April 2016 Vol 3, No.2

African Journal of Education, Science

and Technology Vol 3, No. 2

ISSN: 2309-9240 http://www.africanjest.com

Published by Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria, University of Eldoret, Kenya, and Kyambogo University, Uganda

© 2016Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria, University of Eldoret Kenya, and Kyambogo University, Uganda ISSN: 2309- 9240

Editors in Chief 1 Prof. Mary Felicia C. Opara (IHM) Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria 2 Dr. Ahmed K. Ferej University of Eldoret, Kenya

Associate Editors 1. Dr. Kisilu Kitainge University of Eldoret, Kenya 2. Dr. Charlotte Serem University of Eldoret, Kenya 3. Dr. Peter Waswa University of Eldoret, Kenya 4. Dr. Harold Anindo Rachuonyo University of Eldoret, Kenya 5. Dr. Cosmas Ronno University of Eldoret, Kenya 6. Hoseah Kiplagat University of Eldoret, Kenya 7. Prof. W. C. Nwafia Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria 8. Prof. L. O. Ezenweke Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria 9. Dr. C. C. Nwobi-Okoye Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria 10. Prof. Ify-Emmy Egbe Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria 11. Dr. Ngozi Chuma-Udeh Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria 12. Arc. Kelechi Ezeji Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria 13. Dr. Okey Aniebo Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria 14. Mr. Joseph A. Nduka Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria

15. Sr. Dr. Kaahwa Maria Goretti DST, Kyambogo University, Uganda

Managing Editor 1. Engr. Kennedy J. Offor Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria Copy Editors 1. Mr. Titus M. Muthoka University of Eldoret, Kenya 2. Uba Bright Obidinma Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria PR Editors 1. Mr. Maina T. Sammy Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya

Advisory Board 1. Prof. Teresa Akenga Vice Chancellor, University of Eldoret, Kenya 2. Prof. Fidelis U. Okafor Vice Chancellor, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria 3. Prof. Eli Rwakisaya Katunguka Vice Chancellor, Kyambogo University, Uganda 4. Prof. Ruth Otunga Deputy Vice Chancellor University of Eldoret, Kenya 5. Prof. Patrick Kafu University of Eldoret, Kenya 6. Prof. Nollaig Mac Congail Deputy President Registrar, NUI, Galway Ireland 7. Prof. Julius Ochuodho University of Eldoret, Kenya 8. Prof. David Some Commission for University Education 9. Prof. Pai Obanya Professor Emeritus, University of Ibadan, Nigeria 10. Prof. Scott Johnson Professor Emeritus, USA

Editorial Board 1. Prof. M. N. Wanyama Moi University, Kenya, Director Utafiti Foundation 2. Prof.R. Michieka Vice Chancellor Emeritus, JKUAT, Kenya 3. Prof. E. Idemobi Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria 4. Prof. S. N. Madu Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria 5. Prof. J. K. Too Moi University, Kenya 6. Prof. Opuda Asibo John Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda 7. Dr. Damon Cartledge Australia 8. Prof. Jin Dewen Tinghua University, China

Printed in Nigeria by Snaap Press, Enugu and Kenya by Utafiti Foundation, P. O. Box 884 – 30100, Eldoret, Kenya; Tel: +254-053-206- 302-4; www.utafitifoundation.com

TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... i FOREWORD ...... iii ABOUT THE JOURNAL...... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... v Evaluation of Growth responses of Cassava Treated Tuber-regium spent Mushroom Substrate WaterExtract to Elicit Disease Resistance [Okere, S.E., Ataga, A.E., Elenwo, E.N. & Ekpe, I.I.] ...... 1 Boko Haram in Context: An Attempt to solve the Current Campaign of Violence in Nigeria [Anjide, Timothy Solomon] ...... 7 Sustainability Assessment of Physical Properties of Common Edible and Inedible Oils as a Substitute for Conventional Mineral Transformer Oils in Nigeria [Oladipo, Oluwayamayowa Omolola] ...... 12 On Issues and Challenges of Rural Telecommunications Access in Nigeria [Y.A. Adediran, J.F. Opadiyi, N.Faruk, & O.W. Bello] ...... 17 Isolation and Characterization of the Basic Metabolites of the Leaves of Rose Flower [Ezigbo, V.O. & Duruji, J.O.] ...... 30 Exploring the Effectiveness of Computer Activinspire Software on Students' Academic Achievement in Mathematics [Wushishi, I.D. & Durodola, T.G.] ...... 33 The Relevance of ICT in Teaching and Learning as Perceived by Secondary School Students in Anambra State [Okekeokosisi, J.O.C., Anaekwe, M.C. & Okigbo, E.C.] ...... 44 Android Based Computer Aided Learning System for Improved Education System in Nigeria [Okpalla, C.L., Odii, J.N., Chukwu, N.C. & Ezenwanne, E.C] ...... 53 Cervical Cancer: Needfor Awareness of Preventive Measures through Adult and Non-Formal Education [Chukwuemerie, O.C. & Tedjere, S.R.] ...... 60 Compulsion Vs Advocacy: In search of Effective Mobilization Strategy for Agricultural Development [Agbanu, Venatus N.] ...... 75 Deforestation: Impacts on the Socio-Economic Activities of People of Ekwusigo Local Goernment Area of Anambra State [Igwe P.U.] ...... 82 Determining the Reliability and Content Validity of Mathematics Test Constructed by Senior Secondary School Mathematics Teachers in Edo State, Nigeria [Oribhabor, C.B. & Emafo, O.D.]...... 89 Distributed Management Systems for Business Enterprise in Nigeria [Onyebuagu, B.C.O.] ...... 95 Lipase Production in Submerged Fermentation by a Bacterium Isolated from Nigerian Soil [Okpalla J. & Umeh, S.O.] ...... 106 Perceived Determinants of Non-Utilization of Antenatal Clinic among Mothers in Ezinihitte-Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria [Oparah, J.S., Ibhafidon, A, Nwaobiala, C. & Mgbeahuruike, C.C.] ...... 113 The Relationship between Malaria Infected Mothers and their New Born Babies [Anyaegbunam, L.C. & Nworah, O.H.] ...... 119 Efficiency of Herbal Treatment on Eczema among Secondary School Students in Uli, Anambra State, Nigeria [Nwosu, C.M. & Emmy-Egbe, I.O.] ...... 123 Analysis of Abrasive Wear Rate in Hot Forging Process, Using Finite Element Method [Oviawe, C.I., Omoruyi, S.O. & Uwuidia, A.L.] ...... 130 Psychological Readiness and Enterpreneurial Intentions of Unemployed Graduates: What Difference Can Vocational Psychologists Make? [Obi, Ifeoma, E & Okeke, Therese.] ...... 146 The Repositioning of the Female within Partriarchy: A Reversal of the Malleability of Female Gender among the Igbos of Nigeria during Hostilities in Adaokere Agbasimalo's: The Forest Dames [Onwugbufor, I.C. & Omagu, S.U.] ...... 154

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 i

Strategies Towards Effective Financial Management in the Administration of Government Owned Secondary Schools in Bayelsa State [Ikati, Lawrence] ...... 163 African Oral Literature and Modern African Drama: The Inseperable Nexux [Ezeugo, Anthonia E.] .... 170 Hamonious Resolution of Controversy (Acts 15: 1-35) Panecea for Integral Development of Any Society [Rev Fr. Dr. Ezeogamba, A.I.] ...... 178 Does It Really Work? Analysis of HowJournalists Employ Advocacy in Fighting Domestic Violence in Nigeria [Nwammuo, A.N., Nworah, U.R. & Nwafor Gideon] ...... 187 Characterization of Rhizomicrobial Isolates Associated with Crude Oil Pollution [Umeaku, C.N.] ...... 193 Financing Corporate Organization for Efficient Performance in Nigeria: Equity or Debt Option [Nduka, J.A. & Ucheahara, F.O.] ...... 204 Anti-Microbia Activities of A. sativum, Z. offinale and O. gratissimium Extracts on Plants and Fish Pathogens [Uba, B.O., Okoye, E.I. & Udeajah, O.P.] ...... 213 Effect of Investigative Laboratory Approach and Expository Method on Acquisition of Science Process Skills by Biology Students of Different Level of Scientific Literacy [Nnorom, N.R.] ...... 222

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 ii

FOREWORD TO THE THIRD VOLUME OF THE SECOND ISSUE OF THE AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (AJEST)

It gives me great pleasure to appreciate the fact that the African Journal of Education, Science and Technology (AJEST) is making another debut by way of publication of its third volume. Since the First and Second International Conferences organized at Eldoret in Kenya (2013), and Igbariam in Nigeria (2015), respectively, through collaborative cooperation between Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, the University of Eldoret and the Kyambago University in Uganga, this Journal has been waxing stronger in terms of the variety of learned papers it had been attracting from scholars across Africa and other parts of the world. The numerous paper submissions arising from the successful Second International Conference on “Global Initiatives for Integrated Development” hosted by Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University in September, 2015, were very encouraging, hence the current initiative to publish the third volume.

This third volume of AJEST consists of 28 learned contributions in various fields from scholars spread across nationalities and institutions within the African continent. The areas covered comprise Agriculture, English Literature & Linguistics, the Sciences, Education, Entrepreneurship, Food Sciences, Information & Communications Technology, Politics, Business, Gender Issues, Insurgency, HIV/AIDS, etc. It is my honest expectation, and more importantly the expectations of the pioneer organizers of the Journal, that AJEST will provide a solid platform for researchers to showcase their research findings for critical assessment by their peers as well as a tool for disseminating scientific information as a means of addressing emerging and current issues of integrated development in Africa.

I congratulate the scholars who have contributed papers to this Journal and urge them, and others yet to contribute, to ensure the sustainability of AJEST in the years ahead by forwarding their research work to the Journal for publication.

I wish the editors of AJEST more grease to their elbows.

Prof. Fidelis U. Okafor Vice Chancellor, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam Campus, Anambra State, Nigeria.

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 iii

ABOUT THE JOURNAL African Journal of Education, Science and Technology (AJEST) is a peer-reviewed official journal of the University of Eldoret, Kenya, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria and Kyambogo University, Uganda. AJEST aims to publish and report on a wide range of interdisciplinary papers relating to education, science and technology. The journal seeks to provide a forum for scholars, researchers, practitioners and policy makers to disseminate current and emerging thought-provoking essays, discussion and research papers that will be valuable for policy and practice in Africa.

Frequency: One volume of four issues per year.

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The preparation of this third volume of AJEST has been as challenging as the first two.However, we now have more experience and the lessons learned from the first four issues have guided the editorial board.We continue to express our profound gratitude to our leaders, Prof. Fidelis U. Okafor, Vice Chancellor of Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria, Prof. Teresa Akenga, Vice Chancellor, University of Eldoret, Kenya and and Prof. Nabugoomu, Vice Chancellor of Kyambogo Univeristy, Uganda and their management teams for their encouragement, motivation and financial support in ensuring the maintenance and sustenance of AJEST.A big thank you goes to our reviewers for working hard to ensure that papers met the required guidelines and standards.

We also wish to thank very sincerely the AJEST Associate Editors who have done a great job in ensuring that volume two comes out as a much improved publication. One of the changes made by the board was to reduce the physical size of the journal from an A4 to A5 format.

Special thanks goes to AJEST COOU Secretariat being headed by the Director ICT Centre and the hard work of the Managing Editor, Engr. Kennedy J. Offor. We remain grateful to Professor Mellitus N. Wanyama, Director Utafiti foundation for his continued interest in promoting AJEST.

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 v

Evaluation of growth responses of CassavaTreated with Pleurotus tuber-regiumSpent Mushroom Substrate WaterExtract to Elicit Disease Resistance.

Okere, S.E Ataga, A.E Department of Crop Science and Technology Department of Plant Science and Biotechnology, Federal University of Technology University of Port Harcourt, PMB 5323 PMB 1526 Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria Rivers State, Nigeria [email protected]

Elenwo, E.N. Ekpe, I.I. Department of Plant Science and Biotechnology, Department of Soil Science and Technology, University of Port Harcourt, PMB 5323 Federal University of Technology Rivers State, Nigeria PMB 1526 Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria [email protected]

ABSTRACT This paper investigatedthe effect of Pleurotus tuber-regiumspentmushroom substrate water extract on the growthof cassava generatedthrough meristem tissue culture.The cassava plantlet (tms 98/0505) were generated at the Tissue Culture Laboratory of Biotechnology unit,National Root Crop Research Institute ,Umudike Umuahia Abia State before they were transfered to the screen house of the Faculty of Agriculture Teaching and Research Farm, University of Port Harcourt, RiversState.The water extract was applied on the cassavato elicit disease resistance after 4 months of culturing in a nutrient medium.The treatments for this investigation comprised of T1; Pleurotus tuber-regium water extract spent mushroom substrate (PTWESMS), T2;Pleurotus tuber-regiumautoclaved water extract spent mushroom substrate (PTAWESMS) andT3; the control.The experiment was laid outin a completely randomized design with 3 replicates.The data generated were subjected to analysis of variance(ANOVA).Means were separated using Fishers Least SignificantDifference at P=0.05. The results obtained revealedthatthere was no significant differencewhenthe different treatments were compared withe the control and when the treatments were compared with one another in theirmean plant height, meannumber of leaves, mean number ofnode and meanleaf area. However, the stem diameterandnumber of internode were significantly different. The result also revealed a significantly positive corelation (r) between plant height andstem diameter and a positivecorrelation between the number ofinternodesand leaf area and had a negativecorrelationbetweennumber of leaves and number of nodes. Nnumber of leavescorrelatednegatively with plant height, stem diameter and leaf area and corelated positvely with number of internode and number of nodes. Again, the stem diameter had a significantlypositive correlationwith plant height, number of internode, and leaf area and a positive relationship with Number of node. Number of internode correlates positively with all the parameters evaluated. Number of nodes related positively with number of leaves, stem diameter and number of internode while a negative correlationwith plant height andleaf area was observed. This could possibly be the first account of this investigation.

Keywords: Tissue culture, Pleurotus tuber-regium, mushroom, substrate

INTRODUCTION Inrecent decades, a greater knowledge of chitin chemistry, and the increased availability of chitin – containingwaste materials have led to the testing and development of chitin –containing products for a wide variety of applications in the Agricultural industry. In addition to direct effects on plant nutrition and plant growth stimulation, Chitin –derived products have also been shown to be toxic to plant pests and pathogens, induce defenses and stimulate the growth and activity of beneficial microbes (Russel, 2013).

After cellulose, Chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide on the planet (Gooday, 1990). Chitin is found in, and can be sourced from a variety of different organisms, with the notable exceptions of higher plants and vertebrate animals. Chitin – rich animals’ tissues include the exoskeletons of arthropods (including insects, crutaceans and arachnids). The beaks of cephalopodsand the eggs and gut linings of nematodes (Gohel, 2006). Various microbs also produce chitin in cell walls, membranes and spores, including fungi (Castro, 2012). As is the case with the cellulose in plants cell walls, theChitin polysaccharides is combinedwith other compounds to producestrengthened tissues. Both polysaccharides form microfibrils

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 1 which differ in lenght and construction depending on the species and cellular location (Bowman and Leong, 2006). In fungi this involves cross linkages to glucanpolymers to create a meshedhyphalwall (Jayakumar, Prabaharan, Nair and Tamura, 2010; Towheed, Anastassiades, Shea, Houpt, Welch, and Hochberg, 2001). Due to the involvement of other polymers, such as glucans, the chitin content of fungal cell walls ranges from 22-40% (Pillai, Paul and Sharma 2009). The cationic properties of the chitosan oligosaccharide imbue it with unique properties that can be exploited by biotechnologists and physicians (Towheed, Anastassiades, Shea, Houpt, Welch, Hochberg, 2001), Material science, and Crop Science (Ramirez, Rodriguez, Alfonso and Peniche, 2010).Chitin, Chitosan and Glucosamine have all been experimentally trialed on Crop Plants with a range of beneficial agronomical responses recorded.These include direct antibiosis against Pests and Pathogens of Crops,enhancement of beneficialmicrobes both in Plants defense responses against biotic stress, and up-regulation of Plant growth ,development,nutrition and tolerance to abiotic stresses.

