L..0J 6AA J 152 Riddles rrz.l (. A,J'i1./,Ld~ :?f €,.)Us t( l.,. k and dash of waves; few men I

saw my home in that wilderness, V.7l. I (1...~ n. P,.-) /~~). but each dawn, each dusk, 1 the tawny waves surged and swirled /.}\JV) /)M«.D5c{ {{) . around me. Little did I think that I, mouth less, should ever sing to men sitting at the mead-bench, 10 vary ing my pitch. It is rather puzzling, a miracle to men ignorant of such arts, how a knife's point and a right hand (mind and implement moving as one) could cut and carve me-so that I 15 can send you a message without fear, and no one else can overhear or noise abroad the words we share.

Solutions: 1. Penis or onion; 2. Bible; 3. Book worm; 4. Pen and fingers; 5. Reed.

After the Norman Conquest

P ERSPECTI VES Arthurian Myth in the History o f Britain

A lmost since it first appeared, the story of King Arthur has occupied a contested zone between myth and history. Far from diminishing the Arthurian tradition, though, this ambiguity has lent it a tremendous and protean impact on the political and cultural imagination of Europe, from the Middle Ages to the present. Probably no ocher body of medieval legend remains today as widely known and as often revisited as the Arthurian story. O ne measure of Arthur's undiminished importance is the eager debate, eight centuries old and going strong, about his historical status. Whether or not a specific "Arthur" ever exist­ ed, legends and attributes gathered around his name from a very early dace, mostly in texts of W elsh background. Around 600 a Welsh poem refers briefly to Arthur's armed might, and by about 1000, the story C ulhwch and O lwen, from the Mabinogion, assumes knowledge of Arthur as a royal warlord. Ocher early Welsh texts begin to give him more-than-mortal attributes, associating Arthur with such marvels as an underworld quest and a mysterious tomb. In the ninth century, the Latin History of the Briwns by the Welshman Nennius confidently speaks of Arthur as a great leader and lists his twelve victories ending with that at Mount Badon. Some of chis at lease fits with better-documented history and with less-shadowy comman­ ders who might have been models for an Arthurian figure, even if they were not "Arthur." When the Romans withdrew in 410, the romanized Britons soon faced territorial aggression from the Sa.xons and Piers. In the decades after midcentury, the Britons mounted a successful defense, led in part by Aurelius Ambrosius and culminating, it appears, with the battle of Badon in roughly 500, after which Saxon incursions paused for a time. In those same years of territorial threat, some Britons had emigrated to what is now Brittany, and in the 460s or 470s a warlord named Riothamus led an army, probably from Britain, and fought successfully in Gaul in alliance with local rulers sympathetic to Rome. His name was latinized from a British title meaning "supreme king." Both Riothamus and Aurelius Ambrosius correspond to parts of the later narratives of Arthur: his role as high king, his triumphs against the Saxons, his links co Rome (both friendly and hostile), and his campaigns on the continent. Geoffrey of Monmoulh 153

Whether the origins of Arthur's story lie in fact or in an urge among the Welsh to imag­ ine a great leader who once restored their power against the ever-expanding Anglo-Saxons, he was clearly an established figure in Welsh oral and written literature by the ninth century. Arthur, however, also held a broader appeal for other peoples of England. The British Isles were felt to lie at the outer edge of world geography, but the story of Arthur and his ancestor Brutus served to create a Britain with other kinds of centrality. The legend of Brutus made Britain the end point of an inexorable westward movement of Trojan imperial power, the rranslario imperii, and Arthur's forebears became linked to Roman imperial dynasties. Finally, the general movement of Arthur's continental campaigns neatly reversed the patterns of Roman and then Norman colonization. In the later Middle Ages and after, Arthur and his court are most often encountered in works chat lay little claim to historical accuracy. Rather, they exploit the very uncertainty of Arthurian narrative to explore the highest (if sometimes self-deceiving) yearnings of private emotion and social order. These Arthurian romances also probe, often in tragic terms, the lim­ its and taboos that both define and subvert such ideals, including the mutual threats posed by private emotion and social order. .d fingers; 5. Reed. Nevertheless, the Arthurian tradition has also been pulled persistently into the realm of the real. le was presented as serious historical writing from the twelfth century through the end of the Middle Ages. Political agents have used Arthur's kingship as a model or precedent for their own aspirations, as seen in the Kennedy administration's portrayal as a version of Camelot. Even elements of the Christian church wrote their doctrines into Arthurian narra­ tive or claimed Arthur as a patron. The texts in th is section present three illuminating moments of Arthur's emergence of Britain into history and politics. Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain, finished around 11 38, was the fu llest version yet of Arthur's origin and career. Geoffrey was the first to make A rthur such a central figure in British history, and it was largely through a contested zone between Geoffrey's Latin "history" that Arthur became so widespread a feature of cultural imagina­ 1ough, this ambiguity has tion in the Middle Ages and beyond. W ri ting at the close of the twelfth century, Gerald of al imagination of Europe, Wales narrates an occasion , possibly orchestrated by Henry 11, in which Arthurian tradi­ medieval legend remains tion was slightly altered and folded into emergent Norman versions of British a nt iquity. The section ends with two politically charged versions of nat ional origin, English and thedebate, eight centuries Scottish, proposed in 130 I as part of Edward l's efforts to influence royal succession in !cific "Arthur" ever exist­ Scotland. ly date, mostly in texts of 1ur's armed might, and by 1mes knowledge of Arthur :e-than-mortal attributes, I E::il:::a: I mysterious tomb. In the nius confidently speaks of Geoffrey of Monmouth t at Mount Badon. C. 1100-1155 th less-shadowy comman­ they were not "Arthur." From the perspective of surviving British peoples in Wales and Cornwall, the Norman iced territorial aggression Conquest of 1066 was only the last among successive waves of invasion by Romans, Picts, ons mounted a successful Anglo-Saxons, and Vikings. The Celtic Britons had long been pushed into the far south­ •pears, with the battle of west by the time the Normans arrived, where they continued to resist colonization. The 1e. In those same years of Welsh maintained a vital language, culture, and ethnic mythology, including a memory of y, and in the 460s or 470s their fellow Celts in Brittany and a divided nostalgia for the long-departed Romans. Thus nd fought successfully in a whole Celtic linguistic and political world offered an alternative to the languages and as latinized from a British legends of the Normans, much of which derived ultimately from Mediterranean antiquity. ,ius correspond to pares of Arthur, king of the Britons, emerged as a key fi gure as these peoples and cultures began to inst the Saxons, his links - articulate the complex new forms of political and private identity precipitated by the 1ent. Conquest. 154 Arthurian Myth in che Histo ry of Britain

