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Download the Full Text In Zooming out from the desktop ZOOMING OUT FROM THE DESKTOP The desktop/office metaphor is at the base in the The use of metaphors interface of the majority of computers currently in in Human–Computer use. The desktop metaphor was introduced in late Interface design 1970s to make computers friendlier to office workers. Today this type of interfaces and metaphors are not adequate with computer users needs. This dissertation explains why this obsolete concept is still in use. Then some alternative, emerging interfaces are presented. The last chapter then describes the One Laptop Per Child project as an example of how interface design can successfully take different routes from what is considered the industry standard. Giuseppe Costanza Giuseppe Costanza MA Communication Design, Digital Media 2008 Zooming out from the desktop The use of metaphors in Human–Computer Interface design Giuseppe Costanza MA Communication Design, Digital Media 2008 Abstract The desktop/office metaphor is at the base in the interface of the majority of computers currently in use. The desktop metaphor was introduced in late 1970s to make computers friendlier to of- fice workers. Today this type of interfaces and metaphors are not adequate with computer users needs. This dissertation explains why this obsolete concept is still in use. Then some alternative, emerging interfaces are presented. The last chapter then de- scribes the One Laptop Per Child project as an example of how interface design can successfully take different routes from what is considered the industry standard. Table of contents Preface i Introduction 1 1 History of computer interfaces 5 1.1 The 3 eras of computer interfaces 5 1.2 Xerox Star 11 1.3 Apple Macintosh 13 1.4 Microsoft Window’s rise 15 1.5 Mac OS X 17 2 The Desktop Metaphor 21 2.1 Why a desktop metaphor 21 2.2 Criticisms to the desktop metaphor 23 2.3 Magic Cup and Microsoft Bob 31 2.4 Why is the desktop metaphor still in use? 35 3 Alternatives to the desktop metaphor 35 3.1 Project X - HotSauce 37 3.2 Task Gallery 39 3.3 Other interfaces based on three-dimensional graphic 45 3.4 Zooming interfaces 55 4 One Laptop per Child case study 55 4.1 The One Laptop Per Child project 59 4.2 OLPC laptop design 61 4.3 XO user interface 68 4.4 Criticisms 71 Conclusions 75 Bibliography i Preface This dissertation deals with screen based media and was written and designed mainly on a screen. Reading it as a printed book could appear in contrast with the content and the design process but I strongly believe that paper and books, as a medium, have many qualities that any screen based device cannot equal. Books are tangible, easy to read and carry, they allow to easily take notes and their interface is universally known. At the same time this dissertation contains references to multimedia content that can hardly be rendered in printed form. Instead of discard- ing the book I decided to provide a small screen based device to support the printed medium without affecting its mentioned qualities. The mobile phone that comes with this dissertation gives access to multimedia documents that complement the discussed topics. Every time on a page appears a rounded black symbol similar to the one at the end of this paragraph, just point the mobile phone camera on it and the screen will display the related content. D-touch, the technology used to link content on the mo- bile phone with the book was developed and provided by Enrico Costanza, as part of his research on visual markers. More information can be found on http://www.d-touch.org/ © Giuseppe Costanza, 2008 - www.giuseppecostanza.it ii I thanks Enrico, Rathna Ramanathan and Axel Vogelsang for their support in developing this dissertation and all the other people that helped me. 1 Introduction Humans and computers use very different languages for communicating. Human communication is rich, people use voice, writing, gestures, facial expressions. Computers work in a very different way, they are based on a simple binary code. When people and computers have to communicate with each other they need to find a point of contact, a common language that can be interpreted by both. The point where humans and computers meet is named Human-Computer Interface. An in- terface has to allow users to instruct computers and receive the produced results. Human-Computer Interfaces can have many different forms, today the most common interfaces are based on mouse and keyboard as input devices and screens as output devices. Human-Computer Interfaces should allow people to easily control computers expressing their will in a natural way, preventing errors and misunderstandings. The main issues con- cerning human-computer interface design are discussed in this dissertation. Common interfaces will be presented, as well as, possible alternatives to them. The first chapter briefly exposes the history of human com- puter interfaces. In computer history processing speed