According to the FAO (2008), the global production of cultivated edible mushrooms had increased from 2.26 million tons in 1998 to 3.48 millon tons in 2008. Despite the evident benefits of mushrooms, the exponential increase in their consumption worldwide is also generating a high volume of Spent Mushroom Substrate (SMS). It has been reported that about 5kg of substrate are needed to produce 1kg of Mushroom (Williams, McMullan, and McCahey, 2001; Uzun, 2004; Finney, Ryu, Sharifi, and Swithenbank, 2009), and about 17 million tons of SMS are produced each year.Consequntly, one of the main problems facedby Mushroom production companies is finding a way to properly dispose of the SMS without contaminating the soil and water.In fact , the lack of a sustainable waste management solution for SMS is the most significant barrier to the future development of the mushroom industry (Finney, et al 2009). Several studies have been carried out to demonstrate the benefits of SMS application in mushroomre-cultivation,enrichment of soil,restoring areas that have been destroyed through development , deforestation or environmental contamination (Sanchez, 2004),cultivation of vegetables ,fruits and flowers in green houses and fields (Medina, Paredes, Perez- Murcia, Bustamante, and Moral, 2009; Polat, Uzun, Topcuoglu, Onal, Onus and Karaca, 2009; Ribas, Mendoca, Camelini, and Soares, 2009), and soil amendment and degradation of organopollutants(Semple, Reid, and Fermor, 2001;Lau, Tsang, and Chiu, 2003). The SMS can also be used as a potential energy feedstock (Williams et al.2001; Finney et al. 2009), and ethanol production (Hideno, Aoyagi, Isobe, and Tanaka, 2007).

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a shrub 1-5m high which is cultivated for its starch –containing tuberous roots (Cock, 1985).One of the greatest problems confronting this all important crop in Africa is cassava mosaic disease (CMD).This disease is caused by the viruses-African cassava mosaic virus (ACMV) and East African cassava mosaic virus (EACMV).They are transmitted by the whitefly Bemisia tabaci .Presence of these viruses can causeyield losses of up to 40 -50% oftotal yield in cassava throughout the Continent (Cock, 1985; Thresh, Fargette and Otim-Nape, 1994; Otim-Nape, Thresh, and Fargette, 1996 ).

The primary aim of this research is to investigate the effect of Pleurotus tuber -regium Spent Mushroom substrate autoclaved/unautoclaved water extract on growth and growth parameters of cassava generated through Meristem tip tissue culture applied after 4 months of culturing.

MATERIALS AND METHOD Study Site and Source of Test Crop Cassava variety (TMS 98/0505) used in this experiment were obtained from the Eastern Farm of National Root Crop Research Institute Umudike, UmuahiaAbia State Nigeria.The cassava cuttings with about 3-4 nodes were planted in buckets filled with sawdust and placed in a shade and watered periodically. The cuttings were kept at room temperature for about 2 weeks until the apical buds of the sprouted shoots were excised and aseptically cultured according to the method prescribed by Murashige and Skoog (1962) at the tissue culture laboratory, National Root Crop Research Instituteof Nigeria, Umudike Umuahia Abia State.

Preparation of Mushroom Substrate Spent mushroom substrate used for this study was obtained from Dilomat Farms and Services located at the Faculty of Agriculture ,Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Rivers State.The Pleurotus tuber-regiummushroom spawn was inoculated in polypropylene bags containing 2 kg mixtures of sawdust, lime and rice bran in the ratio 1000:1:100.The bags were incubated at room temperature in a specially constructed chamber for 30 days and opened to initiate fruit body production.At the end of the

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 2 production circle of about 6 months,the spent mushroom substrate was used immediately for water extract preparation.

Preparation of Water Extract from Spent Mushroom Substrate Spent mushroom substrate (400g) was homogenized in a blender with 150cl of distilled water (DW) for 2 minutes at 1500rpmaccording to the proceedure described by Parada, Murakami, Shimomura, Egusa and Otani, (2011).The homogenate was filtered through two layers of calico cloth.The filtrate was used immediately for leaf treatment as water extract from spent mushroom substrate (WESMS).Half of the WESMS were autoclaved at 1210C for 30 minutes (AWESMS) andwas alsoused immediately for leaf treatment.The WESMS, AWESMS and the control (zero application of the extract)which represents the treatments were replicated 3 times in a completly randomized design.The treatments were sprayed profusely on the cassava plants with a hand sprayer.

Data Collection For the agronomic evaluation, the following data were taken every 2weeks: Plant height (cm) with a meter rule, Number of leaves, Number of internodes, Number of nodes, Stem diameter (mm) with a vernier calipers and Leaf area (cm2) according to the method described by Edjeand Osiru (1987).

Experimental Design and Data Analysis The experiment was laid out in a completely randomized design. The data generated in this study were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA). Means were separated using Fishers Least Significant Difference at P=0.05. Means and percentages were according to the proceedure outlined by Steel and Torrie (1980).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The effects of the treatment on the growth and growth parameters of cassava after 6 months of culturing and before transplanting in the field are presented in table 1, while the correlation matrix for the relationship between the growth parameters are presented in table 2.

Table 1. Effects of The Treatment On the Growth and Growth Parameters. Treatments Plant Number Stem Number Number Leaf height of Diameter( Of Of nodes Area/plant(cm (cm) leaves mm) internode 2) PTWESMS 21.31a 6.59a 34.67a 15.20a 13.83a 178.7a PTAWESMS 17.98a 6.95a 26.33b 13.95a,c 12.33a 165.4a CONTROL 16.03a 8.12a 26.00b 11.56c 12.89a 173.1a F- NS NS 2.82 1.36 NS NS LSD(P=0.05) a-Figures with the same superscripts are statistically not significant. PTWESMS-Pleurotus tuber-regium water extract spent mushroom substrate. PTAWESMS-Pleurotus tuber-regium autoclaved water extract spent mushroom substrate.

Table 2. Correlation Matrix of the Parameters Evaluated. Plant Character Plant Number of Stem diameter Number Number Leaf area height leaves of of nodes internode Plant height 1.0 -0.264 0.788* 0.585 -0.134 0.567 Number of leaves -0.264 1.0 -0.444 0.061 0.394 -0.601 Stem diameter 0.788* -0.444 1.0 0.688* 0.181 0.894** Number of 0.585 0.061 0.688* 1.0 0.612 0.389 internode Number of nodes -0.134 0.394 0.181 0.612 1.0 -0.046 Leaf area 0.567 -0.601 0.894** 0.389 -0.046 1.0 - Negative correlation. *correlation is significant at 0.05 probability level (2-tailed): **Correlation is significant at 0.01probabilitylevel (2 tailed).

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 3

Plant Height The effect of the treatment on plant height revealed that plants treated with PTWESMS was 0.73% and 24.8% taller than the plants treated with PTAWESMS and the Control respectively.Also Plants treated with PTAWESMS were 10.85% taller than the plants from the Control plots.These figures were not significantly different.This result do not agree with the results obtained by Okere, Ataga, Elenwo and Ekpe, (2015).the result further showed that there was negative per centage correlation difference of 26.4% and 13.4% when plant height was respectively correlated with number of leaves and number of nodes.This implies that increases in plant height did not neccessarily lead to increase in number of leaves and number of nodes.This however do not agree with the findings of Okere et al.( 2015).There waspositive significant correlation of 78.8%,between plant height and stem diameter and 58.5% and 56.7% whenplant height was crrelated with number of internodes and plant height with leaf area.This result revealled that increase in plant height lead to significant increase in stem diameter which impliesthat the genes controlling plant height and stem diameter may be related.Also the non-significantpositive relationship between plant height, number of internodes and leaf area werein agreement with the findings of Yen and Mau, (2007).

Number of Leaves There was no significant difference in the number of leaves when the results of the treatments were compared with the control and when the treatments were compared with one another. Nevertheless, this result showed that plants treated with PTWESMS had 5.18% and 18.84% less number of leaves compared to the plants treated with PTAWESMS and the control respectively. Also plants treated with PTAWESMS had 14.41% less number of leaves compared with the control. This result is in agreement with the findings of Okere et al (2015). There wasnegative correlation of 26.4%,44.4% and 60.4% between the number of leavesandplant height, stem diameter, and leaf aera respectively. This indicatedthat asplant height and stem diameterincreasedthe number of leaves decreases. This is because as cassava plants growthey tend to shed the older leaves

Stem Diameter The effect of the treatment on stem diameter were however significantly different. The result revealed that plants treated with PTWESMS was 24.1% and 32.9% thicker than the plants treated with PTAWESMS and the control respectively. While the plants treated with PTAWESMS was 1.3% thicker than the control. These results also agree with thefindings of Spiegel Kafkafi, and Pressman, (1988).There was significantlypositive correlation of 78.8,68.8, and 89.4%respectively between the stem diameter,plant height, number of internode and leaf area .The genes controlling these parameters may berelated.Alsonumber of nodes had a positive correlation of 18.1% with the stem diameterwhich implies that an increase in stem diameter led to increase in the number of nodeswhich also agree with the findings of other researches (Okere et al. (2015) ; Spiegel et al.(1988)) which demonstrated that Chinese cabbage treated with chitin – based products grew faster than plants treated with standard mineral fertilizer.

Number of Internodes The number of internodes did not reveal any statistically significant differencebut the valuesranged from 15.20 to 11.56. This result nothwithstanding the plants treated with PTWESMShad 8.22 and 17.1% higher number of internodes than the plants treated with PTAWESMS and the control respectively while plants treated with PTAWESMS had 17.13% higher number of internodes compared with the control. The performance of PTWESMS over the other treatmentsmay be attributed to the effect of heat on the available mineral elements present in the extract as a result of autoclaving. This result also agrees with the result obtained by Okere et al. (2015). When subjected to correlation analysis, the result reveals a significantlypositive correlation of 68.8% between the number of internode and stem diameter. Also a positive relationship of 58.5,6.1,61.2, and 38.9% exitsbetween the number of internode and the plant height, number of leaves, numberof nodesand leaf area respectively. Thisimplied that as the number of internode increases, plant height, stem diameter, number of leaves and number of nodesalso increased.

Number of Nodes. The effect of the treatment on the number of nodes were not significantly different. However, the result revealed that plants treated with PTWESMS had 10.85 and 9.62% higher number of nodes than the plants treated with PTAWESMS and the control respectively while the plants treated with PTAWESMS had 1.36% less number of nodes when compared with the Control. The correlation analysis result reveals a positive

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 4 correlation of 39.4,18.1 and 61.2% betweenthe number of nodes and number of leaves, stem diameter and number of internode respectively. This result revealedthat as the number of leaves, stem diameter and number of inter nodeincreasedthe number of nodes decreased. However, a negative relationship of 13.4 and 4.6% exist between the number of nodes and the plant heightand leaf area respectively. This implied that as the number of nodes increased, the plant height, leaf area decreases which reveal that increases in the number of internodes do not neccessarily lead to increase in plant height and leaf area.

Leaf Area The leaf area per plantwas not significant but the values rangedfrom 165.4-178.7. However, plants treated with PTWESMS had 6.03% and 7.4% moreleaf canopythan the plants treated with PTAWESMS and the Control respectively. Further, plants treated with PTAWESMS had 1.47% more leaf canopythan the control. There was a significantlypositive relationship of 89.4% between leaf area and stem diameter which propably indicateda linkage between the genes controlling these parameters. Also a positive relationship of 56.7 and 38.9% respectively exist between the plant height, number of internode and leaf area. which imply that increase in leaf area also led to increases in plant height, stem diameter, number of internode. This can be attributed to the fact that increase in leaf area translates to increase in radiation interception which affect the quantity of food manufactured during photosynthesis which also affect other growth parameters evaluated. However, a negative relationship of 60.1 and 4.6% exist between the leaf area, number of leaves andnumber of nodes respectivelywhich reveal that increase in leaf area canopy would lead toincrease in the number of leaves (table 1).

CONCLUSION The result obtained from this investigation revealed that PTWESMS was superior to PTAWESMS and the control. This can be attributed to the fact that while autoclaving the liquid extract releases the resistance elicitors, it however reduced the available nutrient neccessary to encourage plant growth and development.

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Boko Haram in Context: An Attempt to Solve the Current Campaign of Violence in Nigeria Anjide, Timothy Solomon University of Lincoln, United Kingdom [email protected]

Abstract Since 2009, there has been violent uprising of Boko Haram in Nigeria. Consequent upon this unfortunate development, therefore, different attempts have been made by scholars to situate boko haram conflict within the broader field of political violence, terrorism and other related theories of conflict. However, different accounts exist within literature on how to identify the cause and motivation of the group's choice of violent strategy. These accounts which are built on narratives and theories are centred on; socio-economic and political explanations, religious explanation, grievance from the extra-judicial killing of Boko Haram leader, the polarised nature of the Nigerian state and, as well as the influence of international Jihadist movement. However, some of these accounts appear to be insufficient in explaining the phenomenon while others are faulty in terms of the ontology and methodology used in analysing the phenomenon. Poor socio-economic and political situations can be source of peaceful cooperation and not all individuals tend to be violent in the face of deprivations. Before the killing of its leader, Boko Haram under different names was already radicalised. While religion as described by Juergensmeyer (2000) as both vehicle for peace and violence, it will be inappropriate to downplay the role of radical religious ideology due to the; name, mission and similar attributes of Boko Haram with International Jihadist movement. Similar to Wiktorowicz (2006), this paper seeks to argue on Boko Haram within the radical Salafist ideology, thereby situating it within the context of Political Islam. Political Islam is a term which is anchored on belief that the socio-economic and political lives of Muslims should be determined by Islam, it is a fussy term, particularly as it seeks to answer whether it is a “revolution, radicalism or reform”. Consequently, this paper recommends on how both the efforts of moderate and non-violent Muslims and the government can be synchronized towards bringing a sustainable solution to ending the Boko Haram campaign of violence.

Keywords: Boko Haram, Salafism, Political Islam, Radicalism, Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION The group Jama’atul Ahlis Sunnah Lidda’wati wal-jihad (Association for propagating the Prophet’s Teachings and Jihad), popularly called Boko Haram (BH) (Western education is forbidden), is a fundamentalist Islamist movement that has the aim of overthrowing the Nigerian government and to create an Islamic state. This quest is anchored on the destruction of anything perceived Western or secular (Maianguwa et al, 2012; Agbiboa 2013; Loimeier 2012).

Majority of scholars believe BH emerged in 2002 (Maianguwa et al. 2012, Adesoji 2010). Nonetheless, it became prominent in 2009 given the violent uprising resulting to the killing of its leader Sheik Mohammed Yusuf by the Nigerian security agents (Adesoji, 2010). Consequently, BH escalated with government establishments, religious centres, schools, public centres as well as security and media outlets (Maianguwa et al, 2012) as its main targets of attack. Moreover, these attacks occur mostly in Northern Nigeria and predominantly in the Northeast. The groups’ targets are regardless of religion (Amnesty International 2015) and political affiliation.

The extant studies on BH majorly overlaps within socio-economic (poverty), political and religious background of Nigeria, as well as the global derive for Jihad. Agbiboa (Agbiboa 2013) argues that BH is caused and motivated by history of militant Islam and relative deprivation and as well as the killing of Yusuf. More so, Maianguwa et al, (2012) argue that the relative poverty, feeling of marginalisation and, the use of religious politics in northern Nigeria triggered and escalated the group's campaign of terror.

Other, accounts (Adesoji, 2010, 2011) sees the emergence and the motivation of BH as a radical Islamic evangelism and revivalism. They anchor their arguments on the, Usman Danfodio Jihad, history of religious crisis in Nigeria, Maitasine uprising, Iranian Revolution of 1979 and, the various religious crisis.

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The arguments within the literature may be important in explaining the ongoing terror of BH but what is still puzzling is that in spite of the socio-economic, political and religious factors not all individuals chose violence as a strategy of expressing greviances. Hence, it is pertinent to ask whether Boko Haram emanates from the justification of an individual sojourn on earth, the framing of poor socio-economic and political situations from a religious worldview or the combination of both? This question requires more empirical studies by researchers.

While it will be improper to exclude the role of religion Juergensmeyer (2000) aptly construes religion as a double edge sword having the potentialities for both violence and peace. Therefore, this study attempts to put BH within the context that vividly describes the radical ideology of BH. Notably, the nomenclature and mission of BH already sign posts the need to situate the violent group within the context of radical Political Islam.