No one was more important in chis process chan Geoffrey of Monmouth. He was prior of the Abbey of Monmouth in Wales and later was named bishop of Saint Asaph, though civil disorder prevented his taking the pose. Yee he was also act ive in the emerging schools of Oxford, he was patronized by Norman nobles and bishops, and he wrote in Latin. Geoffrey's learning reflects this double allegiance. W ell schooled in the Latin curriculum chat embraced ancient Roman and Christian literature, he was also deeply versed in the oral and written cul­ ture of Wales. As a creative negociater between Welsh and Anglo-Norman legends and lan­ guages, his influence was without parallel. Both of Geoffrey's surviving prose works, the Prophecies of Merlin ( fi nished around 1135 ) and the History of the Kings of Britain (about l 138) present themselves as translations of ancient texts from Wales or Brittany. Geoffrey also wrote a Life of Merlin in Latin verse. He probably synthesized a number of sources and added material of his own in his "translations." It was a pointed gesture, nevertheless, to posit a Celtic text whose authority rivaled the Latin culture and legends chat had underwritten later Anglo-Saxon and then Norman power in Eng­ land. Geoffrey daringly inverted the general hierarchy of Latin and vernaculars in his time; instead, he offered "British" as the ancient tongue that he wanted to make more broadly acces­ sible for Latin-reading newcomers. Geoffrey's central heroes are Brutus, the exiled Trojan descendant who colonized and named Britain, and Arthur, who reunified England after Saxon and Pictish attacks, and repulsed Roman efforts to re-establish power there. Geoffrey's own purposes in the History were complex but he was responding in part to contemporary events. T he 1130s were a decade of civil strife in England, as nobles shifted their allegiances between King Stephen and the ocher claimant to the throne, the future Henry II. Welsh nobles took advantage of this disorder to rebel and set up their own principalities. Scholars remain divided as to whether Geoffrey was more interested in a return to strong and unified rule in Norman Eng­ land, or wanted rather to encourage the Welsh princes with the story of a great predecessor who might one day return. Geoffrey's narrative carefully presents itself as history, in a century of great h istorical writing. He uses the typical armature of documentary and ocher written records, archeologi­ cal evidence, and claims to well-founded witness. Casting the story of Arthur into this respected form allows Geoffrey to employ but also to counter the dominant master-narrative of Christian history in England, which was Bede's. Rather than a story of Anglo-Saxon arri val and conversion, Geoffrey offers a story of an earlier foundation and a prior conversion; he thus creates imaginative space for a convergence between Norman power and the culture and ambitions of people and languages at its edges. Moreover, the History generates an exte­ rio r (if now conveniently absent) common enemy in the imperial Romans. Geoffrey pulls in yet. more ancient models by frequently echoing Virgil's Aeneid and its story of exile and refoundacion, and by placing his story within biblical, Trojan, and Roman ch ronologies. And he points forward to his own time by inserting the earlier Prophecies of Merlin in the midst of the History. T he continued influence of Geoffrey's History on later literature is testimony to the pow­ erful themes he folded into his story. Much that is developed in later romance explorations of the Arthurian world is already here: the tragedy of a people bravely battling its own decline; the danger and overwhelming attraction of illicit sexual desire; the ambivalent position of Mordred as cousin or nephew; the Arthurian realm brought down, ultimately, by the treach­ ery of the king's own kin and by a transgression of the marriage bed chat echoes Arthur's own conception. The fo llowing selections from Geoffrey's History feature the T rojan background of Britain and the birth and early kingship of Arthur. Other texts in this section and following trace lac­ er episodes in his evolving legend: the development of Arthur's court, the celebration and tragedy of romantic desire, and the death of the king. Geoffrey of Monmouth 155