has al- ways increased, while prices have fallen down. This tendency © Giuseppe Costanza, 2008 - www.giuseppecostanza.it 2 allowed to employ an increasing amount of computing power in interfaces, making computer’s language easier for humans and shifting the communicational effort from people to com- puters. (Dourish 2001) The most important moment in human computer interface history is the introduction of graphical in- terfaces and the adoption of the desktop metaphor. The desktop metaphor was presented to the general public at the end of 1970s; (Moggridge 2007) it allowed students, office workers and busi- nessmen to approach computers for the first time. The desktop metaphor perfectly suited users needs of that time. Now, 30 years after the desktop metaphor introduction, the way people use computers is very different. Computers are used to play videogames, listen to music, watch movies, browse the web, communicate with other people; they are used at home on a table, on the sofa, on the bed, in cars. But our indispens- able assistants are still communicating with us using the same desktop metaphor. In the first chapter it is pointed out that not much has happened in human computer interface history, since the introduction of the desktop metaphor. Most computer us- ers experienced folders and file cabinets first as computer icons and later as real world tools to organize documents. This dis- sertation argues that the way computers organize information is constrained to concepts that are not up-to-date. In the second chapter it is explained why the desktop metaphor was chosen. Some considerations, supported by authoritative points of view, about the use of metaphors in interface design are presented. Metaphors are powerful linguistic instruments used to compare something unknown to something known, but if used in a wrong way they can be misleading. At the end of 3 the chapter it is illustrated the reasons why computer industry is anchored to the use of out-of-date concepts and metaphors. The third chapter introduces some commercial and experi- mental interfaces aimed at improving or replacing the desktop metaphor. If the desktop metaphor is still in use it means that any alternative is good enough to replace the current paradigm. Then zooming interface paradigm is presented as an emerging alternative to the desktop metaphor. Zooming interfaces give users the possibility to easily control the level of displayed in- formation, zooming on digital items as if they laid on an infinite plane. The zooming paradigm could mark a new big switch in human computer interface history. Also this chapter explains how zooming interfaces can better exploit the power of digital tools since they are less anchored to real world metaphors. Some zooming interface concepts already appears in current operating systems, but their full potentials have not been explored for the general use, yet. In the last chapter, the One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) project is presented as a positive example of how interface design can take different routes. The OLPC project realized a laptop addressed at developing countries children. OLPC designers decided to realize an interface well suited for intended users, discarding the desk- top metaphor and obsolete interface design conventions. OLPC interface is based on a zoom metaphor and it widely relies on spatialization as a universal concept understandable by different cultures. © Giuseppe Costanza, 2008 - www.giuseppecostanza.it 5 1 History of computer interfaces This chapter briefly illustrates the evolution of computer inter- faces, from punched cards to the most recent graphical inter- faces. The introduction of Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) is a fundamental event in the history of computing. The reasons that brought to the conventions in use nowadays are explored more in depth. 1.1 The 3 eras of computer interfaces Batch computing Looking at human-computer interface history it is possible to notice a trend in making computer interfaces more abstract and natural for people. When computers first appeared, in 1940s, they were very expensive and not very powerful; their calculation power was considered precious. Early computers were mainly used for military or commercial purposes. From an economic point of view, computers working time was more expensive than human workers time, so interfaces were designed to avoid com- putational efforts in interpreting and compiling the code, leaving all the effort to human operators. (Dourish 2001, pp.1-2) Software and dataset were inputted through piles of punched cards that © Giuseppe Costanza, 2008 - www.giuseppecostanza.it Fig.1 Punched Cards and IBM 29 card punch punching machine. 7 had to be prepared on special external machines. (Fig.1) Due to the complex syntax and the low usability level of punching ma- chines, there was a high error rate; completing a single job took hours or entire days.
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