be related to differences in the activities engaged in by men and women online. We observed that communication websites use was more prevalent among women while erotic, gambling and shopping websites use was more prevalent among men suggesting that the characteristics of problematic Internet use may vary according to gender. Conclusion. - Few studies have examined the relationship between problematic Internet use, time spent online and personality traits, and none among a French sample. These results suggest the importance of assessing the impact of personality traits on Internet use, particularly on time spent online, by differentiating results in terms of gender and online activities. (C) 2016 L'Encephale, Paris.

Lee, H. W., Choi, J. S., Shin, Y. C., Lee, J. Y., Jung, H. Y., & Kwon, J. S. (2012). Impulsivity in Internet Addiction: A Comparison with Pathological Gambling. Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking, 15(7), 373-377. doi:10.1089/cyber.2012.0063

Internet addiction has been considered to be associated with poor impulse control. The aim of this study is to compare the trait impulsivity of those suffering from Internet addiction with that of individuals suffering from pathological gambling. Twenty-seven patients diagnosed with Internet addiction (age: 24.78 +/- 4.37 years), 27 patients diagnosed with pathological gambling (age: 25.67 +/- 3.97 years), and 27 healthy controls (age: 25.33 +/- 2.79 years) were enrolled in this study. All patients were men seeking treatment. Trait impulsivity and the severity of the Internet addiction and pathological gambling were measured by the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11, the Young's Internet Addiction Test, and the South Oaks Gambling Screen, respectively. The Beck Depression Inventory and the Beck Anxiety Inventory were also administered to all subjects. Our results show that those suffering from Internet addiction showed increased levels of trait impulsivity which were comparable to those of patients diagnosed with pathological gambling. Additionally, the severity of Internet addiction was positively correlated with the level of trait impulsivity in patients with Internet addiction. These results state that Internet addiction can be conceptualized as an impulse control disorder and that trait impulsivity is a marker for vulnerability to Internet addiction.

Müller, K. W., Beutel, M. E., Egloff, B., & Wölfling, K. (2014). Investigating risk factors for internet gaming disorder: A comparison of patients with addictive gaming, pathological gamblers and healthy controls regarding the big five personality traits. Eur Addict Res, 20(3), 129- 136. doi:10.1159/000355832

Engaging in online games has become increasingly important as a part of leisure activity in adolescents and adults. While the majority of people use these games in a healthy way, epidemiological studies show that some develop excessive use and symptoms that are related to those of substance-related addictions. Despite increasing research concerning the epidemiology of internet gaming disorder (IGD), predisposing factors have been examined to a lesser extent. Knowing about specific risk factors would help clarify the nosological features of IGD and enhance prevention and intervention. This study aimed to evaluate the relationships between personality traits and IGD. A total of 115 patients meeting the criteria for IGD were compared to 167 control subjects displaying either regular or intense use of online games. Additionally, 115 patients meeting diagnostic criteria for pathological gambling were included. IGD was associated with higher neuroticism, decreased conscientiousness and low extraversion. The comparisons to pathological gamblers indicate that low conscientiousness and low extraversion in particular are characteristic of IGD. An integration of personality variables into an etiopathological model describing presumable mechanisms fostering and maintaining addictive online gaming is proposed. This model could be helpful for the theoretical understanding of addictive gaming, public health campaigns and psychoeducation within therapeutic settings. © 2013 S. Karger AG, Basel.

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Müller, K. W., Dreier, M., Beutel, M. E., & Wölfling, K. (2016). Is Sensation Seeking a correlate of excessive behaviors and behavioral addictions? A detailed examination of patients with Gambling Disorder and Internet Addiction. Psychiatry Research, 242, 319-325. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.06.004