Monmouth He was prior of from History of the Kings of Britain 1 · Saint Asaph, though civil n the emerging schools of Dedication , wrote in Latin. Geoffrey's Whenever I have chanced to think about the history of the kings of Britain, on those 1c urriculum chat embraced occasions when I have been turning over a great many such matters in my mind, it in the oral and written cul- has seemed a remarkable thing to me that, apart from such mention of them as Gildas 1-Norman legends and Ian- and Bede had each made in a brilliant book on the subject, I have not been able to discover anything at all on the kings who lived here before the Incarnation of Christ, rlin (finished around 1135) or indeed about Arthur and all the others who followed on after the Incarnation. Yet ,mselves as translations of the deeds of these men were such that they deserve to be praised for all time. What is f Merlin in Latin verse. He more, these deeds were handed joyfully down in oral tradition, just as if they had Jwn in his "translations." le rnthoricy rivaled the Latin been committed to writing, by many peoples who had only their memory to rely on. hen Norman power in Eng- At a time when I was giving a good deal of attention to such matters, Walter, 1d vernaculars in his time; Archdeacon of Oxford, a man skilled in the art of public speaking and well-informed J make more broadly acces- about the history of foreign countries, presented me with a certain very ancient book written in the British language.Z This book, attractively composed to form a consecu­ !ndant who colonized and tive and orderly narrative, set out all the deeds of these men, from Brutus, the first King , and Pictish attacks, and of the Britons, down to Cadwallader, the son of Cadwallo.3 At Walter's request I have vn purposes in the History taken the trouble to translate the book into Latin, although, indeed, I have been con­ !vents. The 1130s were a tent with my own expressions and my own homely style and I have gathered no gaudy :es between King Stephen flowers of speech in other men's gardens. If I had adorned my page with high-flown , nobles took advantage of rhetorical figures, I should have bored my readers, for they would have been forced to ,lars remain divided as to spend more time in discovering the meaning of my words than in fo llowing the story. 1ified rule in Norman Eng­ [ ask you, Robert, Earl of G loucester,4 to do my little book this favor. Let it be so tory of a great predecessor emended by your knowledge and your advice that it must no longer be considered as the product of Geoffrey of Monmouth's small talent. Rather, with the support of your century of great historical wit and wisdom, let it be accepted as the work of one descended from Henry, the •ritten records, archeologi­ famous King of the English; of one whom learning has nurtured in the li beral arts and story of Arthur into this whom his innate talent in military affairs has put in charge of our soldiers, with the fominant master-narrative result that now, in our own lifetime, our island of Britain hails you with heartfelt 1 a story of Anglo-Saxon affection, as if it had been granted a second Henry . .o n and a prior conversion; You too, Waleran, Count of Mellent, second pillar of our kingdom, give me your nan power and the culture support, so that, with the guidance provided by the two of you, my work may appear History generates an exte­ all the more attractive when it is offered to its public.5 For indeed, sprung as you are Romans. Geoffrey pulls in from the race of the most renowned King Charles, Mother Philosophy has taken you and its story of exile and Roman chronologies. And to her bosom, and to you she has taught the subtlety of her sciences. What is more, so is of Merlin in the midst of that you might become famous in the military affairs of our army, she has led you to the camp of kings, and there, having surpassed your fellow-warriors in bravery, you re is testimony to the pow­ have learned, under your father's guidance, to be a terror to your enemies and a pro­ er romance explorations of tection to your own folk. Faithful defender as you are of those dependent on you, y battling its own decline; accept under your patronage this book which is published for your pleasure. Accept he ambivalent position of ultimately, by the treach- I. T ranslated by Lewis Thorpe ( 1966). source for a more ancient history of the people who pre• 1 that echoes Arthur's own 2. Walter and Geoffrey were both associated with an ear• ceded the Saxons. ly Oxford college, and their names appear together on 4. An illegitimate son of King Henry I. He had a hand in several legal documents. In two of these, Geoffrey calls the education of the future Henry II, his nephew. ojan background of Britain himself a magister, a teacher at an advanced level. 5. Waleran de Beaumont, Count of Meulan (1 104--1166) on and following trace lat­ 3. Bede's EcclesiasticalHistory of the English Peoplewas the moved in the same circles as the Earl of Gloucester, and :ourt, the celebration and_ source most used by l 2th#century historians, but it has was patron of the Norman Abbey of Bec, a great center of little to say about England before the coming of the learning. Geoffrey's fulsome tone is typical of dedications Angles and Saxons. Geoffrey offers a (perhaps fictive) to great magnates in the period. 156 Arthurian Myth in the History of Britain me, too, as your writer, so chat, reclining in the shade of a tree which spreads so wide, and sheltered from envious and malicious enemies, I may be able in peaceful harmo­ ny to make music on the reed-pipe of a muse who really belongs to you.

[TROY, AENEAS, BRUTUS' EXILE After the Trojan war, Aeneas fled from the ruined city with his son Ascanius and came by boat to Italy. He was honorably received there by King Latinus, but Tumus, King of the Rutuli, became jealous of him and attacked him. In the battle between them Aeneas was victorious. T umus was killed and Aeneas seized both the kingdom of Italy and the person of Lavinia, who was the daughter of Latinus.7 When Aeneas' last day came, Ascanius was elected King. He founded the town of A lba on the bank of the Tiber and became the father of a son called Silvius. This Silvius was involved in a secret love-affair with a certain niece of Lavinia's; he mar­ ried her and made her pregnant. When this came to the knowledge of his father Ascanius, the latter ordered his soothsayers to discover the sex of the child which the girl had conceived. As soon as they had made sure of the truth of the matter, the soothsayers said that she would give birth to a boy, who would cause the death of both his father and his mother; and that after he had wandered in exile through many lands this boy would eventually rise to the highest honor. The soothsayers were not wrong in their forecast. When the day came for her to have her child, the mother bore a son and died in childbirth. The boy was handed over to the midwife and was given the name Brutus. At last, when fifteen years had passed, the young man killed his father by an unlucky shoe with an arrow, when they were out hunting together. Their beaters drove some stags into their path and Brutus, who was under the impression chat he was aiming his weapon at these stags, hit his own father below the breast. As the result of this death Brutus was expelled from Italy by his relations, who were angry with him for having committed such a crime. H e went in exile to certain parts of Greece; and there he discovered the descendants of Helenus, Priam's son, who were held captive in the power of Pandrasus, King of the G reeks. After the fall of Troy, Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles, had dragged this man Helenus off with him in chains, and a number of ocher Trojans, too. He had ordered chem to be kept in slavery, so chat he might take vengeance on chem for the death of his fa ther. When Brutus realized that these people were of the same race as his ancestors, he stayed some time with chem. However, he soon gained such fame for his military skill and prowess that he was esteemed by the kings and princes more than any young man in the country.