METHODS This study paper secondary method of data collection. These include articles from the extant literature on Boko Haram and other related news from reliable online media which lay credence on the narrative of Islamism and as well as the contextual understanding on BH. The ontology or framework the study adopts is anchored on political Islam and Salafism.

Boko Haram in Context Loimeier (2012), Oyeniyi (2014), and Azumah (2014) attempt to explain the rise of BH using the history of Salafist movement, they separately give account of how the internal disputes within the Yan Izala (members of Izala; Jama’t Izalat al Bid’a Wa Iqamat as Sunna, Society of Removal of Innovation and Re-establishment of the Sunna) Salafist movement led to the emergence of BH. Oyeniyi (2014) asserts that BH is a local movement which radicalised due to international influence. The Salafist doctrine has been a source of acrimonious debate within and without Islam.

Wiktorowicz (2006) avers that there are three strands of ideologists within the Salafist movement; the Purists, Politicos and, Jihadist. The Purists through non-violence strives for the “propagation, purification, and education”. While they view politics as distraction from Salafism, the Politicos seeks to bring the Salafist ideology into politics because the see it as an instrument for social Justice and a vehicle to establish God’s laws. The Jihadist ideology is antithetical to the other two because it is a militant approach which seeks for radical revolution (ibid).

These strands of the Salafist movement can be described within the ambit of Political Islam, as a concept which implies that all facets of human existence, “values and governance” should be determine by Islam (Khan 2014). In line with Wiktorowicz (2006) I argue that the interpretation of the Salafist doctrine is contextual, hence whether Political Islam is a revolution, radicalism, or reform, it is contextual. In this regard it will be proper to look at BH as a radical form of Political Islam.

Islamism and Nigeria: Understanding The Bh Ideology The Division Within The growth and spread of radical Islamist ideology continues to be an increasing phenomenon across the sub- Saharan Africa in the last decade with the emergence of groups such as Alshabab, Boko Haram, Ansar dine. This trend is connected by the linkage of these violent groups to international Jihadist movement in the Middle-East. Prior to the emergence of Boko Haram, Islam in Nigeria witnessed inherent theological disputes such as the Izala and Sufi tensions and, the Shiite debate (Azumah, 2015). Some of these argumentations gradually culminate into radical groups such as Maitatsine and Boko Haram. These theological disputes are centred on; Tawheed (monotheism) Da'awah (evangalism), Dawlah (state) and Din (religion), Jihad (strive in the name of Allah), kafir (infidel) and, Boko (Western education) within the Nigerian secular society. These kind of disputes also mirrors Hirschkind's (1997) explanation of political Islam where he distinguished radical Islamism from non-radical Islamic evangelization.

Hence it can be argued that the individual interpretation of these concepts gradually breeds radicalism and it is noteworthy to locate these concepts within the name and actions of BH. Other moderate Muslims believe

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 8 that only one God (Allah) deserves their worship (Tawheed), BH in contrast believes that every other people regardless of religion must submit to Allah.

While other Muslims such as the JNI (Jama’atu Nasril Islam, an umbrella group for other Muslim communities in Nigeria) defines Da'awah as the peacefully spreading and strengthening of the Muslim faith within the existing democratic structures, BH believe that Da'awah (being the fourth word in its name) is achieved by force. Jihad (last word in BH name) is divided into two according to Bhutto (2008). The first is the lesser Jihad which entails to fight aggressors in self-defence of religion while the greater Jihad suggests fighting oneself to piety, (spirituality). Thus, it could be argued that BH claims to be fighting infidels and, may conceive the killing of Yusuf and the counter-terrorism strategy of the FGN (Federal Government of Nigeria) as an attack on the Muslim faith.

The Jihadist Salafist adherents as opined by Wiktorowicz (2006) mirrors BH interpretation of Kafir. Also BH sees itself as a Takfiri (another Muslim who accuses other Muslims of apostasy) movement (Azumah, 2015) that is why if you do not believe in their ideology, regardless of your religion you are an infidel and to them infidels deserve death. Moreover, that may explain why Muslims are also victims of the ongoing terror.

In the course of reconciling Islam with the Nigerian secular state, moderate Muslims have always strived to project their identity and coexist with other religions in Nigeria. That explains the reason why the Nigerian Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs (NSCIA) and JNI recognise the Nigerian state and, peacefully coordinates Islamic Da'awah. In another dimension BH does not believe in this type of reconciliation, it is against secularity. To buttress this assertion, several Islamic scholars such as Sheiks Jafar (Azumah 2015) and Albani (Aljazeera, 2014) (who even lost their lives) criticize BH for its ideology and encourage Muslim youth on peaceful Da'awah.

Apart from the BH’s differing ideology from other Islamic groups, there are some arguments or division within Nigerian Muslims that do not culminate into violent movement. While some of these divisions are due to leadership disputes within sect such as Yan Izala arguments others are based on the acceptance of some doctrinal interpretations such as Hadith (Loimier 2012, Azumah 2015).

Unity Within In spite of this divisions and the increasing number of the sects in Nigeria, majority of Muslims are bonded by the Sharia legal system recognised by the Nigerian Constitution. The call for Sharia criminal law (popularly called political Sharia) in Nigeria by the year 2000 appears to unite the Muslims to some extent. Over the years NSCIA and JNI have succeeded in coordinating the Muslim ummah (faithful) through spirituality such as the sighting of moon during Ramadan fasting and, negotiation with Government in promoting the interests of Muslims. More so, the Izala factions of Jos and Kaduna are now united. In addition, the pains and damages emanating from BH reign of terror have to some extent united the Nigerian Muslim groups against radicalism and as well as the rejection of the tagging of Muslims as terrorists.

RECOMMENDATIONS Ensuring a sustainable solution to the current reign of terror requires a multi-dimensional strategy which is anchored on both violent and non-violent approaches. These approaches should particularly be a joint effort from the Government and International community, and Nigerian Muslims. The ongoing war against the terrorists by the AU backed multi-regional forces has drastically reduced the level of violence within Nigeria and the spill over to the Neighbouring; Chad, Niger and, Cameroun (Aljazeera, 2015). Curbing radical Islamist within the Sub-Saharan region and as well as securing Nigeria's porous borders will help reduce the influx of radical ideology from the Middle-East where radical Islamist groups are dominant.

Brigadier-General Gumi, son of Sheik Abubakar Gumi, one of the great proponents of the Izala movement (Leadership 2015) aptly asserts that apart from the active and expected role of Government in resolving the BH violence the North and Muslims have the moral duty to work in unity towards the de-radicalisation of BH members. More so, he recommends that apart from the use of force, there is a need for counter-narrative on the BH violent ideology. Furthermore, that this counter-narrative should include stakeholders such as the "Bar, Bench, university academia, traditional institutions, Sharia jurists, Muslim and Christian clergy and the victims".

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If Government at federal and state levels can sponsor all religious faithful for pilgrimage, fund Sharia and Customary courts, and also conduct mass marriage for the ummahs such as Kano Zawarawa (widows) marriage (Yusof and Mashi 2015) regardless of Nigeria as a Secular state, then it should be able to censor preaching. Moreover, the type of terrorism Nigeria witnesses is a group level terrorism not a lone-wolf terrorism. Thus this suggests that individual clerics are central to the mobilization of people towards violence.

Given the level of unity within Nigerian Muslims and the huge legitimacy enjoyed by NSCIA and JNI, the government should empower these institutions to licence Islamic preachers, the NSCIA, JNI and the Sharia Court of Appeal can set a framework in this respect. In the past Islamic sects only licence clerics if they are of good integrity, knowledge and, sound mind. However, there are few states presently such as Niger and, Sokoto that are able to licence its preachers (Punch 2014, Thisday 2013). Moreover, the Sultan of Sokoto being the master of the Islamic faithful (Amīr al-Mu'minīn) advocates for the licencing of preachers (Vanguard 2013, Thisday 2013) More proactive actions are needed from the Da’wah Coordination Council of Nigeria (DCCN). The DCCN is an association of forty-one (41) Islamic organisations borne out of professions and associations committed to evangelism particularly through humanitarian services. It is necessary therefore that the DCCN engage in mass awareness and value orientation of young and radical Muslims since it represents the interests of Muslims in important human endeavours.

CONCLUSION So far, the paper through the ideology of the jihadist Salafist attempts to explain BH as radical Political Islam whose emergence has much to do with the theological disputes within Islam in Nigeria. Islamism in Nigeria and the BH phenomenon, to a reasonable extent suggests that Political Islam is contextual depending on individual interpretation whether violent or non-violent.

Military approach will only suspend BH for a while in as much as there is no unity on the side of Nigerian Muslims to counter extremism through a well-planned continuous process that involve Islamic; Jurisprudence (Fiqh), independent interpretation (Ijtihad), and implementation (Fatawa). The present structure of the Islamic evangelism provides a fertile ground for such implementation. This plan should be supported by the DCCN in terms of complementing the effort of governments at all levels in uplifting the socio-economic and political conditions of its people. The Nigerian state needs to take a preventative measure as it degrades and destroys BH. Anjide (2015) suggest that "whether its [BH] ideology or perception of Nigeria is rational or not, without de-radicalizing Boko Haram, Nigeria should expect a resurgence of the group in the future whether using the same or a different name. At a point in time the US thought it had finished with the Taliban in Afghanistan, but the Taliban fled and resurfaced in Pakistan and allegedly infiltrated the Pakistani Inter- Services Intelligence (ISI)." Therefore, since the Boko Haram predominated area are border towns, there is possibility for them to have safe havens in other countries.

In conclusion, this paper seeks to impact on policy making, Islamism, and the search for a sustainable solution to the BH violence. It further strive to contribute to the broader field of terrorism on the cause of group- religious terrorism. Thus, whether Socio-economic and political factors are involved or not, what is of paramount importance is understanding the worldview of BH. This is because the violent campaign is unfolding on the platform of religion. Hence, it is necessary that further empirical research is done to give a broader explanation on the choice and increase in the levels of violence of BH.

REFERENCES Adesoji, A. (2010). The Boko Haram Uprising and Islamic Revivalism in Nigeria, African Spectrum 45 (2) 95-108

(2011). Between maitatsine and boko haram: islamic fundamentalism and the response of the nigerian state, Africa Today, 4, 99.

Agbiboa, D. (2013). The Ongoing Campaign of Terror in Nigeria: Boko Haram Versus the State, Stability: International Journal of Security & Development, 2 (3) 1-17.

Aljazeera (2014). Outspoken Religious Leader Killed in Nigeria [online] Available from: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2014/02/nigeria-cleric-critical-boko-haram-killed-201422114541981119.html (Accessed 15 June 2015).

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Amnesty International (2015). Boko Haram at a Glance [online] Available from: https://www.amnesty.org/en/articles/news/2015/01/boko-haram-glance/ (Accessed 14 June 2015).

Anjide, S. (2015). Is this the End of Boko Haram? [Online] Available from: http://www.internationalpolicydigest.org/2015/09/22/is- this-the-end-of-boko-haram/ (Accessed 13 October 2015)

Azumah, J. (2015). Boko Haram in Retrospect, Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, 26 (1) 33-52.

Bhutto, B. (2008). Reconciliation: Islam Democracy and the West. New York: HarperCollins Publishers

Hirschkind, C. (1997). What is Political Islam, Middle East Research and Information Project [online] Available from: http://www.merip.org/mer/mer205 (Accessed 13 October 2015)

Juergensmeyer M. (2000). Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Khan, J. (2014). The Rise of Political Islam in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: The Case of Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal (MMA). Dialogue (1819- 6462), 9(3), 299-312.

Leadership (2015). Only North, Muslims Can Defeat B’Haram – Gen Gumi [online] Available from: http://leadership.ng/news/441037/only-north-muslims-can-defeat-bharam-gen-gumi# (Accessed 17 June 2015)

Loimeier, R. (2012). Boko haram: The Development of a Militant Religious Movement in Nigeria Boko Haram: Die Entwicklung Einer Militanten Religiösen Bewegung in Nigeria, Africa Spectrum, 2 (3) 137.

Maiangwa, B. (2013). Killing in the Name of God? Explaining the Boko Haram Phenomenon in Nigeria, Journal of Social, Political, And Economic Studies, 38 (1) 55-79.

Oyeniyi, B.A. (2014). One voice, multiple tongues: dialoguing with boko haram, Democracy & Security, 10(1), 73

Punch (2014). Niger arraigns eight clerics for preaching without licence [online] Available from: http://www.punchng.com/news/niger- arraigns-eight-clerics-for-preaching-without-licence/ (Accessed 16 June 2015)

Reuters (2015). Nigerian planes bomb Boko Haram camps; military says [online] Available from: http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/02/19/us-nigeria-violence-idUSKBN0LN1IK20150219 (Accessed 16 June 2015)

Thisday (2013). Sultanate Council: Only Licensed Islamic Preachers Will be Allowed to Preach [online] Available from: http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/sultanate-council-only-licensed-islamic-preachers-will-be-allowed-to-preach/161304/ (Accessed 16 June 2015)

Vanguard (2013). Sultan, CAN President differ on licensing of preachers [online] Available from: http://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/01/sultan-can-president-differ-on-licensing-of-preachers/ (Accessed 16 June 2015)

Wiktorowicz, Q. (2006). Anatomy of the Salafist Movement, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 29, 207-239.

Yusofs, R. and Mashi, L.M. (2015). An Assessment of “Zawarawa” Mass Marriage Programme, in Kano State, Nigeria, International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 5(10) [online] Available from: http://www.ijssh.org/papers/568-C00007.pdf (Accessed 16 June 1)

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Suitability Assessment of Physical Properties of Common Edible and Inedible Oils as A Substitute for Conventional Mineral Transformer Oils in Nigeria

Oladipo, Oluwamayowa Omolola Federal College of Agriculture, Moor Plantation, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. [email protected]

Abstract As a result of climate change, the global trend is to find alternatives to petroleum-based products which are non-renewable in nature and hazardous to the environment in the event of spillage. Seed oils obtained from edible and inedible oils could be exploited as a possible alternative based on the fact that they are renewable and environmentally friendly. This research work aimed at investigating the potential of alternative sources of oil (natural esters) as a substitute for conventional mineral transformer oil. The physical properties of four different natural oils, which include palm oil supernatant, soybean, thevetia peruviana and jatropha oil, were studied in the course of the research. The laboratory analysis was carried out to determine specific gravity, flash point, fire point, pour point and kinematic viscosity. The materials used include oil samples, thermometer, Karl Fischer titrator, beakers, reagents, etc. The tests were carried out using basic laboratory procedures conforming to ASTM standards. Statistical analysis was carried out using SAS package and the means were separated using Duncan’s multiple range test. The result revealed that the specific gravity of all the natural oils except Palm oil supernatant were below the maximum stipulated value when compared to the conventional oil, while kinematic viscosity, flash, fire and pour points of the natural oils were below the recommended values as they were in unrefined states. Also, the widely acclaimed Soybean oil had values lesser than Jatropha oil, Palm oil supernatant and Thevetia peruviana oil thereby strengthening the potentials of these oils as substitutes for mineral oil if improved on. It could be concluded from this research work that natural oils in their unrefined states have lesser physical properties potential in substituting for mineral oils as transformer oil. It is therefore recommended that further studies should be carried out on improving the physical properties of these oils in order to strengthen their potential as substitute for mineral oil.

Keywords: Edible oil, inedible oil, mineral oil and transformer.

INTRODUCTION Transformers are one of the most critical equipment in power transmission and distribution system. To achieve efficient operation of these transformers, there is need of effective insulating medium and cooling medium with better characteristics. Petroleum based mineral oil has been used as electrical insulation medium and heat exchanging medium in transformers over many decades. It was mostly used due to their easier availability, low cost and good dielectric and thermal characteristics (McShane, 2002).

Insulating oils are part of electrical insulation system of most electrical equipment and often perform additional functions such as cooling and lubrication, therefore stable high-quality properties are desired (Eissa, Abdallah & Taman, 2011). Transformers and circuit breakers make up the largest single user of electrical insulating liquids (Duval and Rouse, 1994). Whereas mineral transformer oil is petroleum based, vegetable oil is agricultural plant based. Vegetable oils are broadly divided into two classes: Synthetic Esters and Natural Esters (McShane, 2002). Due to poor biodegradability, negative environmental impacts and other factors, there is an increasing drive to find alternatives to traditional mineral oil (Oommen, 2002), (Lakrari, El Moudane, Hassanain, Ellouzi, Kitane, & Alaoui Ei Belghiti, 2013), (Azis and Mohtar, 2013). Natural esters are possible alternatives because they are biodegradable, renewable and have higher flash and fire points (Martin, Khan, Dai & Wang, 2006).