Sensation Seeking has repeatedly been related to substance use. Also, its role as a correlate of Gambling Disorder has been discussed although research has led to heterogeneous results. Likewise, first studies on Internet Addiction have indicated increased Sensation Seeking, to some extent contradicting clinical impression of patients suffering from internet addiction. We assessed Sensation Seeking in a clinical sample of n=251 patients with Gambling Disorder, n=243 patients with internet addiction, n=103 clients with excessive but not addictive internet use, and n=142 healthy controls. The clinical groups were further sub-divided according to the preferred type of addictive behavior (slot- machine gambling vs. high arousal gambling activities and internet gaming disorder vs. other internet- related addictive behaviors). Decreased scores in some subscales of Sensation Seeking were found among male patients compared to healthy controls with no differences between patients with Gambling Disorder and Internet Addiction. The type of preferred gambling or online activity was not related to differences in Sensation Seeking. Previous findings indicating only small associations between Sensation Seeking and Gambling Disorder were confirmed. Regarding Internet Addiction our results contradict findings from non-clinical samples. Sensation Seeking might be relevant in initiating contact to the health care system. © 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd.

Parker, J. D. A., Taylor, R. N., Eastabrook, J. M., Schell, S. L., & Wood, L. M. (2008). Problem gambling in adolescence: Relationships with internet misuse, gaming abuse and emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 45(2), 174-180. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.03.018

Examined the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and several addiction-related behaviors (gambling, internet use, and video game playing) in two community-based samples of adolescents: 13-15 year olds (N = 209) and 16-18 year olds (N = 458). EI was measured using the youth version of the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i:YV; Bar-On & Parker, 2000), while the addiction-related behaviors were assessed using the Internet Addiction Questionnaire (IADQ; Young, 1998), the Problem Video Game Playing Scale (PVGS; Salguero & Moran, 2002), and the South Oaks Gambling Screen-Revised for Adolescents (SOGS-RA; Winters, Stinchfield, & Fulkerson, 1993). EI was found to be a moderate to strong predictor of addiction-related behaviors in both groups (parameter estimates were -.76 for the younger adolescents and -.56 for the older adolescents). © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Pont, L., & Ballon, B. (2013). Online gambling, online gaming and Internet overuse: Innovative approaches to assessment and treatment for transitional age youth. J Behav Addict, 2, 28- 28.

Ruiz-Olivares, R., Lucena, V., Pino, M. J., & Herruzo, J. (2010). Analysis of behavior related to use of the internet, mobile telephones, compulsive shopping and gambling among university students. Adicciones, 22(4), 301-310. The aim of this study is to obtain knowledge about habits related to addictive behaviour (pathological gambling, Internet, compulsive shopping, use of mobile telephones, etc.) that may be displayed by young students at the University of Cordoba (Spain), and to relate this behaviour with variables such as age, sex, course year, macro-field of study (arts/sciences) and the consumption of substances such as alcohol, tobacco, cannabis and cocaine. Using an ex-post facto single-group design (Montero & León, 2007), we applied a questionnaire especially designed to gather socio-demographic information on substance use and behavioural patterns related to "non-substance" addictions, which included the Shopping Addiction Test, Echeburúa's Internet Addiction Test (2003) and Fernández- Montalvo and Echeburúa's Short Pathological Gambling Questionnaire (1997). A total of 1,011 students participated in the study (42.7% males and 57.3% females), with an age range of 18 to 29. Significant differences were found between mean score on the questionnaires and variables such as age, sex, field of studies and course year. It would seem that being female is a protective factor for Internet and gambling addiction, being a sciences student is a risk factor for gambling addiction, and being older and being an arts student

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are risk factors for shopping addiction. In conclusion, it can be stated that the students surveyed showed moderate incidence of behaviours such as Internet browsing, gambling, shopping and mobile phone use, whilst a very small group are close to having an addiction problem with such behaviours.