[THE NAMING OF BRITAIN [Brutus conquers the Greek king (reversing the Greek conquest of his ancestral Troy), mar­ ries the king's daughter Ignoge, and leads the Trojan descendants off to seek a new land. They pass through continental Europe, where they do battle with the Gauls. ] In their pursuit the T rojans continued to slaughter the Gauls, and they did not abandon the bloodshed until they had gained victory.

6. From book I, ch. 3. throughouc his History 7. This summ=irizes the political narrative of Virgi l's 8. From book I, ch. 15- 18 and book Z, ch. I. Aeneid, a text Geoffrey knew well and echoed frequently Geoffrey of Monmouth 157

:e which spreads so wide, Although chis signal triumph brought him great joy, Brutus was nevertheless · able in peaceful harmo­ fil led with anxiety, for the number of h is men became smaller every day, while chat of mgs to you. the Gauls was constantly increasing. Brutus was in doubt as to whether he could oppose the Gauls any longer; and he finally chose to return to his ships in the full glory of his victory while the greater part of his comrades were still safe, and then to seek out the island which divine prophecy had promised would be his. Nothing else th his son Ascanius and was done. With the approval of his men Brutus returned to his fleet. He loaded his :ing Lacinus, but T urnus, ships with all the riches which he had acquired and then went on board. So, with the n. In the battle between winds behind him, he sought the promised island, and came ashore at Tomes. seized both the kingdom Ac this time the island of Britain was called Albion. It was uninhabited except ,at.mu s. 7 fo r a few giants. le was, however, most attractive, because of the delightful situation ,g. He founded the town of its various regions, its forests and the great number of its rivers, which teemed with 1 son called Silvius. This fish; and it fi lled Brutus and his comrades with a great desire to live there. When they ~ce of Lavinia's; he mar­ had explored the different districts, they drove the giants whom they had discovered knowledge of his father into the caves in the mountains. With the approval of their leader they divided the :x of the child which the land among themselves. They began co cultivate the fields and to build houses, so truth of the matter, the chat in a short time you would have thought that the land had always been inhabited. ·ould cause the death of Brutus then called the island Britain from his own name, and his companions he ndered in exile through ,or. called Britons. His intention was chat his memory should be perpetuated by the deriva­ tion of the name. A little lacer the language of the people, which had up co then been , the day came for her to known as T rojan or Crooked Greek, was called British, for the same reason.9 :h. The boy was handed , when fifteen years had ·ich an arrow, when they [BRUTUS BUILDS NEW T ROY[ to their path and Brutus, O nce he had divided up his kingdom, Brutus decided co build a capital. In pursuit of )n at these stags, hit his this plan, he visited every part of the land in search of a suitable spot. He came at rucus was expelled from length co the River Thames, walked up and down its banks and so chose a site suited :ommitted such a crime. co his purpose. There then he built his city and called it T roia Nova. It was known by :overed the descendants this name for long ages after, but finally by a corruption of the word it came to be er of Pandrasus, King of called T rinovantum. * • • ~s, had dragged this man When the above-named leader Brutus had built the city about which I have cold ms, too. He had ordered you, he presented it co the citizens by right of inheritance, and gave them a code of )n chem for the death of laws by which they might live peacefully together. At that time the priest Eli was rul­ ing in Judea and the Ark of the Covenant was captured by the Philistines. The sons race as his ancestors, he of Hector reigned in Troy, for the descendants of Antenor had been driven out. In ame for his military skill Italy reigned Aeneas Silvius, son of Aeneas and uncle of Brutus, the third of the ore than any young man Latin Kings . ••• 1 In the meantime Brutus had consummated his marriage with his wife lgnoge. By her he had three sons called Locrinus, Kamber and Albanactus, all of whom were to become famous. When their father finally died, in the twenty-third year after his · his ancestral Troy), mar­ landing, these three sons buried him inside che walls of the town which he had found­ ed. They divided the kingdom of Britain between them in such a way that each suc­ :s off to seek a new land. 1e Gauls .] ceeded to Brutus in one particular district. Locrinus, who was the first-born, inherited the part of the island which was afterwards called Loegria after him. Kamber received Gauls, and they did not the region which is on the further bank of the River Severn, the part which is now

9. With this derail, Geoffrey creates a linguistic history in I. Medieval historians often made such parallels between -18 and book 2, ch. I. which early Welsh is as ancient as classical Latin, and biblical and secular chronologies. more purely .. Trojan." 158 Arthurian Myth in the History of Britai n known as Wales but which was for a long time after his death called Kambria from his name. As a result the people of that country still call themselves Kambri today in the Welsh tongue. Albanactus, the youngest, took the region which is nowadays called Scotland in our language. He called it Albany, after his own name.