Vegetable and seed oils (natural esters) have been utilized as insulators since oil-filled transformers were invented (Lewand, 2004). However, they were considered unsuitable and replaced by mineral oil due to their low oxidative stability, higher viscosity and pour points amidst other factors (Spohner, 2012; Lewand, 2004). This is compensated for in recent times by usage of fluid additives, modern transformer design practices and modification (McShane et al., 1999). The interest to develop natural ester dielectric liquids was rekindled in

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 12 the early 1990s (Lewand, 2004) and by the late 1990s, they have been commercially available for use in distribution transformers (Luksich, 2004).

According to (Duval and Rouse, 1994) there are basically three ways of categorizing properties of insulation oil viz: Chemical properties (refractive index, molecular weight, acidity, water content); Physical properties (relative density, flash point, pour point) and Electrical properties (dielectric breakdown strength, oxidation stability, and fire point). For the purpose of this work physical properties of natural oil were tested in selected edible and inedible seed oils so as to ascertain their suitability for possible replacement of the conventional mineral oils.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The following seed oils were purchased off-shelf: Palm oil, 2 local brands of Soybean oil (Grand and Sunola), Palm oil supernatant “ogere epo” and Palm kernel oil. Thevetia Peruviana was mechanically extracted and Jatropha oil was chemically extracted. The samples were subjected to AC Breakdown Voltage test to strike out unlikely samples. Soybean oil, Palm oil supernatant (ogere epo), Jatropha oil and Thevetia peruviana oil having passed the preliminary test were then analysed in the laboratory for specific gravity, flash point, fire point, pour point and kinematic viscosity. Each property was tested for 3 times and an average value found.

Determination of Specific Gravity (Astm D1298-12) Specific gravity is a measure of the weight of oil compared to the weight of water. If oil has a high density, water present would float on the oil instead of remaining at the bottom of the transformer, thereby reducing the effectiveness of the oil. Hence, low specific gravity is desired. The specific gravity was determined thus: An empty beaker was weighed and value denoted as W1. 10ml of distilled water at 25ͦC was poured into the beaker and weighed with value denoted as W2. 10ml of oil sample was poured into the beaker after it was emptied of water and dried. Weight of beaker + oil was denoted as W3. Specific gravity was calculated.

Determination of Flash Point (Astm D92-12b) Flash point value is the temperature at which the dielectric insulating liquid gives off sufficient vapour to ignite in air. It is one measure of the tendency of the test specimen to form a flammable mixture with air under controlled laboratory conditions. Thus a high flash point is desirable to ensure safety in operation and reduce the risk of fire hazards. The following procedure was used to determine the flash point: 50ml of oil was measured into a 250ml conical flask with rubber cork containing a Thermometer and placed on a heating mantle. The flask and its content were heated at a controlled rate to decompose the oil to point of evolution of the volatiles, with a flame being passed over the surface of the sample at regular intervals of 5min. The temperature measured by the thermometer at a point at which a flash appears at any point of the surface of the sample is taken as the flash point.

Determination of Fire Point (Astm D92-12b) Fire point is the lowest temperature at which dielectric insulating liquid continues to burn in air after it has been ignited. Like flash point, a high fire point is desirable to ensure safety in operation and reduce the risk of fire hazards. The fire point was determined using the following procedure: 50ml of oil was measured into a 250ml conical flask with rubber cork containing a Thermometer and placed on a heating mantle. The flask and its content were heated to decompose the oil to point of evolution of the volatiles which proceeds so rapidly that continuous combustion occurred.i.e. a fire. The temperature at which continuous combustion occurred was taken as the fire point.

Determination of Pour Point (Astm D97) Pour point is defined as an index of the lowest temperature to which the oil may be cooled without seriously limiting the degree of circulation. It is important and, perhaps, critical in low temperature applications. Pour point was determined thus: 5ml of oil was drawn into a capillary tube tied to a negative thermometer, placed in a 250ml beaker containing distilled water and immersed together in a water bath for controlled heating. The temperature at which oil just begins to move downward due to its weight was taken as Pour point.

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Determination of Kinematic Viscosity (Astm D445-12) Viscosity is the measure of fluid friction. The viscosity of oil is important for cooling and lubricating. Therefore, the lower the viscosity of a dielectric insulating liquid the better its performance would be. Kinematic viscosity, ν, was determined by measuring the time for a volume of liquid to flow under gravity through a calibrated glass capillary viscometer. The oil samples were put into the viscometer one at a time. With the sample flowing freely, the time required for the advancing ring of contact to pass from the first timing mark to the second was measured in seconds to within 0.1 s and the measurementrecorded. Kinematic viscosity was calculated: where t = measured time of flow and C = viscometer constant

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Table 1: Physical Properties of the natural oils as analysed Samples Specific Flash point (OC) Fire point (OC) Pour point (OC) Kinematic gravity Viscosity (cSt)

ASTM D 6871– ≤ 0.96 ≥ 140 ≥ 300 ≤ -10 ≤ 15 03(2008) Transformer oil Soybean oil 0.9285 55.7 128.1 5.6 4.133 Ave. Palmoil 0.9792 56.6 131.67 6.0 4.633 Supernatant Ave. Jatropha oil 0.9483 57.033 135.53 6.233 4.933 Ave. Thevetia oil 0.9251 56.233 130.83 5.833 4.033 Ave.

Table 2: Statistical separation of means of the physical properties of the natural oils in comparison with ASTM acceptable limits Sample Specific Flash Point (ͦOc) Fire Point (ͦOc) Pour Point Kinematic Gravity (OͦC) Viscosity (Cst) Soybean Oil 0.92850D 5.60D 4.133D 55.700E 128.100D Palmoil 0.97923A 6.00B 4.633C Supernatant 56.600C 131.667C Jatropha Oil 0.94833C 6.23A 4.933B 57.033B 135.533B Thevetia 0.92507E 5.83C 4.033D Peruviana Oil 56.233D 130.833C ASTM D6871 0.96000B 140.000A 300.000A 10.00E 15.000A Transformer Oil

The result in Table 2 revealed the following about the selected physical properties of the natural oils in comparison with ASTM recommended values:

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Specific gravity- All the oil samples were significantly different to each other. Also, Palm oil supernatant has a mean above the ASTM 6871 stipulated maximum value while the remaining oil samples have means below it. Flash point- All the oil samples were significantly different to each other. Also, all oil samples have means below the ASTM 6871 stipulated minimum value with Jatropha oil the closest to it and palm oil supernatant in that order. Fire point- This physical property also followed the same trend as flash point, as the ASTM 6871 stipulated minimum value was significantly superior to the oil samples having value that doubled the values of the natural oils. It is also worthy of note that Jatropha oil exhibited potential that is next to ASTM value while Palm oil supernatant and Thevetia peruviana oil were not significantly different from each other. Pour point- The values obtained revealed a different trend in that the ASTM 6871 stipulated minimum value was given as negative value, while all the natural oil had positive values. All oil samples were significantly different from each other, with Jatropha oil again the closest to the ASTM value followed by palm oil supernatant. It is important to note that pour point is a function of the starting lowest temperature it is started from and the climatic condition of the region. Kinematic viscosity- All the oil samples were again statistically significantly different from each other. Also, all oil samples have means below the ASTM 6871 stipulated minimum value with Jatropha oil the closest to it followed by Palm oil supernatant.

CONCLUSION The study established the possibility of the use of natural oils as a substitute for conventional mineral transformer oil with Jatropha oil and palm oil supernatant having a higher potential if subjected to refining processes such as degumming. This is because mineral transformer oil is a highly refined mixture of various compounds. It is also worthy of note that of all oil samples, Soybean oil had values lesser than Jatropha oil, Palm oil supernatant and Thevetia peruviana oil thereby strengthening the potentials of these oils as substitutes for mineral oil if improved on.

RECOMMENDATIONS It could be recommended from this study that other properties (chemical and electrical) should be considered to ascertain the suitability of Jatropha oil, Palm oil supernatant and Thevetia peruviana oil as likely substitutes for conventional mineral transformer oil. Alternatively, they can be considered for applications with less stringent requirements such as biodiesel and lubrication.

REFERENCES Annual Book of ASTM Standards, (2012). Electrical Insulating Liquids and Gases; Electrical Protective Equipment, American Society for Testing and Materials, 10.03 www.astm.org

Azis N, Jasni J, Ab Kadir M.Z.A. and Mohtar M.N. (2014). Suitability of Palm Based oil as Dielectric Insulating Fluid in Transformers, Journal of Electrical Engineering & Technology, 9(2), 662-669

Duval M. and Rouse T.O. (1994). Electrical Insulating Liquids, ASTM International, Chapter 4, pg 310 – 379

Eissa, E. A., Abdallah, R. I. & Taman, A. R. (2011). Improvement of Oxidation Stability of Mineral Oil using Jojoba Oil. Journal of American Science, 7, 132-137.

Lakrari K., El Moudane M., Hassanain I., Ellouzi I., Kitane S., & Alaoui Ei Belghiti, M. (2013). Study of electrical properties of vegetable oils for the purpose of an application in electrical engineering. African Journal of Food Science, 7(11), 404-407.

Lewand, L. R. (2004). Natural Ester Dielectric Liquids. NETA World Journal, 449.

Luksich, J. (2004). Evaluating New and In-Service Vegetable Oil Dielectrics.In: Weidmann-ACTI 3rd Annual Technical Conference, Nov 8-10 Sacramento, C.A., 1-7.

Martin D., Khan I., Dai J. & Wang, Z. D. (2006). An overview of the suitability of vegetable oil dielectrics for use in large power transformers. EuroTechCon Conference Chester, United Kingdom. 4-23.

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Mcshane C. P., Gauger G. A. & Luksich, J. (1999). Fire Resistant Natural Ester Dielectric Fluid and Novel Insulation System for Its Use. In: IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference, April 12-16, New Orleans, L.A., 890-894.

Mcshane, C.P. (2002). Vegetable-Oil-Based Dielectric Coolants” IEEE INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS MAGAZINE. MAY|JUNE,WWW.IEEE.ORG/IAS, 8(3), pages 34-41

Oommen T. V. (2002). Vegetable oils for liquid-filled transformers. IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, 18, 6-11

Spohner, M. (2012). A Study of the Properties of Electrical Insulation Oils and Components of Natural Oils. In Proceedings of the 16th International Scientific Student Conference.Acta Polytechnica 52, 100 – 105

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On Issues and Challenges of Rural Telecommunications Access in Nigeria

Y. A. Adediran J. F. Opadiji Department of Electrical & Electronics Department of Computer Engineering, University Engineering, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria [email protected] [email protected]

N. Faruk O.W. Bello Department of Telecommunication Science, Department of Information & Communication University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria Science, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract Rural telecommunication access has to do with provision of telecommunication infrastructure in rural communities for the purpose of connectivity within communities and with the rest of the world. There has been growing interest in how to provide universal telecommunication access in developing countries. The trend in digital divide between the rural and urban areas for developing countries reveals a growing gap. Efforts are being made by developed nations to close the gap; hence, there is the need for reversal of this trend by developing nations in their pursuit of sustainable development. The rural communities in Africa, particularly in Nigeria, are strongly faced with many challenges which include extreme poverty, lack of social services and infrastructures, low level of education and health status, as well as unequal access to income opportunities. Despite the fact that telecommunications services in Nigeria could be traced back to 1851, the aforementioned factors, coupled with the difficult physical terrain in some cases, have made them lack behind the urban areas with regard to provision of telecommunications access. In this paper, issues and challenges of providing telecommunications access in the rural areas are provided. The work looks in-depth into the socio-cultural, literacy, security, infrastructure, regulatory and financial sustainability issues. Furthermore, the paper proffers some technological options/solutions to meeting the telecommunications needs of the rural communities in Nigeria within a very short, but reasonable, time.

INTRODUCTION Telecommunications literally means ‘the sharing of information over a distance’. It basically has to do with the conveyance of messages, by electrical means, well beyond the limits of hearing distances. Its theory evolved from mathematical theories and empirical formulas derived from experiments on electricity and magnetism in the 19th century. These led to the invention of telegraphy, telephony, wireless communications, copper conductors and manual exchanges, all forming parts of a communication network. From the 20th century till date, efforts have always been geared towards the development of appropriate improved technologies for achieving optimum quality of service and adequate quantity of facilities and services in order to meet the realities and needs of the age (Ige, 2002). Telecommunication services in Nigeria could be traced back to the colonial era when the colonial masters had to establish communication services with their home government in London. Since then, Nigeria has witnessed positive transformation in the telecommunications sector, though with little or nothing to contribute to the hardware development.

Nigeria’s telecommunication sector is found to be one of the fastest growing sectors and this is due to government’s liberalization policy of the sector in 2000 (Sadiq et al, 2011). In addition, telecommunication sector has benefited from significant investment in Nigeria over the past fifteen years. This sector had a greater impact on the country’s growth over the past fifteen years when compared with other sectors (Sadiq, Oyelade & Ukchukwu, 2011; Pyramid Research, 2011). For example, the percentage share of gross domestic products (GDP) from telecommunications sector in Nigeria rose from 0.06 % in 1999 to 3.5% in 2011 (Nwana, 2014) and about 12.50% in the third quarter of 2013 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2014). However, efforts have been concentrated in the urban communities, thus leaving the rural ones to grapple with low access to telecommunication services.

Rural telecommunication access has to do with provision of telecommunication infrastructure, and universal service in rural communities for the purpose of connectivity within the communities and with the rest of the

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 17 world. There is a global interest in how to provide universal telecommunication access in developing countries, particularly in the rural areas. Providing telecommunication infrastructure in rural areas is halted by many challenges, some of which are related to technological issues. However, the focus on the technological aspect essentially concentrates towards advancing the technology. Although it is paramount, we may not however neglect other factors that could have tremendous effects on service provision. Such factors include maintenance of quality of service delivery, service distribution, infrastructure penetration, rural-urban shift and lack of supporting infrastructure such as roads and power grid, all needed to be reviewed. The impact of these factors may however vary from country to country and from region to region. Therefore, the focus of this paper is to provide extensive review on the issues and challenges of providing telecommunication access in Nigeria, also proffers solutions to meeting the services within a very short, but reasonable, time.

Rural and Nigeria Rural Communities It is a daunting task to define what is ‘rural’ because its definition depends on so many criteria which vary from country to country and from time to time. For example, what may be considered rural in developed countries like USA and UK may not resemble what is rural in developing countries like Nigeria. In the USA, rural is any territory that is not urban. For national level analysis in Canada, there are at least six alternative definitions of the word ‘rural’, the classification depending upon the issue being addressed. The question is whether ‘rural’ is a geographical concept (a location with boundaries on a map) or whether it is a social representation (a community of interest, a culture and way of life). Within the geographical context, for example, ‘rural’ may be a function of labour market context or settlement context (de Plessus, Beshiri & Bollman, 2001).

IFAD (2011) considers rural people to constitute about 72% of the people living in extreme poverty, that is, on less than US$1.25 per day. However, absolute levels are generally low in developed countries while rural poverty is virtually non-existent in EU and northern Europe (Adisa, 2012). This implies that most of the developing countries have most of the rural population in the world.

In Nigeria, a rural area is classified based on population criterion and as defined by the national statistical office, National Bureau of Statistics. The 1963 census regarded an area inhabited by less than 5,000 people as rural. However, the 2006 census put the threshold at 20,000 people. These indicate that the rural-urban thresholds vary from time to time and from nation to nation. Some criteria used to differentiate between ‘rural’ and ‘urban’ include: Size, Population Density, Population Composition, Closeness to Nature, Occupation, Culture, Social Interaction, Social Stratification, Social Mobility, Social Control, and Levels and Standard of Living.

Rural Development and Sustainability The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) defines rural development as improvement in the overall rural community conditions, including economic and other quality of life considerations such as environment, health, infrastructure and housing (Adisa, 2012). Rural America tends to be poorer than urban America, a situation that is similar all over the world. However, rural America has a strong tradition of self- starting, risk taking and cooperation. Thus, rural America can be said to be sustainable because a sustainable community is more environmentally sound, economically prosperous and socially equitable. This cannot be said of rural communities in developing countries, such as Nigeria.