Tsitsika, A., Critselis, E., Janikian, M., Kormas, G., & Kafetzis, D. A. (2011). Association Between Internet Gambling and Problematic Internet Use Among Adolescents. Journal of Gambling Studies, 27(3), 389-400. doi:10.1007/s10899-010-9223-z

The study objectives were to evaluate the correlates and psychosocial implications of internet gambling among adolescents, as well as the association between internet gambling and problematic internet use. A cross-sectional study design was applied among a random sample (N = 484) of adolescents (71.2% boys; 28.8% girls; mean age ± standard deviation, SD = 14.88 ± 0.55 years). Self-completed questionnaires, including internet gambling practices, internet use characteristics, Young Internet Addiction Test, and Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire were utilized. The prevalence of internet gambling was 15.1%. Internet gambling was associated with psychosocial maladjustment, including Abnormal Conduct Problems (gender adjusted odds ratio, AOR = 3.83; 95% confidence interval, 95% CI: 1.86-7.92) and Borderline Peer Problems (AOR = 2.04; 95% CI: 1.09-3.85). The likelihood of concomitant problematic internet use was significantly higher among internet gamblers (AOR = 1.81; 95% CI: 1. 03-3.19). Multivariate regression analyses indicated that among all characteristics of internet use assessed, utilizing the internet for the purposes of gambling practices was independently associated with problematic internet use among adolescents (AOR = 3. 43; 95% CI: 1.40-8.39). Thus, the study findings suggest that adolescents who participate in internet gambling practices are more likely to concomitantly present with problematic internet use. © 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.

Walther, B., Morgenstern, M., & Hanewinkel, R. (2012). Co-occurrence of addictive behaviours: Personality factors related to substance use, gambling and computer gaming. Eur Addict Res, 18(4), 167-174. doi:10.1159/000335662

Aim: To investigate co-occurrence and shared personality characteristics of problematic computer gaming, problematic gambling and substance use. Methods: Cross-sectional survey data were collected from 2,553 German students aged 12-25 years. Self-report measures of substance use (alcohol, tobacco and cannabis), problematic gambling (South Oaks Gambling Screen - Revised for Adolescents, SOGS- RA), problematic computer gaming (Video Game Dependency Scale, KFN-CSAS-II), and of twelve different personality characteristics were obtained. Results: Analyses revealed positive correlations between tobacco, alcohol and cannabis use and a smaller positive correlation between problematic gambling and problematic computer gaming. Problematic computer gaming co-occurred only with cannabis use, whereas problematic gambling was associated with all three types of substance use. Multivariate multilevel analyses showed differential patterns of personality characteristics. High impulsivity was the only personality characteristic associated with all five addictive behaviours. Depression and extraversion were specific to substance users. Four personality characteristics were specifically associated with problematic computer gaming: irritability/aggression, social anxiety, ADHD, and low self- esteem. Conclusions: Problematic gamblers seem to be more similar to substance users than problematic computer gamers. From a personality perspective, results correspond to the inclusion of gambling in the same DSM-V category as substance use and question a one-to-one proceeding for computer gaming. Copyright © 2012 S. Karger AG.

Wolfling, K., Buhler, M., Lemenager, T., Morsen, C., & Mann, K. (2009). Gambling and internet addiction. Nervenarzt, 80(9), 1030-+. doi:10.1007/s00115-009-2741-1

Behavioral addictions, especially pathological gambling and internet addiction, have become a growing concern in research and health policy. Similarities between behavioral addictions and substance dependency are currently being discussed in the scientific community. Unfortunately the number of scientific studies on pathological gambling and internet addiction is still very low. The estimated prevalence of pathological gambling among the German population is 0.2-0.5%. These numbers are comparable to prevalence rates reported for illegal drug dependency. About 1.5 million people, i.e. 3% of the German population, are believed to be at risk of internet addiction. Therefore, it is important to

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investigate in more detail the clinical and neuroscientific basis of pathological gambling and internet addiction. In this review we summarize the current status of research regarding pathological gambling and internet addiction and outline possible future research perspectives in the field of neuroimaging and genetics. The aim is to develop a multifactorial and explanatory model which helps to improve the quality of existing therapeutic approaches and prevention strategies. At present, parts of the research are funded by the federal states. The authors of this article, supported by scientific associations, have established a research platform called 'pathological gambling' in which research methods and strategies will be discussed which facilitate the implementation of different studies on pathological gambling.