[MERLIN AND THE FIRST C ONQUEST OF IRELAND)Z [The descendants of Brutus' three sons include Leir (S hakespeare's King Lear), the brothers Brennius and Belinus who conquer Rome, and Lud who rebuilds New Troy and names it Kaerlud after himself (whence "London"). In the reign of Lud's brother Julius Caesar invades England; generations of Britons resist, until King Coe/ makes peace with the Roman legate Constantius The latter succeeds Coel, marries Coe!' s daughter, and sires Constantine who becomes emperor of Rome. The Romans tire of defending Britain against invaders and withdraw from the island. Vortigem usurps the throne from the Briton line, then holds it in alliance with the Saxons Hengist and Horsa. The Saxons become aggres­ sors, and Vortigem flees them but is overcome by the brothers Aurelius Ambrosius and Utherpendragon, who restore the Briton royal line and drive the Saxons into the north. Aurelius reigns, restoring churches and the rule of law; he wants to commemorate che Britons who died fighting off the Saxons.] A urelius collected carpenters and stone-masons together from every region and ordered them to use their skill to contrive some novel building wh ich would stand forever in memory of such distinguished men. T he whole band racked their brains and then confessed themselves beaten. Then T remorinus, Archbishop of the C ity of the Legions,3 went to the King and said: "If there is anyone anywhere who has the ability to execute your plan, then Merlin, the prophet of Vortigem , is the man to do it.4 In my opinion, there is no one else in your kingdom who has greater skill, either in the fo retelling of the future or in mechanical contrivances. Order Merlin to come and use his ability, so that the monument for which you are asking can be put up." Aurelius asked many questions about Merlin; then he sent a number of messen­ gers through the various regions of the country to find him and fetch him. They trav­ eled through the provinces and finally located Merlin in the territory of the Gewis­ sei, at the Galabes Springs, where he often went. They explained to him what they wanted of him and then conducted him to the King. T he King received Merlin gaily and ordered him to prophesy the future, for he wanted to hear some marvels from him. "Mysteries of that sort cannot be revealed," answered Merlin, "except where there is the most urgent need for them. If I were to utter them as an entertainment, or where there was no need at all, then the spirit which controls me would forsake me in the moment of need." He gave the same refusal to everyone present. The King had no wish to press him about the future, but he spoke to him about the monument which he was planning. "If you wane to grace the burial-place of these men with some lasting monument," replied Merlin, "send for the Giants' Ring which is on Mount Killaraus in Ireland. In chat place there is a stone construction which no man of this period could ever erect,

2. From book 8, ch. 10-13. magicians and uttered a series of prophecies. Merlin's 3. Also called Caerusk or Caerlcon; Geoffrey mentions it roles as a royal advisor, a prophet, and even a shape~ often and may have had some connection with ic. shifter can be compared to those of poets in early Celtic 4. Merlin, son of a Britan princess and a demonic spirit, cultures. has already appeared; he rriumphcd over Vortigem's Geoffrey of Monmouth 159

ailed Kambria from his unless he combined great skill and artistry. The stones are enormous and there is no es Kambri today in the one alive strong enough to move chem. If they are placed in position round this site, ich is nowadays called in the way in which they are erected over there, they wi ll stand forever." 1me. At these words of Merlin's Aurelius burst out laughing. "How can such large stones be moved from so far-distant a country?" he asked. "It is hardly as if Britain J]2 itself is lacking in stones big enough for the job!" "Try not to laugh in a foo lish way, your Majesty," answered Merlin. "What I am suggesting has nothing ludicrous about King Lear) , the brothers it. These stones are connected with certain secret religious rites and they have vari­ "Jew Troy and names it ous properties which are medicinally important. Many years ago the G iants trans­ : brother, Julius Caesar ported them from the remotest confines of Africa and set them up in Ireland at a '. makes peace with the time when they inhabited that country. Their plan was that, whenever they felt ill, iel's daughter, and sires baths should be prepared at the foot of che stones; for they used to pour water over lefending Britain against chem and to run this water into baths in which their sick were cured. What is more, ne from the Briton line, they mixed the water with herbal concoctions and so healed their wounds. There is Saxons become aggres­ not a single stone among them which hasn't some medicinal virtue." \urelius Ambrosius and When the Britons heard all this, they made up their minds to send for the stones Saxons into the north. and to make war on the people of Ireland if they tried to hold them back. In the end .ts to commemorate the the King's brother, Utherpendragon, and fifteen thousand men, were chosen to carry out the task. Merlin, too, was co-opted, so that all the problems which had to be met 1er from every region could have the benefit of his knowledge and advice. They made ready their ships and building which would they put to sea. The winds were fa vorable and they arrived in Ireland. 1ole band racked their At that time there reigned in Ireland a young man of remarkable valor called 1us, Archbishop of the G illomanius. As soon as he heard that the Britons had landed in the country, he col­ rnyone anywhere who lected a huge army together and hurried to meet them. When he learned the reason of et of Vortigern, is the their coming, G illomanius laughed out loud at those standing round him. "I am not ,gdom who has greater surprised that a race of cowards has been able to devastate the island of the Britons," ii contrivances. Order said he, "for the Britons are doles and fools. Who ever heard of such folly? Surely the r which you are asking stones of Ireland aren't so much better than those of Britain that our realm has to be invaded for their sake! Arm yourse lves, men, and defend your fatherland, for as long as 1t a number of messen- life remains in my body they shall not steal from us the minutest fragment of the Ring." 1f etch him. They trav­ When he saw that the Irish were spoiling for a fight, Uther hurriedly drew up his territory of the Gewis­ own line of battle and charged at them. The Britons were successful almost immedi­ ined to him what they ately. The Irish were either mangled or killed outright, and Gillomanius was forced ~ received Merlin gaily to fl ee. Having won the day, the Bri tons made their way to Mount Killaraus. When !ar some marvels from they came to the stone structure, they were fi lled wi th joy and wonder. Merlin came Merlin, "except where up to them as they stood round in a group. "Try your strength, young men," said he, n as an entertainment, "and see whether skill can do more than brute strength, or strength more than skill, trols me would forsake when it comes to dismantling these stones !" A t his bidding they all set to with every conceivable kind of mechanism and 1d no wish to press him strove their hardest to take the Ring down. They rigged up hawsers and ropes and 1hich he was planning. they propped up scaling- ladders, each preparing what he thought most useful, but 1e lasting monument," none of these things advanced them an inch. When he saw what a mess they were Killaraus in Ireland. In making of it, Merlin burst out laughing. He placed in position all the gear which he ieriod could ever erect, considered necessary and dismantled the stones more easily than you could ever believe. O nce he had pulled chem down, he had them carried to the ships and stored on board, and they all set sail once more for Britain with joy in their hearts. 1 series of prophecies. Merlin's a prophet, and even a shape• The winds were fa ir. They came to the shore and then set off with the stones for to those of poets in early Celtic che spot where the heroes had been buried. The moment char this was reported to him, Aurelius dispatched messengers to all the different regions of Britain, ordering 160 Arthurian Myth in the History of Britain