Rural development can be said to be sustainable if there is a process of constant change and transformation of the rural areas, encompassing a wide scope of processes and programmes such as (Adisa, 2012): Enhancement of governance at all levels, Development of production process (agriculture and non- agricultural industry, mining, etc.), Development of institutions and their capacities in key areas, and Development of rural infrastructure (roads, electricity, telecoms, housing, water, etc.).

Challenges of Rural Telecommunications Access in Nigeria Provision of telecommunications access to the rural communities in Nigeria has, at various times, suffered setbacks due to corruption and monstrous creations of the past governments in Nigeria. The paths to achieving universal access have led to resounding failures and wasted resources. For example, the Rural Telephony Project (RTP), a loan initiative of a consortium of Chinese investors, gulped a whooping N5 billion before it

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 18 could no longer fly (Sesan and Omo-Ettu, 2007). However, there are so many issues and challenges bedeveling service provision to rural communities’ aside the aforementioned corruption. . Socio-Cultural and Economic Challenges The socioeconomic impact of rural telecommunication access has been extensively researched through commissioned studies by various international organizations, such studies cutting across different parts of the world (OECD, 2004; DFID, 2005; Kawasumi, 2014). Some studies have also been carried out with respect to rural telecommunication access in Nigeria. In a study conducted by Pyramid Research (2010), the impact of mobile communications on social and economic activities in Nigeria was extensively discussed. The research details how mobile phones have redefined the way people interact. The effects of these interactions on Nigeria’s macroeconomic indices were also mentioned. Opata (2013) made a case for the use of rural telecommunication access in engineering sustainable growth of the Nigerian economy. Nwammuo et al (2013) sought to answer the question of the main beneficiaries of the growing Information and Communication Technology (ICT) business in Nigeria and also studied the level of diffusion and utilization of ICT among Nigerian rural women. The economic profile of a rural community allows one to describe the feasibility of implementing a rural telecommunication access scheme in such a community. This economic outlook determines the level of returns on investment and economic sustainability for a rural telecommunication access scheme by providing information for cost and revenue modelling (Nayan et al, 2012). In Nigeria, despite a high economic growth rate of an average of about 7% annually (DFID, 2012), more than two-thirds of the population live below the poverty level, earning less than US$1 a day. With half of Nigeria’s population living in the rural areas (World Bank, 2014b), it is evident that the larger percentage of the low income earners in the country is in the rural communities. This poses a major challenge to the deployment of rural telecommunication infrastructure in Nigeria because of the purchasing power of rural dwellers.

Population Distribution and Rural-Urban Migration In 2008, the world’s urban population equaled the rural population for the first time. This milestone represented a demographic change and more importantly social, cultural and economic transformation. This change is more significant considering that, two hundred years ago, the world’s population was overwhelmingly rural, with less than three per cent living in cities (UN-HABITAT, 2006). Urban growth began to accelerate in the 1950s when the urban population accounted for 29% of the world’s population (United Nations, 2008b). Since then, humanity has witnessed the fastest urban growth ever experienced. This urban transition will undergo further progress during the twenty-first century, with largely rural regions, mainly in Asia and Africa, becoming predominantly urban. Fig 1 shows Africa rural and urban population from 1950-2050. In Nigeria, urban population growth rate has steadily increased in the last six decades, causing a massive tilt in population distribution from less than a quarter of the population living in towns and cities in the ‘pre-crude oil’ era to close to 55% living in urban centres in 2013 (Abass, 2012; World bank, 2014). Migration from rural to urban areas has played a key role in the rapid growth of cities and, together with the reclassification of rural localities into urban centers; it continues to be an important component of city growth. These transformations have been a major aspect, if not a driver, of economic development. On the average, urban residents have better access to telecommunication services such as the Internet, telephone, television and radio network, mobile communication services, etc.

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Fig 1. Africa Rural and Urban population 1950-2050. (HSRC, 2015)

The impact of the growing trend in migration from rural communities to urban centres on the feasibility of rural telecommunication access is evident in the effect that the trend has on the economy of the rural communities as well as the socio-cultural structure. With the migration of potential workforce from the rural communities, economic activities are on the decrease and the income gaps between these communities and urban centers are widening. This has the effect of posing economic sustainability challenges to rural telecommunication access. Also, most of the people migrating from rural communities in Nigeria are youths who are more likely to embrace changes in ways of life brought by telecommunication technology. With the ageing population in the rural communities, only limited services can be deployed based on the need of the population, thereby introducing a problem of resource redundancy if a wide range of telecommunication services are deployed in these communities.

Literacy and Telecommunication Technology Awareness The gap between the information-rich developed countries and Africa, with respect to information availability, continues to increase every day, and Nigeria is not an exception to this negative statistic. Though Africa has 13% of the world population, the country has only 2% of world telephone lines and 1% of Internet connectivity measured in terms of number of Internet hosts and Internet users (Ogunsola, 2005). Telecommunication technology awareness in Nigeria has grown rapidly over the years though awareness in rural communities is still at snail speed.

Nigeria’s telecommunication sector has grown rapidly over the years, even though awareness in rural communities is still very low. However, there is a wide gap between telecommunication subscription and penetration. For example, Figures 2-5 show more increase in subscription in developing countries than in the developed countries but in reality, the penetration is very low due to the fact that most subscriptions are concentrated in the urban areas

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Fig 2. Fixed-telephone (Data source: ITU World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators database)

Fig 3. Fixed-telephone Penetration (Data source: ITU World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators database)

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Fig 4. Mobile-Cellular telephone Subscription (Data source: ITU World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators database)

Fig 5. Mobile-Cellular telephone penetration (Data source: ITU World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators database).

In rural communities of Nigeria, telecommunication systems are available only on a very limited scale, and this raises doubts about the ability of these communities to participate in the current ICT-induced global knowledge economy. The wide gap in the availability and use of telecommunication technology between urban and rural communities, and the influences telecommunication exert on social integration, raise questions about the inclusion of rural communities in the globalization process. They also raise questions about the feasibility and desirability of efforts to implement rural telecommunication networks, and whether these communities can utilize telecommunication services in accordance with the socio-cultural requirements of their society (Walshan, 2001). Rural communities in Nigeria, like in other developing countries, are faced with problems of poor general and computer literacy and lack of awareness of other telecommunication services beyond telephony. Technological gaps and uneven diffusion in technology are not new. Older innovations, such as telephony and electricity, are still far from being evenly diffused in these communities.

Security and Socio-Political Challenges Nigeria in recent times has witnessed an unprecedented level of insecurity. This has made national security threat to be a major issue for the government and has prompted huge allocation of the national budget to security. In order to ameliorate the incidence of crime, the Federal Government has embarked on criminalization of terrorism by passing the Anti-Terrorism Act in 2011, installing computer-based Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) cameras in some parts of the country, enhancing surveillance as well as investigating crime-related offences, heightening of physical security measures around the country aimed at deterring or disrupting potential attacks, strengthening of security agencies through the provision of security facilities, and developing and broadcasting security tips in the mass media (Azazi, 2011). Despite these efforts, the level of insecurity in the country is still high. In addition, Nigeria has consistently ranked low in the Global Peace Index (GPI, 2012), signifying a worsened state of insecurity in the country. With the incessant cases of terrorism in the northern part of the country, many businesses operating in that region, including the telecommunication industry, have been adversely affected.

Rural communities are not left out of the insecurity challenges facing the country. Insecurity affects telecommunication access very severely and the business owners and operators have little or no direct control over the situation. In Nigeria, the problems range from theft of equipment to organized armed robbery, vandalizing of installation, kidnapping and demand for ransom, assassination, repeated invasion and blockading of installations and telecommunication infrastructure, etc. Insecurity discourages investment as it makes investment unattractive to telecommunication service providers. This inevitably translates to a

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 22 weakened rate of development and advancement. Investors are discouraged because it increases the cost of doing business either through direct loss of goods and properties or the cost of taking precautions against business risks and uncertainty. These costs could have a negative impact on business development and progress. The Nigeria insecurity situation, in a number of cases, has halted business operations during the periods of violence and has also caused outright closure of many telecommunication facilities in a bid to protect lives of personnel and business properties, especially in the areas or zones where incidences of insecurity are rife and are a daily occurrence. In the case of Nigeria, there is also evidence of some businessmen and telecommunication companies having to relocate their telecommunication sites particularly from the North in recent time, to other more peaceful parts of the country (Nwagboso 2012).

Telecommunication firms usually rely on availability and regular supply of resources for smooth running of their operations. Security problems can cut off supply of such resources. Production activities can be disrupted when a firm is unable to access material resources needed for operation due to insecurity.

Insecurity also limits market availability. In addition to the fact that areas prone to insecurity will not be attractive to telecommunication service providers, there will be restrictions on mobility. Besides, migration of people from these areas to other parts of the country or outside as a result of insecurity will affect the customer base operations in the environment where insecurity exists. Some rural communities in Nigeria are currently experiencing this situation. Migration of people could also lead to a dearth of skilled labour. Insecurity promotes fear, thereby limiting peoples’ ability to work effectively.

Infrastructure Deployment Cost Infrastructure has, for decades, been one of the bedevilling factors of universal access and services provision to rural areas in the developing countries. Rural infrastructure is of great importance in network and services provision. The high cost of deployment of network infrastructure has been the main problem that leads to high prices in the tariff since the network operators would have to recover their investment. The term ‘infrastructure’ has many features and the concept of ‘telecommunication infrastructure’ is also a multi- dimensional concept. For example, electronic infrastructure may include the base transceiver station, microwave radio units, routers, switches, radio antennas, signal processing and transmission. However, things like the tower, BTS site, shelter for the electronic devices, power/generating system, air-conditioning systems for cooling, etc. are all non-electronic infrastructures. Now, the choice of using appropriate telecommunications infrastructure that will provide telecommunication access in the rural areas will however depend on many factors as discussed hereunder.

Despite the crucial role that transportation plays in the socio-economic development of every society, it was found that most of the developing countries, particularly in Africa are characterized by inadequate transport systems even in the urban and suburban areas according to Hilling (1996). However, Akinola (2007) pointed out that the condition of rural areas of Nigeria is worse and pathetic as they are highly deprived of infrastructural facilities when compared to the urban areas. Research efforts have shown that only about five percent (5%) of rural roads in Nigeria could be said to be in good condition (Adesanya, 1997); this is a terrible situation as the poor nature of the road makes it virtually impossible for mobility and movement of goods. Road transport situation in rural areas of Kwara State, Nigeria was examined in Usman (2014); it was found that the overall road network connectivity and level of road accessibility are poor in the area.

Access to electricity has always been one of the major challenges in developing countries. According to the report of International Energy Agency (IEA, 2010) in 2008, about 1.4 billion people in the world lacked access to electricity of which more than 587 million inhabitants were from Africa. Also, over 60% of people in Africa live in rural areas and this would affect telecommunication service provision. The lack of access to power grid poses a significant barrier to achieving the millennium development goals (MDGs) in which access to ICT is among the targeted objectives (Akpan and Isihak, 2012). However, the situation was not different in Nigeria where about 53% lacked access to electricity in 2008 according to the World Health Organization (WHO/UNDP, 2009). It is noted that wireless cellular mobile communication is a major option for universal services in Africa. However, the base stations used in cellular system consumed a lot of energy.

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Some measures that could be taken to mitigate these problems include:  Collocation and base station infrastructure sharing: In this method, mobile network operators can become partners in order to lower their increasing investments as well as increased revenue intake. Infrastructure sharing could be active (i.e. electronic based) or passive (i.e. non electronic based). Active infrastructure sharing includes: microwave radio equipment, switches, antennas, transceivers for signal processing and transmission, while the passive infrastructure sharing includes the tower, shelter, air-conditioning equipment, diesel electric generator, battery, electrical supply, technical premises and easements & pylons that account for nearly 60 percent of network rollout costs (Djamal-Eddine, 2011). Although this approach has the potential of reducing costs of investments which may vary in each country, regulatory and competitive climate may however have significant impact on the degree of sharing the infrastructure. In Nigeria, the Nigerian Communications Commission (NCC) has provided detailed guidelines on collocation and infrastructure sharing (NCC, 2016).  Small cells deployments: the use of energy efficient smaller cells, such as micro, pico and femto cells has the advantage of helping in the reduction of energy consumption of the base station (Bhushan, et al, 2014). The relatively low power needs of the small cells are attributed to the fact that they have a smaller target coverage area (less radio transmit power) and can frequently be in powered-down (sleep mode) state. While network densification was conventionally proposed for urban deployment so as to achieve capacity, this approach could still be leveraged in rural areas where a cyber café model of small call can be deployed to provide universal access. A typical power consumption of macro base station range from 1000W-5000W depending on the load and climatic condition (Deruyck, 2011). The micro, pico and femto consume respectively, 100 – 300W, 9 – 15W and 6 – 14W respectively (Auer, G et al, 2011; Deruyck, 2012). The deployment of small cells could be sustainably powered with renewable energy sources.  Software defined radio based access Networks: software defined radio (SDR) technologies allow new concepts such as OpenBTS (Open Base Transceiver Station) to be deployed. OpenBTS is a software-based GSM access point, which allows standard GSM-compatible mobile phones to be used as Session Initiation protocol (SIP) endpoints in Voice over IP (VOIP) networks (OpenBTS, 2016). OpenBTS is an open-source software that was developed and is maintained by Range Networks (Range Network, 2016). This software allows the base station, base station controller, mobile switching center and all other network elements of the GSM network to be run as software based. This new development allows the deployment of cost effective and energy efficient radio access networks.

Financial Sustainability of Rural Telecommunication Access Schemes Financial sustainability is perhaps one of the major inhibitors to the growth of rural telecommunication access in Nigeria. This challenge stems from the need to provide a steady flow of financial resource for maintenance of telecommunication infrastructure and personnel. This is in addition to ensuring a promising rate of return on investment. Depending on the network access scheme that is deployed in a particular rural community, it is necessary to ensure that the market for the telecommunication services provided is robust enough to keep the network afloat. The huge initial investment involved in the provision of telecommunication services in Nigeria, due to some of the aforementioned challenges and the currently bleak economic profiles of rural communities in Nigeria make it very difficult to craft sustainable economic models that will ensure return on investments that will be attractive to service providers.

There are other economic deterrents to the provision of rural telecommunication access in Nigeria. Some of the deterrents that are likely to affect the interest of telecommunication service providers include multiple taxation and access to capital. It has become a common practice for state and local governments in Nigeria to require companies in their territory to pay some form of taxes, in addition to that which is being paid to the federal government. This multiple taxation regime is a challenge to the provision of rural telecommunication access in Nigeria when overhead cost of providing such services is not commensurate with financial benefits derived from the communities.

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Ncc’s Regulatory Challenges NCC witnessed a flurry of activities in the telecommunications industry in its initial four years of existence. Today it has come a long way from a government agency with minimal significance to a responsible regulatory body recognised nationally and internationally. Nonetheless, the organisation has been faced with some regulatory challenges. For example, the approval to deregulate the telecommunications sector translated to licensing several operators in order to rapidly meet demand. This led to a highly fragmented market that became difficult to regulate and complex to understand, thus tasking the ability of NCC.

Technology Options for Rural Telecommunication Access The first target of World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) is to connect all villages with ICTs and establish community access points. This target is quite different from the conventional teledensity which measures the telephones per 100 inhabitants, as it incorporates digital inclusion in the wider perspective, since community access is the main priority and not measuring per capital access. By community access we mean local availability of telecommunication infrastructure and services for rural populace. However, the basic challenges facing Africa range from electricity, access road networks, network connectivity and affordable internet access provision, infrastructure resources, land and sea fibres, satellite to the challenge of domestic connectivity, national and regional internet exchange points (IXP) solutions.

In order to extend ICT access to the rural and remote communities in Africa, there is the need to consider available options. It is however important to note that geographical location of the villages and local terrain of the environment are major issues to be considered when deploying ICT equipments to provide access to the Internet in remote communities. Other factors such as government policies, sources of funding, sustainability of the deployed infrastructures and demography of the villages are also important as they could have tremendous effects on the whole system. Each option has its own unique approach to serving the rural communities and has its own advantages and shortcomings. Some options are deployed in Nigeria and other neighbouring African countries while some are still in the developmental stages. This section outlines some of the existing, new and affordable technological options available today that can be deployed for rural telecommunications access in Nigeria and the like.