Wolfling, K., & Muller, K. W. (2010). Pathological gambling and computergame-addiction. Current state of research regarding two subtypes of behavioural addiction. Bundesgesundheitsblatt, Gesundheitsforschung, Gesundheitsschutz, 53(4), 306-312. doi:10.1007/s00103-010-1038-7

Behavioral addictions, like pathological gambling and computer game addiction (or internet addiction), have become a growing concern in research and public interest. Currently similarities between behavioral addictions and substance dependency are controversially discussed in the scientific community. Unfortunately a mismatch exists between the large number of people seeking treatment and the small number of scientific studies on pathological gambling and computer game addiction. Prevalence of pathological gambling among the German population is estimated to be 0.2-0.5%. These estimations are comparable to prevalence rates reported for drug dependency. Latest research states that about 3% of German adolescents and young adults are believed to suffer from computer game addiction. Therefore, it is important to enhance investigations regarding the clinical and neuroscientific basis of computer game addiction. This review offers a summary of current results of research regarding pathological gambling and internet addiction. The phenomenological description of these two disorders is meant to allow a deeper understanding of behavioral addictions.

Wood, R. T. A., Gupta, R., Derevensky, J. L., & Griffiths, M. (2004). Video game playing and gambling in adolescents: Common risk factors. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 14(1), 77-100. doi:10.1300/j029v14n01_05

Video games and gambling often contain very similar elements with both providing intermittent rewards and elements of randomness. Furthermore, at a psychological and behavioral level, slot machine gambling, video lottery terminal (VLT) gambling and video game playing share many of the same features. Despite the similarities between video game playing and gambling there have been very few studies that have specifically examined video game playing in relation to gambling behavior. This Study inquired about the nature of adolescent video game playing, gambling activities, and associated factors. A questionnaire was completed by 996 (549 females, 441 males, 6 unspecified) participants from grades 7- 11, who ranged in age from 10- 17 years. Overall, the results of the study found a clear relationship between video game playing and gambling in adolescents, with problem gamblers being significantly more likely than non-problem gamblers or non-gamblers to spend excessive amounts of time playing video games. Problem gamblers were also significantly more likely than non-problem gamblers or non- gamblers to rate themselves as very good or excellent video game players. Furthermore, problem gamblers were more likely to report that they found video games, similar to electronic machine gambling, to promote dissociation and to be arousing and/or relaxing. (C) 2004 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.

Yau, Y. H. C., Pilver, C. E., Steinberg, M. A., Rugle, L. J., Hoff, R. A., Krishnan-Sarin, S., & Potenza, M. N. (2014). Relationships between problematic Internet use and problem-gambling severity: Findings from a high-school survey. Addictive Behaviors, 39(1), 13-21. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.09.003

With the popularity of Internet use among adolescents, there is concern that some youth may display problematic or addictive patterns of Internet use. Although excessive patterns of Internet use was considered for inclusion in the DSM-5 with pathological gambling and substance-use disorders in a category of addictive disorders, it was determined that more research was needed on Internet-use

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behaviors before such actions be further considered and possibly undertaken. The present study is the first to investigate whether at-risk/problematic Internet use (ARPIU) may moderate the strength of association between problem-gambling severity and gambling-related characteristics and health and well- being measures in adolescents. Survey data from 1884 Connecticut high-school student stratified by Internet use (ARPIU vs. non-ARPIU) were examined in bivariate analyses and logistic regression models. Gambling-related characteristics and health and well-being measures were mostly positively associated with problem-gambling severity in both Internet use groups. Interaction odds ratio revealed that the strength of the associations between problem-gambling severity and marijuana, alcohol and caffeine use were stronger amongst the non-ARPIU compared to the ARPIU group, suggesting that the relationships between these substance use behaviors and problem gambling may be partially accounted for by ARPIU. Future studies should examine the extent to which preventative interventions targeting both problematic Internet use and problem gambling may synergistically benefit measures of health and reduce risk-taking behaviors in adolescence. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

YOUTH ONLINE GAMBLING BIBLIOGRAPHY | Gambling Research Exchange Ontario