the clergy and the people co assemble and, as they gathered, to converge on Mount A mbrius, where they were with due ceremony and rejoic ing to re-dedicate the burial­ place which I have described. A c the summo ns from A urelius the bishops and abbots duly assembled with men fro m every rank and file under the King's command. All came together on the appointed day. Aurelius placed the crown on his head and cel­ ebrated the feast of Whitsun in right royal fashion, devoting the next three days co one long festival. *. * Once he had settled these matters, and others of a similar nature, Aurelius ordered Merlin to erect round the burial-place the stones which he had brought from Ireland. Merlin obeyed the King's orders and put the stones up in a circle round the sepulchre, in exactly the same way as they had been arranged on Mount Killa­ raus in Ireland, thus proving chat his artistry was worth mo re than any brute strength.

[UTHERPENDRAGON S IRES ARTHUR] 5 [Vortigem 's son atcacks Aurelius Ambrosius and Utherpendragon. They drive him off, though Aurelius is poisoned through Saxon treachery. A miraculous scar appears, which Merlin interprets as a sign of Uther's destined kingship, the coming of Arthur, and the rule of U ther' s dynasty. At the same time, however, Merlin /Jrophesies the decline of the Britons As king, Uther fights off more Saxon incursions The next Eastertide Uther cold the nobles of his kingdom to assemble in that same town of London, so chat he could wear his crown and celebrate so important a feast-day with proper ceremony. They all obeyed, traveling in from their various c ities and assembli ng on the eve of the feast. The King was thus able to celebrate the feast as he had intended and to enjoy himself in the company of his leaders. They, too, were all happy, seeing that he had received them with such affability. A great many nobles had gathered there, men worthy of taking part in such a gay festivity, togeth er with their wives and daughters. Among the others there was present Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall, with his wife Ygema, who was the most beautiful woman in Britain. When the King saw her there among the other women, he was immediately filled with desire for her, with the result that he took no notice of anything else, but devoted all his attention co her. T o her and to no one else he kept ordering plates of food to be passed and to her, too, he kept sending h is own personal attendants with golden goblets of wine. He kept smil­ ing at her and engaging her in sprightly conversation. When Ygerna's husband saw what was happening, he was so annoyed chat he withdrew fro m the court without caking leave. No one present could persuade him to return, for he was afraid of losing the one object chat he loved better than anything else. Ucher lost h is temper and ordered Gorlois to come back to court, so chat he, the King, could seek satisfaction fo r the way in which he had been insulted. Gorlois refused to obey. The King was fu rious and swore an oath that he would ravage Gorlois' lands, unless the latter gave him immediate satisfaction. Without more ado, while the bad blood remained between the two of them, the King collected a huge army together and hurried off to the Duchy of Cornwall, where he set fire to towns and castles. Gorlois' army was the smaller of the two and he did not dare co meet the King in battle. He preferred instead to garrison his cas-

S. From book 8, ch. 19- 24. Geoffrey of Monmouth 161

, to converge on Mount ties and to bide his time until he could receive help from Ireland. As he was more :o re-dedicate the burial­ worried about his wife than he was about himself, he left h er in the castle of Tin­ s the bishops and abbots cagel,6 on the sea-coast, which he thought was the safest place under his control. He 7 te King's command. A ll himself took refuge in a fortified camp called O imilioc, so chat, if disaster overtook ,wn on his head and cel­ chem, they should not bo th be endangered together. When the King heard of chis, g the next three days to he went to the encampment where Gorlo is was, besieged it and cut off every line of approach. ;imilar nature, Aurelius Finally, after a week had gone by, che King's passion for Ygerna became more which he had brought chan he could bear. H e called co him Ulfin of Ridcaradoch , on e of his soldiers and a mes up in a circle round familiar friend, and cold him what was on h is mind. "I am desperately in love with ranged on Mount Killa- Ygem a," said Ucher, "and if I cannot have h er I am convinced chat I shall suffer a physical breakdown. You muse cell me how I can satisfy my desire for her, for other­ 1 more than any brute wise I sh all die of the passion which is consuming me." "Who can possibly give you useful advice," answered U lfin, "when no power o n earth can enable us co come co her where she is inside the fo rtress ofTincagel? The castle is built high above che sea, which surrounds it on all sides, and there is n o o cher way in except chat offered by a ?On . They drive him off, narrow isthmus of rock. Three armed soldiers could h old it against you, even if you ulous star appears, which stood there with the who le kingdom of Britain at your side. If only the prophet Mer­ 1g of Arthur, and the rule lin would give his mind co the problem, then with his help I think you might be able the decline of the Britons. to obtain wh at you want." The King believed Ulfin and o rdered Merlin to be sent for, for he, too, had come co the siege. lorn to assemble in that Merlin was summon ed immediately. When h e appeared in the King's pres­ :elebrate so important a ence, he was ordered co suggest how the King could h ave his way with Ygema . g in from their various When Me rlin saw the torment which the King was suffering because o f chis :ius able to celebrate the woman, he was amazed at the strength of his passio n. "If you are co h ave your my of his leaders. They, wish," he said, "you muse make use of methods which are quite new and until such affability. A great n ow unheard-of in your day. By my drugs I know h o w to g ive yo u the precise : in such a gay festivity, appearance o f Gorlois, so chat you will resemb le him in every respect. If you do what I say, I will make you exactly like him, and Ulfin exactly like Gorlois' com­ Cornwall, with his wife panio n, Jordan of Tincagel. I will ch ange my own appearance, too, and come 1 the King saw her there with yo u. In this way you will be able co go safely co Ygem a in her castle and be :lesire for h er, with the admitted." his attention to h er. To The King agreed and listened carefully to what he h ad co do. ln the end he assed and to her, too, he handed the siege over co his subordinates, took Merlin's drugs, and was changed ·s of wine. He kept smil­ into the likeness of Gorlo is. U lfin was ch anged into Jordan and Merlin into a man n Ygerna's husband saw called Britaelis, so that no on e could te ll what they had previously looked like. from the court without They then set off for Tincagel and came co the Castle in the twilight. The moment )r he was afraid of losing the guard was cold that his leader was approaching, he opened the gates and the her lost his temper and men were let in. Who, indeed, could possibly have suspected anything, once it was , could seek satisfaction tho ught that Gorlo is himself had come ? The King spent chat night with Ygerna to obey. The King was and satisfi ed his desire by making love with her. H e had deceived her by the dis­ Is, unless the latter gave guise which he had taken. H e h ad deceived her, too , by the lying things that he said co her, things which h e planned with great skill. He said that he h ad come out en the two of them, the secretly fro m his besieged encampment so chat h e might make sure that all was well he Duchy of Cornwall, with her, whom h e loved so dearly, and with his castle, coo. Sh e naturally believed : smaller of the two and a ll that he said and refused him nothing chat h e asked. That n igh t she conceived read to garrison his cas-