Digital Subscriber Line (Dsl) Technology This is a technology using existing telecommunication networks (wireline) to accomplish high-speed broadband delivery of voice, data and video (Adediran, 2005). This requires the use of copper cables laid underground or overhead. It therefore uses copper twisted pair to provide high bandwidth transmission. One of the main advantages of DSL systems is that it is a connection-oriented service and can provide broadband access at a cheaper rate when compared to other high speed broadband services. However, there could be recurrent cost for moving of telecommunication infrastructure from the urban centres to the rural areas. Security could also be a major challenge as theft and vandalism are common and inherent practice in developing countries.

Global System for Mobile Communication (Gsm) Technology GSM technologies such as the 2G, 2.5G and CDMA have been promising globally over the decades and still remain the most widely deployed cellular technology, although CDMA has very low penetration in Nigeria. GSM offers a range of services which include prepaid/postpaid calling, voice mail, short message services (SMS), call waiting and call bearing. A major benefit of deploying GSM in the rural areas is that it can provide considerable data service at a wider range up to 10 km since most of the rural communities are demanding for high data rates and therefore, voice services will suffice.

Cdma 450 Due to the favourable propagation characteristics of CDMA450, it is used to provide cellular service particularly in the rural areas with very high coverage distance. Clusters of villages could be connected via CDMA 450 backbone network. CDMA 450 offers some great advantage and makes it suitable for rural deployment. For example, it could provide coverage and capacity for rural areas at a greater distance and less base stations are required to cover much geographical areas. One of the fears of the network operators is return of investment. CDMA is expected to provide less capital and operational expenditure when compared with other access technologies such as the HSPDA, WCDMA and GSM. African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 25

Satellite Technologies Satellite technologies, such as VSAT, could be used to provide data services up to about 15 Mbps and VoIP (Wikipedia, 2014). VSAT technology has been deployed for a variety of applications and in different areas; it has proved to be an efficient and easiest way of providing internet access, for example for banks in remote areas of Brazil, Nigeria, Ghana and many developing economies. This scenario could be expanded to rural communities. Some of the advantages of deploying satellite technologies include: access to remote areas, coverage of large geographical areas and insensitivity to topology. However initial cost of investments, weather and atmospheric effects could also be some bottlenecks for this type of technology deployment.

Wireless Lan Technologies (Wifi Hotspots) Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology was designed to provide high speed wireless connection in a local area. This type of technology has been deployed widely in individual homes and businesses; and, it can be found in many public establishments, shops, buildings and buses in urban cities in the developed countries. Most of the government agencies, universities in Nigeria and internet cafes today utilize the WiFi technology for internet service. WLAN could be deployed in rural areas as it provides a relatively cheap alternative internet access and no spectrum licensing is required. WLAN technologies lacks the range and power needed to make it ideal for serving the rural community. However, coverage could be achieved by having repeater stations; but this may add to the cost. Interference may not necessarily be an issue since few access points are required for rural deployments.

Wireless Man (Wman) Technologies Wireless metropolitan area network (WMAN) technology is based on broadband wireless access (Kuran and Tugcu, 2007). There are two major standards for WMAN technology, namely, IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX) and IEEE 802.20 (Mobile Fi). However, IEEE 802.16 Wimax is the global most acceptable standard which aims to provide broadband internet service in urban, suburban and rural areas. WimaX technology could be used to provide coverage up to 50 km covering hotspots villages that are close. It could also serve as a backhaul for underlying WLAN access points deployed in the rural areas. Initial cost of deploying WIMAX could be challenging.

Television White Space (Tvws) Technology TV white space technologies have been proved to be efficient for providing broadband internet service to under-served or “rural” communities. Within a small community, 2.4 GHz unlicensed WLAN can be used to provide wireless internet coverage, while the TVWS would provide cost effective backhaul connectivity to other rural areas WLANs and the rest of the world. Although TVWS technologies have not been deployed widely for commercial purpose, several organizations such as the Microsoft, Google, SpectraLink wireless, UhuruOne, WaveTek, COSTECH, TENET etc, have however led the TV white space pilot projects across the world (Opawoye et al. 2015). TVWS will provide flexible backbone solution at a cheaper rate and high coverage to rural villages (Adediran et al., 2014). Due to its favourable propagation characteristics, atmospheric effects are not considered as transmission bottleneck in the TVWS bands and therefore, this technology is expected to mitigate problems bedevilling satellite, WImax and WLAN deployment in the rural areas where line-of-sight is not possible.

CONCLUSION Telecommunication sector is found to be one of the fastest growing sectors in emerging economies. There is global interest by the Government and policy makers on how to provide universal telecommunication service in the rural areas. However, providing the telecommunication infrastructure in rural areas is halted by many challenges, which may be as the result of poor infrastructure and access to basic amenities like road and electricity. Despite these, there is rapid growth in mobile and internet penetration; there are also clear interdependencies between telecommunications services and economic development, and between the penetration and urban-urban shifts. Sharing of mobile infrastructure would be an alternative that would lower the cost of network deployment, especially in rural areas. This will cut down the cost of building and maintaining the infrastructure. Government and policy makers would have to strive to build sustainable business models that support the investment in infrastructure; regional infrastructure companies should be encouraged. Also Government should create support mechanisms to support private sector investment in off- grid electrification programmes. Other immediate interventions for the regulators may include: Extending nation-wide coverage and penetration of telephone services evenly; More active enforcement activity;

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Improving weak infrastructural base; Encouraging more investment through import duty concession/waiver, bank loans, etc.; Local telecommunications hardware manufacturing industry; Cooperation among government agencies and, Paucity of industry information for policy planning and regulatory rule-making.

Acknowledgments This work was supported by Federal Ministry of Education in Nigeria, 2014-2015 Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund). The research team thank the University of Ilorin through which the support was secured.

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Isolation and Characterization of the Basic Metabolites of the Methanol Extract of the Leaves of Rose Flower

Ezigbo, Veronica O. Duruji, Juliet O. Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University Uli Chukwuemeka odumegwu Ojukwu University Uli Nigeria; [email protected] Nigeria

Abstract Rose flower leaves were recorded to possess a great medical value due to the presence of some biological active components. The phytochemical screening carried out on the leaves showed the presence of alkaloids saponins, tannins, flavonoids and cardiac glycosides. Quantitative analysis showed that alkaloids have 8.40 x 100g-1, saponins (1.90 x 100g-1), tannins (2.26 x 100g-1) and flavonoids (28.40 x 100g-1). The IR analysis indicated the presence of functional group of O-H stretch in alcohols, C = C stretch in aromatic ring C-O stretch in primary alcohols and C-N in amides. Also the UV analysis indicated the presence of phenolic compounds which may have supported the use of the leaves of the plant locally in treatment and prevention of diseases like malaria and typhoid fever.

Key Words: Alkaloids, Rose flower, Saponnin, Phytochemical, Ultraviolet (U.V)

INTRODUCTION Roses, the queen of the flower have been enjoyed for thousands of years. Cultivating of roses dated back to at least. Greek and Roman times and many varieties and descendents from ancient garden plants in China, Persia or Turkey The world of roses is indeed varied and diverse, (Andreas, 2009). Wild roses grow in all corners of the world and many habitats are in forest along coastlines and rivers and even high mountain elevations. True roses belong to the genus rosa, but this is a subset of a larger family known as Rosaceae (Godwin, 1986). The rose family includes a tremendous number of blooming and edible plants including fruits trees (Apples, pear, cherry, peach and plum), hawthorn, straw berries, raspberries cotoneaster. Generally, all roses like full sun (at least 6 hours a day) and average garden soil. In most areas of the country like Turkey, they will survive on annual rainfall, but during the summer months most benefit from supplemental irrigation (Lewis, 2007). Roses require good drainage, if the soil is soggy they may develop root rot (Owulade, Eghianruwa & Daramola, 2004).

It has been found to be a source of food and also a source of medication for different ailments. The experimental method of extraction of some natural products like alkaloids, tannins, phenols, flavonoids and saponins were carefully carried out in order to identify the components and structures of these products that are present in the dry leaves of rose flower Kaufman 1989). Rose flowers are used as ingredients in perfumes and health tonics. The flowers are used in the decoration of homes and environment thereby giving them a neater and better appearance. The petals and hips (berries) are used to make rose tea which is high in vitamin C (Weiss 1997). Its petals contain an astringent tannins and can be used to control bleeding (Okwu, 2004). The leaves and flowers can be used in making dye. Rose tea contains other vitamins and compounds that may help stomach problems such as bladder infection and diarrhea. Hence, the objectives of this study are: 1. To perform qualitative phytochemical analysis. 2. To perform quantitative phytochemical screening on the leaves of rose flower. 3. To elucidate the structure of the chemical compound present in the leaves of rose flower using the combination of spectroscopic methods of analyses like ultra violet and infra-red spectroscopy.

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MATERIALS AND METHOD Sample Collection and Preparation The leaves of Rose flower were collected from the rural areas of Onitsha in Anambra State. The leaves were dried at room temperature for about three weeks and ground in a mill. The powdered sample obtained was stored in a clean polythene bag at ambient temperature ready for analysis. The qualitative phytochemical analysis was carried out using the method of Harbone 1998. This is to ascertain the presence of the phytochemicals before embarking on the quantitative phytochemical analysis. Quantitative phytochemical analysis was also carried out using the method of Okwu 2004. Extraction and isolation of the active components from the leaves of rose using sorhlet extraction technique and method by Okwu 2004. The extract was analysed using the IR analysis and ultraviolet visible analysis by GENESIS 105 UV SCANNING SPECTROPHOTOMETER.

RESULTS Tables 1, 2 and 3 show the result obtained from the qualitative phytochemical and quantitative phytochemical analysis, U.V analysis and I.R. analysis respectively. Table 1: Result of the qualitative and quantitative phytochemical analysis of rose flower. Constituents Qualitative Results Quantitative result 100g Alkaloids + 8.40 Saponins + 1.90 Tannins + 2.26 Flavonoids + 28.40 Terpenoids + 10.40 Glycosides (cardiac) - 0.00

+ = Present - = Absent

Table 2: Result of ultraviolet spectrophotometric analysis

Wave length (mm) Absorbance Interpretation 281 1.319 Conjugated aromatics 279 1.008 Benzene ring 253 0.461 Substituted aromatic ring 231 0.402 Diene 211 0214 Monosubstituted cyclo compound

Table 3: Result of Infrared Spectrophotometric analysis

Wavelength peak (cms) Functional groups (Suspected chromophores 674.47 C – H bend in aromatics, alkenes 1242.22 C – O stretch for ethers and Esters, primary alcohols, carboxylic acid. 1632.56 C = O Stretch for Anhydride Anti-Symmetric Amide 2850.43 C – H stretch for alkene symmetric 2921.05 C – H stretch for alkene anti-symmetric and methyl group 3637.28 O – H, stretch in alcohols. N-H stretch in amines 3849.86 CONH2 for benzene rings

DISCUSSION The quantitative phytochemical analysis shown in table 1 gave the following results: 8.40mg for alkaloids, 1.90mg. for saponins, 2.2mg for tannins and 28.40mg for flavonoids. Flavonoid has the greatest concentration African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 31 which is attributed to the fact that flavonoids are the principal component of pigments it is responsible for the different colours found in flowers and fruits. The ultraviolet visible analysis was done by GENESIS 105 UV SCANNING SPECTROPHOTOMETER. The U.V absorption wavelength around 231 indicated the presence of conjugated diene. The absorption at 279 – 281nm may be due to the presence of benzene ring. In the 1R analysis result, the peaks below 900cm-1 – 1000cm-1 (674.47cm-1) suggest the presence of aromatic rings, bands between 1000cm-1 – 1700cm-1 (1242.22cm-1) suggest the presence of C – O stretch in primary alcohols, ester and carboxylic acids. Bands around 1632.56cm-1 suggest the presence of C=O stretch for anhydride anti symmetric amide. The peaks around 2000cm-1 – 3000cm-1 – 3500cm-1 (2850.42 – 2921.05) may be due to presence of C – H stretch in alkenes and alkanes in methyl group. The bands around (3850.78, -1 3878.28cm ) may be due to the presence of CONH2 in benzene ring and O – H stretch in alcohols. The readings of IR and UV above strongly suggest the presence of aromatic rings with hydroxyl attachment. The attachment of the conjugated ring or diene system could be as result of the presence of flavonoids and cardiac glycosides as regards to the absorbance in the U.V 0.402 and in the IR 2850.43cm-1 – 2921.05cm-1. Since in each case there is an attachment of benzene ring, this may suggest the presence of aldehyde and O – H attachment at 3637.28cm-1 and 3849.86cm-1. The presence of some biological active components in the rose made it medicinal. For example, tannins when mixed with water and boiled with some other constituents is a good antidote against malaria and typhoid fever.

CONCLUSION The phytochemical screening of the leaves of Rose flower has indicated the presence of alkaloids, flavoniods, saponins and tannins. This highlights its possibility of being used in the treatment and prevention of diseases and this may be possible due to the presence of conjugated hydroxyl (O-H) in IR and UV.

RECOMMENDATIONS It is however recommended that every university should have access to analytical equipment like IR and UV because the cost of sending samples to another institution as far as to the West made the research more difficult and risky.

REFERENCES Andreas Luchi (2009). Historical Review and introduction of Rose flower. Spectrum Book Ltd, Ibadan, Pp. 9-25.

Goodwin, T. W. and Mercer, E. I. (1990). Introduction to plant Biochemistry. 2nd Edition. Pergaman press, oxford, Pp. 480 – 527.

Herborne, J. B. (1998). Phytochemical methods. Chapman and Hall, London Pp. 110 – 113.

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Okwu, D. E. and Iroabuchi, F. (2004). Phytochemical Analysis and Antimicrobial Activity Screening of Aqueous and ethanolic Root Extract of Uvaria chamaebeau and Cnestis feruginea. De, J. Chem. Soc. of Nigeria, 2, Pp 112 – 114.

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African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 32

Exploring the Effectiveness of Computer Activinspire Software on Students Academic Achievement in Mathematics

Wushishi, Ibrahim Dantani Durodola, Temilolu Grace Federal University of Technology Minna, Nigeria National Examinations Council, Minna, Nigeria [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract This study explores the effectiveness of Computer ActivInspire software on students’ achievement in learning mathematical concepts that have to do with graph. The research uses a Pretest – Posttest randomized equivalent group design. The population of Senior Secondary School (SSS) class 3 students is 6,147 spread across Minna Metropolis. Four schools were chosen using multistage sampling within Minna Metropolis and the sample of the study consisted of 120 randomly selected students. The experimental group was taught using the activinspire software, while the control group was taught using the conventional method. The research instrument used was the Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT). This was validated by experts and were certified to have content validity. The reliability coefficient of 0.83 was obtained. The data collected after 6 weeks of application was analysed using Analysis of Variance Statistics with the aid of SPSS Version 16.0. Two hypotheses were tested at 0.05 significant level. The results showed that there was significant difference between experimental and control groups’ achievement. This difference is in favour of the experimental group which had lessonstaughtthe ActivInspire Software. The results also showed that there was no significant difference in the achievement of male and female students taught using the activinspire software. It was recommended that Computer ActivInspire software should be explored by teachers for enhancing their teaching. The use of the computer ActivInspire software would also help in bridging the perceived gender disparity in students understanding of mathematical concepts. The government should promote the use of the software through organizing seminars, workshops and induction courses for science teachers.

Keywords: Activinspire, Mathematics, achievement, Computer software

INTRODUCTION Mathematics is a key subject taught in all schools throughout the world due to its relevance to the development of science and technology. It is an integral part of life because it is needed by everyone for successful living (Onoshakpokaiye, 2006). Secondary school education is the bedrock of future development of the citizens in any country and the mathematics achievement at secondary school is a key predictor of a nation’s long term economic potential. Mathematics is one of the key subjects which every student must offer in the senior secondary school in Nigeria, regardless of whether the student is in the science, commercial or arts class. The importance of mathematics to nation building led the Federal Government of Nigeria to make mathematics a core subject to be offered by students at all levels of education in Nigeria (FRN, 2004). A credit pass in Mathematics and English language is a must before a student can secure admission to study science or social science related courses in the university.