6. Tin-ta-jel, on the rocky nonhwestcm coast of Corn­ 7. Oi-rni-li-oc, perhaps a site roughly five miles from Tin­ wall. tagel. 162 Arthurian Myth in the History of Britain

Arthur, the most famous of men, who subsequently won great renown by his out­ standing bravery. Meanwhile, when it was d iscovered at the siege of Dimilioc that the King was no longer present, his army, acting without his instructions, tried to breach the walls and challenge the beleaguered Duke to battle. The Duke, equally ill­ advisedly, sallied forth with his men, imagining apparently that he could resist such a host of armed men with his own tiny band. As the struggle between them swayed this way and that, Gorlois was among the first to be killed. His men were scattered and the besieged camp was captured. The treasure which had been deposited there was shared out in the most inequitable way, fo r each man seized in his greedy fist whatever good luck and his own brute strength threw in his way.8 Noc until the outrages which fo llowed th is daring act had finally subsided did messenge rs come to Yge rna to announce the death of the Duke and the end of the siege. When they saw the King sitting beside Ygerna in the li keness of their leader, they blushed red with astonishment to see that the man whom they had left behind dead in the siege had in effect arrived there safely before them. Of course, they did not know of the drugs prepared by Merlin. The Ki ng put his arms round the Duchess and laughed aloud to hear these reports. "I am not dead," he said. "Indeed, as you see, I am very much alive! However, the destruction of my camp saddens me very much and so does the slaughter of my comrades. What is more, there is great danger that the King may come this way and capture us in this castle. I will go out to meet him and make peace with him, lest even worse should befall us." The King set out and made his way towards his own army, abandoning his dis­ guise as Gorlois and becoming Ucherpendragon once more. When he learned all chat had happened, he mourned for the death of Gorlois; but he was happy, all the same, that Ygema was freed from her marital obligations. He returned to Tintagel Castle, captured it and seized Ygerna at the same time, she being what he really wanted. From that day on they lived together as equals, united by their great love for each ocher; and they had a son and a daughter. The boy was called Arthur and the girl A nna.

[ANGLO-SAXON I NVASION] As the days passed and lengthened into years, the King fell ill wit!, a malady which affected him for a long time. Meanwhile the prison warders who guarded Octa and Eosa,9 as I have explained above, led a weary life. In the end they escaped with their prisoners to Germany and in doing so terrified the kingdom: for ru mor had it that they had already stirred up Germany, and had fitted out a huge fleet in order to return to the island and destroy it. This, indeed, actually happened. They came back with an immense fleet and more men than could ever be counted. They invaded certain parts of Albany1 and busied themselves in burning the cities there and the

8. Geoffrey emphasizes the destructive potential of pri­ imprisoned them in London. Geoffrey closely connects vate greed, private ambition, and brute force, even in the the resurgence of the Saxon invaders with Uther's adul­ rule of a suong king like Uther. This becines a domi• tery and the disorder within his own army. nant theme in Geoffrey and lacer Arthurian narratives. l. That is, Scotland, named for Brutus' son Albanactus. 9. A son and a kinsman of the Saxon I-lengist; Uther had Geoffrey of Monmouth 163

rear renown by his out- citizens inside them. The British army was put under the command of Loth of Lodonesia, with orders that he should keep the enemy at a distance. This man was )imilioc chat che King one of the leaders, a valiant soldier, mature both in wisdom and age. As a reward for Jctions, tried to breach his prowess, the King had given him his daughter Anna and put him in charge of The Duke, equally ill­ the kingdom while he himself was ill. When Loth moved forward against the enemy cly chat he could resist he was frequently driven back again by them, so that he had to take refuge inside struggle between them the cities. On other occasions he routed and dispersed them, fo rcing them to fly Je killed. His men were either into the forests or to their ships. Between the two sides the outcome of each asure which had been b<1ttle was always in doubt, it being hard to tell which of them was victorious. Their ay, fo r each man seized own arrogance was a handicap to the Britons, for they were unwilling to obey the : strength threw in his orders of their leaders. This undermined their strength and they were unable to beat the enemy in the field. had finally subsided did Almost all the island was laid waste. When this was made known to the )uke and the end of the King, he fell into a greater rage than he could really bear in his weakened state. 1 the likeness of their He told all his leaders to appear before him, so that he could rebuke them for ,e man whom they had their overweening pride and their feebleness. As soon as he saw them all assem­ safely before them. Of bled in his presence, he reproached chem bitterly and swore that he himself . The King put his arms would lead them against the enemy. He ordered a litter to be built, so that he ts. "I am not dead," he could be carried in it; for his weakness made any other form of progress impossi­ , the destruction of my ble. Then he instructed them all to be in a state of preparedness, so that they my comrades. What is could advance against the enemy as soon as the opportunity offered. The litter .y and capture us in this was constructed immediately, the men were made ready to start and the opportu­ . lest even worse should nity duly came. They put the King in his litter and set out for Saint Albans, where the Saxons I my, abandoning his dis­ have told you about were maltreating all the local population * * * :. When he learned all [Despite his illness, Uther prevails. Octa and Eosa are killed. ] Jt he was happy, all the Once the Saxons had been defeated, as I have explained above, they did not -le returned to Tintagel for that reason abandon their evil behavior. On the contrary, they went off to the 1e being what he really northern provinces and preyed relentlessly upon the people there. King Ucher was :d by their great love for keen to pursue chem, as he had proposed, but his princes dissuaded him from it, for s called Arthur and the after his victory his illness had taken an even more serious tum. As a result the enemy became bolder still in their enterprises, striving by every means in their power to take complete control of the realm. Having recourse, as usual, to treach­ ery, they plotted to see how they could destroy the King by cunning. When every ocher approach failed, they made up their minds to kill him with poison. This they ill with a malady which did: fo r while Uther lay ill in the town of St. A lbans, they sent spies disguised as who guarded Octa and beggars, who were to discover how things stood at court. When the spies had they escaped with their obtained all the information chat they wanted, they discovered one additional fact 1 : fo r rumor had it that which they chose to use as a means of betraying Uther. Near the royal residence 1 huge fleet in order to there was a spring of very limpid water which the King used to drink when he could pened. They came back not keep down any other liquids because of his illness. These evil traitors went to counted. They invaded the spring and polluted it completely with poison, so that all the water which the cities there and the welled up was infected. When the King drank some of it, he died immediately. Some hundred men died after him, until the villainy was finally discovereq. Then , ndon. Geoffrey closely co nnecrs they filled the well in with earth. As soon as the death of the King was made iaxon invaders with Uther's adul­ known, the bishops of the land came with their clergy and bore his body to the ithin his own anny. amed for Brutus' son Albanactus. monastery of Ambrius and buried it with royal honors at the side of Aurelius Ambrosius, inside the Giants' Ring. 164 Arthurian Myth in the Histo ry o f Britain

[ARTHUR or BRITAIN]Z After the death of Utherpendragon, the leaders of the Britons assembled from their various provinces in the town of Silchester and there suggested to Dubricius, the A rchbishop of the C ity of the Legions, that as their King he should crown Arthur, the son of Uther. Necessity urged them on, fo r as soon as the Saxons heard of the death of King Ucher, they invited their own countrymen over from Germany, appointed Colgrin as their leader and began to do their utmost to exterminate the Britons. They had already over-run all that section of the island which stretches from the River Humber to the sea named Caithness.3 Dubricius lamented the sad state of his country. He called the other bishops to h im and bestowed the crown of the kingdom upon Arthur. Arthur was a young man only fifteen years old; but he was of outstanding courage and generosity, and his inborn goodness gave h im such grace that he was loved by almost all the peo­ ple. Once he had been invested with the royal insignia, he observed the normal custom of giving gifts freely to everyone. Such a great crown of soldiers flocked to him chat he came to an end of what he had to distribute. However, the man to whom openhandedness and bravery both come naturally may indeed find himself momentarily in need, but pove rty wi ll never harass him for long. In Arthur courage was closely linked with generosity, and he made up his mind to harry the Saxons, so chat with their wealth he might reward the retainers who served his own household. T he justness of his cause encouraged him, for he had a claim by rightful inheritance to the kingship of the whole island. He therefore called together all the young men whom I have just mentioned and marched on York. * * * 4 [Arthur and his followers attack Colgrin and ultimately subdue the Saxons ; then they repel armies of Scots, Piers, and Irish. Arthur restores Briton dynasties throughout England, marries Guinevere , and establishes a stable /Jeace. ] Arthur then began to increase his personal encou rage by inviting very distin­ guished men from fa r-distant kingdoms to join it. In this way he developed such a code of courtliness in his household that he inspired peoples living far away to imitate him. The result was that even the man of noblest birth, once he was roused to rivalry, thought nothing at all of himself unless he wore his arms and dressed in the same way as Arthur's kn ights. At last the fa me of Arthur's generos­ ity and bravery spread to the very ends of the earth; and the kings of countries far across the sea trembled at the thought that they might be attacked and invaded by him, and so lose control of the lands under their dominion. They were so harassed by these tormenting anxieties that they rebuilt their towns and the cowers in their towns, and then went so far as to construct castles on carefully chosen sites, so that, if invasion should bring Arthur against che m, they migh t have a refuge in their time of need. All this was reported to Arthur. The fact chat he was dreaded by all encouraged him to conceive the idea of conquering the whole of Europe.

Z. From book 9 , ch. 1- 11. genealogy. Arthur will again use the latter claim when 3. That is, Northumberland and Scorland. he decides to invade G3ul and Lhcn march toward 4. Geoffrey links the ancient practice of a king's largesse Rome. to his wamor band together with the claim of dynastic