Despite the importance that has been placed on the studying of mathematics, in Nigeria today, the average student believes that mathematics is difficult to understand. This is then reflected by the students having little or virtually no interest in the subject and poor results or under-achievement in mathematics examinations. This trend is one of serious concern to education stakeholders, parents and the general public. Results from the national examination bodies such as the West African Examinations Council (WAEC) and the National Examinations Council (NECO) have consistently shown that students perform poorly in mathematics exams. In the analysis of the May/June 2000 West African School Certificate result, more than 50% of the candidates failed to pass mathematics at credit level and the percentage of failure among girls surpassed that of boys (Onuka, 2002). One of the factors that has been discovered to play a vital role in the support or discouragement of performance and academic achievement of students in mathematics is the teaching methods or strategies used. Ebenezer (2009) stated that teaching strategies that one uses will undoubtedly affect one's philosophy of teaching. He went further to state that Education is a cooperative enterprise that works well if the students are permitted to contribute while the teacher listen and respond. Okpala (2006)

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 33 stated that "one of the important median of realizing the educational objectives is the appropriate teaching method."

There is a clear symbiotic relationship between Mathematics and the computer. The existence and process of computer has helped to develop Mathematics and make it more accessible to students (Tooke, 2001). ICT play an important role in improving the quality of education and enhancing teaching efficiency. Mathematics as with any other subject is best learnt when students are actively involved in the learning process (i.e. student centred teaching) as it helps in increasing a positive attitude towards learning (Brewster and Fager, 2000).

LITERATURE REVIEW Definitions of Mathematics Odili (2006) defined mathematics as a body of knowledge, a collection of techniques and methods, and the product of human activity meant for solving problems. It is the science of sizes and numbers that has evolved from elementary practices of counting, measuring and describing the shapes of objects. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2010) defines mathematics as the science of sizes and numbers with branches such as arithmetic, algebra, trigonometry and geometry. New Encyclopaedia Britannica (2010) defines it as the science of structure, order and relation that has evolved from elementary practices of counting, measuring and describing the shapes of objects.

Reasons for students’ failure in Mathematics and possible solutions A number of factors had been identified by various researchers and educators as being responsible for poor achievement in mathematics. These include students’ characteristics, instructional/classroom characteristics, teachers’ characteristics, societal factors and school factors. Other factors often cited, include lack of motivation and poor self-image (self-concept) of teachers, lack of innovative teaching methods, lack of teaching facilities, poor school climate, lack of incentives and motivation, poor remuneration, poor condition of service and students’ poor problem-solving abilities (Munro, 1979, as cited in Ajogbeje, 2012). Others include poor teaching approach (WAEC, 2007, Olunloye, 2010), lack of confidence in the subject (Basturk, 2005). Instructional approach employed by teachers is another important area that researchers have put their searchlight on. This is because; it can easily be manipulated to bring positive changes in learners more than other factors like gender, ability and intelligence. According to Olunloye (2010), when teachers improve their teaching methods it often leads to better understanding and application of mathematics principles among the students so that their interest could be aroused. Therefore, there is need to explore approaches that will improve students’ achievement as results (WAEC, 2010) indicate that the conventional teaching approach is no longer sufficient in meeting the needs of majority of learners.

The conventional teaching approach is described as teacher centred and associated with learners simply listening, copying notes, doing class work and doing assignments. Okafor (2002) identified poor teaching methods as the major factor contributing to the poor performance of students in mathematics. In addition, Karron& Bryne (2005) discovered that in Nigeria today, teachers, textbooks, chalkboards and traditional facilities are no longer adequate to cope with the amount and type of skills and competences expected of students. Accordingly, Ogoni (2003) suggested that teachers need resources that can assist them to carry out their duties efficiently. There is also an urgent need for a shift from the lecture mode of teaching which is teacher-centred to a learner-centred mode in the classroom. Williams (2004) stated that teaching methods over the years have shown that there have been changes from one position to another, many efforts have been made to improve the teaching methods through the use of instructional materials such as the computer. Availability of many educational software enables students to have better understanding of concepts they need to know in order to be active participants in today’s technologically advancing society. This gave birth to Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI).

CAI can be referred to as a self-learning technique usually offline or online, involving interaction of students with programmed instructional materials (Adeyemi, 2012). It is an interactive instructional technique whereby a computer is used to present the instructional material and monitor the learning that takes place. CAI programs use tutorials, drill and practice, simulation and problem solving approaches to present topics to the students and also to test the students’ understanding. Therefore, the position of mathematics makes it necessary for the use of innovative pedagogical strategy that will enable teachers meet the challenges of teaching and learning of the subject especially in this era of information age. African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 34

Computers should be used as a material and method or as instructional materials that is effective for making students to concentrate on, understand, synthesize and improve positive attitude in pupils towards the subject of the course. An instructional material makes the topic clearer and more lasting by making the topics that are abstract for students more concrete (Demirel, 2004). CAI captures students’ attention because the programs are interactive and engage the students’ spirit of competitiveness to increase their scores.

CAI involves students, teachers, and administrators in the ever growing process of making schools exciting and challenging places to work and to learn. CAI’s encourages students to be involved in thought-provoking activities that connect academic learning with practical, real world activities (Sherry, Billing, Jesse, & Watson-Acosta, 2001; Kadhiravan & Suresk, 2003; Adeyemi, 2012)

Some of the CAI’s software specifically created for the teaching and learning of mathematics includes LOGO, Coypu, Derive, and Mathematica. For example, LOGO is an open-ended, general purpose, discovery- based programming language developed to teach powerful ideas such as procedural thinking, concrete and formal operations, problem decomposition, and debugging through discovery learning in a micro world (Subhi, Papert cited in Lowe, 2004). It was also indicated that problem solving-based LOGO environment can facilitate the acquisition of knowledge in the specific domain in which children construct mathematical concepts. Advocates of CAI such as Chang (2002); Cotton (2001); Garcia and Arias, (2000) claimed that CAI improves positive attitudes of students toward learning and directly increase their achievements. The primary advantage of computer-based instruction over the traditional method in the teaching of mathematics includes its flexibility and convenience with self-paced instruction. This provides students with immediate and frequent feedback without the embarrassment that a mistake in a traditional classroom might cause. For many students who have experienced failure with traditional mathematics instruction, CAI offers an alternative to the classroom situation that did not work for them (Seese, cited in Moosavia, 2009).

Effects of Computer Aided Instruction The primary advantages of Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI) for a student in mathematics are flexibility and convenience with self-paced instruction. This provides students with immediate and frequent feedback without the embarrassment that a mistake in a traditional classroom might cause. Other advantages of CAI include clarity and structure, impartiality, active learning and involvement and variety and appeal to those students accustomed to using computers (Capper &Copple,1985). In addition, a student would be free to consult a teacher/lab assistant as needed for help with a challenging concept. For many students who have experienced failure with traditional mathematics instruction, CAI offers an alternative to the classroom situation that did not work for them (Seese, cited in Moosavi 2009.Based on the research reviewed, Cotton notes that students learn material in either the same time or less time when CAI is used. One study indicated by Cotton (2001) determined that students learn up to 40% faster when taught using CAI, as CAI increases student’s time on a task. Computerized teaching leaves teacher more time for more creative activities, for educational activity, for pedagogical and professional training, for making a programme more innovating (DanimirMandic,2008).

Theoretical Framework The use of instructional technology has been supported by a number of critical learning theories. Educational theories relevant to this investigation include the social cognitive and constructivist paradigms of learning. Social cognitive theory, as advocated by Bandura and Vygotsky, believe that learning is filtered through a child’s culture, both in its content and style of thinking. In the social cognitive learning perspective, students learn best in the company of others, social groups playing an influential role in the development of understanding. Pedagogically, learning is facilitated through guided instruction, problem-solving, and peer interactions. (Bandura,1986) states that “Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do . . . most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action”. This is consistent with Vygotsky’s point of view that social interactions are essential to learning. Because he believed that social exchanges are so important to learning, he advocated the designing of curricula stressing the dynamic role students must play in learning activities. He stated that “instruction is most efficient when students engage in activities within a supportive learning environment and when they receive appropriate

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 35 guidance that is mediated by tools”. (Vygotsky cited in Cullata, 2013) Among the tools available for implementation as cognitive strategies are computer-supported interactive whiteboard (IWB) such as the ActivInspire software. Glover, Miller, Averis, and Door (2007) stated that through the use of the IWB, teachers “become more aware of the nature of interactivity and its stimulation as the basis for conceptual development and cognitive understanding”. Cognitive approaches have also influenced objectivist instructional models by emphasizing the use of advanced organizers, mnemonic devices and learners’ schemes as an organized knowledge structure (Driscoll, 2000). Bosco and Morrison (2000) reported that the cognitive theory is now the dominant theoretical view point in research on learning, memory and retention. Computer-supported learning permits the construction of knowledge through collaboration and discourse

Problem Statement A close examination of the performance of students in Niger State in the National Examinations Council Secondary School Certificate Examination (NECO SSCE) results of twelve consecutive years revealed that most students who need mathematics as part of their entry requirements would not get admission into university owing to their failure to credit mathematics (NECO SSCE, 2013).This is as a result of a lot of problems facing the effective teaching and learning of mathematics at all levels of Nigerian education (Bankolere,2006). Okafor (2002) identified poor teaching methods as the major factor contributing to the poor performance of students in mathematics. Karron & Bryne (2005) also noted that in Nigeria today, teachers, textbooks, chalkboards and traditional facilities are no longer adequate to cope with the amount and type of skills and competences expected of students. Accordingly, Ogoni (2003) suggests that teachers needresources that can assist them to carry out their duties efficiently. There is also an urgent need for a shift from the lecture mode of teaching which is teacher-centred to a learner-centred mode in which computers are used to aid teaching in the classroom. This method of instruction enables students to have better understanding of concepts they need to know in order to be active participants in today’s technologically advancing society.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Research Model This research uses a parallel group experimental design that examine the effects of the active inspire software on the academic performance of mathematics students in secondary schools in Chanchaga Local Government of Niger State. The parallel group experimental design is used so as to be able to compare the two equivalent groups. It was also used because the students were randomly allocated into the treatment group that was taught with activinspire software and the control group that was taught using the conventional method. Similar to the great amount of research studies on the impacts of computer assisted instruction, this study is also based on the quasi-experimental research design where the researcher analysed the effects of independent variable on the dependent variables. The computer-assisted instruction implemented in the experimental group was the independent variable and the dependent variable was the mathematical achievement of the students.

Experiment and Control Group The purpose of the Pre-test was to determine the equivalence of both the experimental and the control groups before the application of treatment. In the analysis of pre-test data, the mean scores and the standard deviations of the experimental and control groups were computed and compared using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The results of the analysis are presented in table 1

TABLE 1: ANOVA for Pre-test Scores of Control and Experimental Groups Sources of Variation Sum of Squares

Df Mean Square Fcal Fcrit Sig

Between Groups 15.987 1 15.987 .244ns 3.92 0.622 Within Groups 7730.446 118 65.512

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Total 7746.433 119

ns= not significant at 0.05(P> 0.05) Table 4.1 shows the ANOVA comparison of the mean scores. The ANOVA analysis of the results indicated that there is statistical significant difference between the pre-test mean scores of the experimental group at 0.05 level of significance (Fcal=0.244 0.05) and that of the control group (35.000). The pre-test results show that there was not any statistically significant difference between the groups. Therefore, the two groups were equivalent in their prior knowledge of the mathematical concepts treated in the study and so one of the groups was selected as experimental and the other as control group. The experimental group was subjected to the lessons in which the Activinspire software was the computer assisted teaching method used to teach topics in the general mathematics syllabus that have to do with graph such as the cumulative frequency curve, while the control group was subjected to the lessons taught using the lecture method.

Research Questions The study attempts to answer the following research questions: i. Is there any difference in the achievement of students taught mathematics with the active inspire software and those taught with the lecture method? ii. Is there any significant difference between the achievement of male and female students taught mathematics using the active inspire software? Process Over a six weeks’ period the topics quadratic graph, calculation of mode and median from histogram, calculations using the cumulative frequency curve etc. were taught using the senior secondary mathematics curriculum. Then the lessons were taught with Activinspire software for the experiment group. The Activinspire software was used to make the lessons more interesting, concrete and visual. For the control group they were taught using their mathematics textbooks and the chalkboard.

Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT) By examining the target behaviours determined by the Nigerian Senior Secondary School Certificate syllabus for the unit trigonometric functions and graphs of trigonometric functions, determination of median and mode from ogive subtopics etc. The test involved 30 items with multi-choice questions. In line with the targets of the given units, an achievement test consisting of 30 multi-choice questions prepared by using different text books and questions previously asked in senior secondary certificate examinations was designed. The achievement test was designed to measure the objectives that the students in both groups were expected to achieve during the study

Population Population of the study consisted of students who were in SS3 in secondary schools in Minna Metropolis. The total number of SSS 3 students was 6,147 spread across Minna Metropolis.

Sample The sample of the study consists of 120 students from four government owned secondary schools in Minna metropolis of Niger state in Nigeria.60 students for the experimental group while the other 60 students for the control group. The sampling was in two stages the schools were purposively sampled to select schools that had enough working computers, then random sampling of the students in those schools were carried out using the hat draw method. A total of 120 students were selected so that the number of students in both the experimental and control groups could be equivalent in keeping with the research design.

Data Analysis Techniques With the intention of answering research questions, data collected was analysed by using descriptive and inferential statistical analysis methods. At the beginning of the study, reliability analysis was conducted to test the reliability of the achievement tests. First, the descriptive statistics was conducted to report the differences between the control group and the experimental group on mathematics achievement. Later, independent sample t-tests and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) statistics were utilized to test the difference

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 37 between pre-test and post-test of the experimental and control groups; and the post-test of experimental and control groups and the hypotheses at the level of significance p=0.05.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION Figure 1 presents a picture of the pretest raw scores of the students before treatment was administered.

Pretest Scores:Experimental vs Control Frequency

ExperimentalScore Control

Figure 1: A chart of Pre-test raw scores of experimental and control groups

Figure 2 presents a picture of the posttest raw scores of the students after treatment had been administered

Posttest Scores: Experimental vs Control Frequency

ExperimentalScores Control

Figure 2: A chart of Posttest raw scores of experimental and control groups

Table 2. Pretest Post-test Results of Experimental Group Test N Mean SD df t significant pretest 60 34.27 1.124035 118 -10.2473 0.05 postest 60 49.06167 0.905617

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As the Table 2 was examined, it is seen that there is a statistically meaningful difference between the students’ success points of the experimental group on the pre-test and on the post test. The origin of the difference is seen that students are more successful on post-test mean ( x  49.06 ), than the pre-test mean ( x  34.27 ). This finding can be interpreted that the lessons in which Activinspire software was used has a meaningful effect on students’ learning.

Table 3. Pretest Post-test Results of Control Group Test N Mean SD df t significant Pretest 60 35 0.959316 118 -6.57319 0.05 Postest 60 44.615 1.104254

In Table 3, it is seen that there is a statistically meaningful difference between the students’ success points of the control group on pre-test mean and on post-test mean .The origin of the difference is seen that students are more successful on post- test mean ( x  44.62 ),than the pre-test mean ( x  35). This finding can be interpreted that the lessons which were studied even using the lecture method had a meaningful effect on students’ learning in the control group.

The purpose of the pretest was to determine the equivalence of both the experimental and the control groups before the application of treatment. In the analysis the pretest data of the experimental and control groups were computed and compared using the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) statistics.

Table 4: ANOVA for pretest scores of control and experimental groups Sources of Variation Sum of Squares df Mean Square Fcal Sig Between Groups 15.987 1 15.987 .244ns 0.622 Within Groups 7730.446 118 65.512 Total 7746.433 119 ns= not significant at 0.05(P> 0.05)

Table 4 shows the ANOVA comparison of the mean scores. The ANOVA analysis of the results indicated that there is statistical significant difference between the pre-test mean scores of the experimental and control group at 0.05 level of significance (Fcal=0.244 0.05). This indicates that there is no significant difference in the mean scores of the experimental and control groups in the pretest. Therefore, the two groups were equivalent in their prior knowledge of mathematical concepts.

Table 5: Independent t-test comparing the result of the posttest results between experimental and control groups

Test N Mean SD df t Significant - EXPERIMENTAL 60 49.06166667 0.905616785 118 3.11366 0.05 CONTROL 60 44.615 1.104254292

From Table 5, the result of the independent-t test comparing the post test results of the two groups showed that there was a significant difference between mean performance scores of the control group( x  44.62 ,SD= 1.10) as compared to experimental group ( x  49.06 , SD= 0.91; t(120) = -3.11, p < 0.05). This finding indicated that students who had learned graphical concepts using Activinspire were significantly better in their achievement compared to students who were taught using the lecture method. To further confirm this, the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures using the SPSS was utilized to test the hypotheses at the level of significance p=0.05. In the analysis of post-test data, the scores of the experimental and control groups were computed and compared by testing the hypothesis using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The results of the analysis are presented in Table 5.

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Hypothesis One (Ho1) There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught graphical concepts in mathematics using the ActivInspire software and those taught with the lecture method.

Table 6: ANOVA for Mean Achievement Scores of Control and Experimental Groups Sources of Sum of Variation Squares df Mean Square Fcal Fcrit Sig Between Groups 593.185 1 593.185 9.695* 3.92 .002 Within Groups 7219.898 118 61.186 Total 7813.084 119 * significant at 0.05 level of significance

The Table 6 shows the ANOVA comparison of the control groups and experimental groups. The results show that there is statistical significant difference between the mean scores of the experimental group (49.0617) and control group (44.6150) at 0.05 level of significance (Fcal =9.695> Fcrit =3.92; df= 1,118;p<0.05).This indicates that there was a significant difference between the mean achievement scores of the experimental group and the control group at 0.05 level of significance .So, the null hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there was significant difference between the mean scores of students taught mathematical concepts using the ActivInspire software and those taught using the lecture method.

Table 7: Mean Gains of Experimental and Control Groups Pretest Posttest Mean gain Mean Std deviation Mean Experimental 34.27 8.70673 49.0617 14.7917

Control 35 7.43083 44.615 9.615

Table 7 shows that the experimental group has the highest mean gain of 14.7917 while the control group has the mean gain of 9. 615.Therefore we could say that the treatment was responsible for the significant difference. This implies that the Computer Aided Instructional Package Activinspire software improves students’ performance than the conventional method. This can be seen in the mean gain plot shown in the figure

Mean Gain

Experimental Control

Figure 3: Mean gain plot of experimental and control groups African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 40

Hypothesis Two (Ho2) There is no significant difference between the achievement of male and female students taught mathematics using the active inspire software

Posttest Scores: Male vs Female Frequency

Score

Male Female

Figure 4: A chart of Post-test raw scores for male and female experimental groups

Table 8: ANOVA for post-test mean scores of male and female experimental groups Sources of Variation Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig cal Between Groups 36.660 1 36.660 .742* .393

Within Groups 2866.642 58 49.425

Total 2903.302 59

*-significant at 0.05 level of significance From the table 8 above, the ANOVA comparison of the post-test mean scores of male and female students who were taught with the activinspire software showed that there is no statistically significant difference between the mean scores of male students and female students in the experimental group at 0.05 level of significance (Fcal=0.742, df =1, 58; p>0.05). This result indicates that there was no significant difference between the mathematics achievement scores of male and female students taught using the activinspire software. Hence, the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference between the achievement of male and female students taught mathematics using the active inspire software was not rejected.

CONCLUSION From the study it is seen that computer aided software active inspire enhanced the performance of the students and had a significant effect on their learning. Students who were taught using the activinspire software were more successful in the achievement test than their counterparts who were taught with the lecture method. Hence, teaching of students using computer aided software would enhance their understanding of concepts taught and thereby improve their academic performance. There was no obvious difference between the performance of male and female students taught mathematics using the activinspire software. This implies that the use of computer aided software would bridge the gap in between the male and students grasp of concepts taught. Further or similar research could be undertaken on the use of computer aided software to teach more topics in the mathematics syllabus and in more schools across the state and even across the country so as to provide a sound base for the integration of computer aided instruction in schools across Nigeria.

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RECOMMENDATIONS The government and educational authorities should look into how the use of the computer could be incorporated into the teaching and learning of mathematics in the following ways: i. Every school’s mathematics program should provide students and teachers with access to tools of instructional technology, including appropriate calculators, computers with mathematical software, Internet connectivity, handheld data-collection devices, and sensing ii. Pre-service and in-service teachers of mathematics at all levels should be provided with appropriate professional development in the use of instructional technology, the development of mathematics lessons that take advantage of technology-rich environments, and the integration of technology into day-to-day instruction. iii. Curricula and courses of study at all levels should incorporate appropriate instructional technology in objectives, lessons, and assessment of learning outcomes. iv. Programs of pre-service teacher preparation and in-service professional development should strive to instill dispositions of openness to experimentation with ever-evolving technological tools and their pervasive impact on mathematics education.

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Moosavia, S.A. (2009). A comparison of two computer-aided instruction methods with traditional instruction in freshmen college mathematics classes (unpublished dissertation). Tuscaloosa, Alabama.

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The Relevance of ICT in Teaching and Learning as Perceived by Secondary School Students in Anambra State

Okekeokosisi, Johnbosco, O.C. Anaekwe, M.C. Okigbo, E.C. Federal College of Education Federal College of Education Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Technical, Asaba, Technical, Umunze, Awka, Delta State, Nigeria Anambra State, Nigeria Anambra State, Nigeria [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract The study was designed to investigate the relevance of ICT in teaching and learning as perceived by secondary school students in Anambra State. The study adopted a descriptive survey and was guided by four research questions and two null hypotheses. The population comprised of all Junior Secondary School 2 (JSS2) students in public secondary schools studying computer studies in Anambra State. Purposive sampling technique was used to select Awka Education Zone for the study. Simple random sampling technique (balloting with replacement) was used to draw 10 co-educational public secondary schools out of 61 co- educational public secondary schools in Awka Education Zone of Anambra State. A multistage sampling was used to select the sample. The sample consists of 10% of the selected co-educational public secondary schools in Awka Education Zone. The total number of the sample used was 156 students. A questionnaire was developed by researchers for data collection. The data was analyzed using mean, standard deviation and t- test. The findings from the results revealed that ICT help students to master basic computer skills leading to self reliance and self employed after school. It equally fosters students’ study interest and career prospects like computer scientist, computer technologist and the like. Based on the findings, recommendations were made. The study recommended among others that the Government should provide a retraining programme for secondary school teachers to meet up with the challenges and demands of the new curriculum.

Keywords: ICT, Teaching, Learning

INTRODUCTION Education has been identified as a vital tool for any form of development either economical, social or political, adaptation and survival which emanate from teaching and learning that gears towards the actualization of curriculum goals. It is a factor that determines the state of prosperity substance of welfare and security of people (Osakwe,2006). The yearnings, needs, aspirations as well as the cultural heritage and environment of any society determine to a large extent the kind of knowledge and skills to be acquired (Adeobosin, 2004). This leads to the introduction of National Policy on Education (NPE).

The National Policy on Education (NPE) depicts that there is need for functional and effective ICT Education application for promotion of a progressive, and united Nigeria. The school program therefore needs to be relevant, practical and comprehensive (NPE, 2004). An effective application of ICT Education for classroom curriculum delivery in Nigeria can be achieved when the educational system is tailored towards the actualization of goals of self-realization, better human relationship, individual and natural efficiency, effective citizenship, national consciousness, national unity, as well as towards social, cultural, economic political, scientific and technological progress (NPE, 2008). Akudolu (2000) supported the assertion that ICT promotes acquisition of knowledge and career development for self reliance when used effectively. It equally uplifts educational qualities for real life situation (Ezegbe, Idu and Mezieobi, 2013). Hence, it becomes pertinent to ask: The relevance of ICT in Teaching-Learning to achieve these goals.

ICT stands for information and communication technology. It is often used as an extended synonym for information technology (IT), but is a more specific term that stresses the role of unified communications and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals), computers as well as necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage and audio-visual systems. These enable users to access, store, transmit and manipulate information (Madaki and Nwanze, 2015). ICT can also be referred as the acquisition, analysis, manipulation, storage and distribution of information and the design and provision of equipment and software for these purposes (Yerokun, 2015). Similarly, Yusuf (2005) stated that ICT has the potential to accelerate, enrich and deepen skills to motivate and engage students to help relate school experience to work practice, create economic viability for tomorrow’s workers, and strengthening teaching –learning in

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 44 schools. In addition, the use of ICT in teaching and learning increases students’ understanding of concepts, intensified skills and encourages transfer of knowledge (Collodi, 2006). It is seen as one of the indispensable tool or a powerful force of achieving an effective classroom curriculum delivery in our educational system. ICT plays an important role in the work and personal life of the citizens. ICT is described as a range of technology for gathering, storing, retrieving, processing, analyzing and transmitting information (Virkus in Ikemelu, 2015). ICT encompasses a wide range technology based gadgets like telephone (land line and cellular phones) computer, satellite, telex, fax, radio, television, software, hardware, projector, video, bulletin board and microware.etc. Olurunsola (2007) submitted that through ICT educational needs have been met; it changes the needs of education as well as the potential processes.

Gender connotes sexism. It has been an occurring issue for discussion in research, in which its results are inconclusive Fabunmi (2012). Foreman in Okwo (2001) sees sexism as those attitudes and actions which stereotype individuals or groups exhibit because of their sex. Hence, gender refers to sex differences that can be attributed to social, economic, political and cultural factors. It is a socio-cultural variable which provides the theoretical framework for the examination of the differences that may exist between males and females. The differences occur when gender is considered alongside other variable like age, experience, exposure and so on (Luchetta, 2000). Gender is seen as a cultural or psychological variable rather than a biological one determining roles, behaviours, expectations, characteristics and attributes of males and females (Stoller, 1968). The cultural and psychological viewpoints can be regarded as aspects of gender. These and other aspects such as social and political factors act jointly to determine gender roles, identities and stereotypes. The term gender therefore refers to all those social, cultural, psychological, economic and political influences and events which may act synergistically to provide-different roles, goals, values, expectations, attitudes and characteristics for males and females.

On the other hand, Perception is seen as the way one thinks or the ability to understand or notice something or someone. It is the result of observation. Okekeokosisi and Anekwe (2015) referred perception as: organization, identification and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the environment or the conscious understanding of something. A person’s perception of an event, action, study and teaching style can be influenced by certain factors. The first part of our perception involves the things that grab our attention. After our attention is gained, however, there are factors that directly affect our perception in interpersonal behaviour and relationships. Experiences and expectations will influence a person’s perceptions. Our culture and self perceptions influence the way in which we perceive things. Our knowledge, education and skills for taking in information and sensual experiences will affect our perception. Everything including knowing that a new physical entity can be examined by a set of scientific principles, can determine how we take information and handle it. Perception in this study directs to the students’ perception on the relevance of ICT in teaching and learning in Anambra State.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Devices: ICT devices encompass: Smart devices: They are electronic devices, generally connected to other devices or network through different protocols that can operate to some extent interactively and autonomously. Examples are: Bluetooth, Wi- Fi, 3G, NFC (Near Field Communication). Touch pad: It is an import device which is usually found on a laptop computer. Laptop is made to be potable, people are not always able to attach a traditional mouse. It might be too much hassle or other wise not be enough room to use one. Joysticks: They were originally used by pilots as part of an airplane’s control and technology was developed to let computer gamers experience a more realistic game environment. Touch screen: It is the only device which works as both an input and an output device. Examples: ATM machines, Some smart phones Video Digitizers: It takes an image from a video camera or television and digitizers so it can be read by and stored on a computer. Magnetic stripes reader: They are usually found on the back of the most credit cards, cheque, guarantee cards, loyalty cards and membership cards.etc. The magnetic strip can hold personal details such as account number and name. The strip can contain up to 60 characters stored magnetically. Digital projector: This is a device which connects to a computer and used to project the video output from the computer onto a wall or screen.

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Plotters: They are a specialist type of printer that draws images using a pen. The electronic pen can be lowered, raised and moved across the paper to form continuous lines. The electronically controlled pen is moved around the paper by computer controlled motors. They are used by engineers, architects and map makers to draw plans of buildings, diagrams of machines or large scale maps. Lights: Lights such as LEDS (light emitting diodes) can be connected to a computer or within equipment and respond to electrical signals which tell them to switch on and off. Printers: They are a common output device. They are used to create a “hard” copy of work, it can be something that one can hold, hand to someone else or file away. Scanners: It is an input device used to capture information such as photographs and documents on paper and translate the information into a computer image. It is a device that optionally scans images, print text, handwriting or an object and converts it to a digital image. Satellite: This is a network that is used to view what is happening around the world. It can be connected to television to view information around the world. It can also be used in internet or cable connection. Computers: Computer uses what is called software to perform its duty. Software is an instruction given to the computer to perform a particular task by the programmer.

Shellys Cashman, Gunter and Gunter (2006) identified the roles of ICT in Teaching-Learning as:  having the potential to transform learning in and beyond the classroom setting. This is because learners can easily interpret and apply what is learnt to their personal experience and occurrences outside the classroom.  ICT unleashes creativity and allows independence in learning  It offers new ways of teaching the same things  Through the appropriate use of some ICT tools, learners’ learning capabilities are addressed  ICT provides secondary school students with practical and functional knowledge of the computer, the internet and other associated gadgets that will have positive effect on future experience and make them more competent, rational and comfortable in this era of globalization  It assists learners to react intelligently to future changes, expand information and live successfully in a changing world  ICT through its multimedia facet, creates room for students to acquire new knowledge, fosters enquiry and exploration of facets and adopt new approaches to teaching and learning  Enrich the curriculum by replacing the existing face-to-face instruction  ICT through its multimedia facet, creates room for students’ to acquire new knowledge, foster enquiry and exploration of facets and adopt new approaches to teaching and learning  This conventional system helps to accelerate the learning process, increase teachers’ efficiency and effectiveness  Provides remedial instruction and enrichment of material, thus guarantying higher quality standards in schools

Statement of The Problem The world has become increasingly digitalized and it seems to be a sort of information and communication technology (ICT) invasion ICT has permeated into every sphere of human endeavour and field of education. The application of ICT in educational sector may help to improve teaching and make learning to be enhanced effectively and efficiently. This study is aimed at assessing the relevance of information and technology in teaching and learning as perceived by secondary school students in Anambra State.

Purpose of the Study The main purpose of the study was to investigate the relevance of ICT in teaching and learning as perceived by secondary school students. Specifically, the study sought to,  determine the extent to which ICT help students to master basic computer skills  find out the extent to which ICT fosters students’ interest in their studies  to investigate how much ICT broadens students’ career prospects  ascertain the extent to which ICT enhance students’ study habit African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 46

 find out the extent ICT fosters teachers’ effectiveness

Research Questions The following research questions guided the study, 1. what are the ICT skills relevant for students mastering of basic computer skills? 2. to what extent does ICT foster student’s interest in their studies? 3. to what extent does ICT broaden student’s career prospects? 4. how can ICT enhance students study habit?

Hypotheses H01: There is no significant difference between the mean rating of male and female students’ perception on the ICT skills relevant for mastering of basic computer skills. .H02: There is no significant difference between the perception of male and female students on the extent to which ICT foster their interest in studies.

METHOD The study employed a descriptive survey research design. The study was carried out in Anambra State. The population of the study consist of all the Junior Secondary School 2 (JSS2) students in public secondary schools studying computer studies in Anambra State. Purposive sampling technique was use to select Awka Education Zone for the study. Simple random sampling technique (balloting with replacement) was used to draw 10 co-educational public secondary schools out of 61 co-educational public secondary schools in Awka Education Zone of Anambra State. A multistage sampling was used to select the sample. The sample consist of 10% of the selected co-educational public secondary schools in Awka Education Zone. The total number of the sample used was 156 students. A 30-item structured questionnaire on 4 point Likert rating scale of Very High Extent (VHE), High Extent (HE), Low Extent (LE), Very Low Extent (VLE). The decision rule was such that, any item with a mean rating of 3.50 to 4.00 is regarded as having very high extent, the mean rating score of an item ranging from 2.50 to 3.49 is of high extent likewise that of 1.50 to 2.49 is of low extent while 0.50 to 1.49 is of very low extent. The instrument was trial tested on students’ perception on relevance of ICT in teaching and learning. It had appropriate psychometric qualities. The data collected was analysed using mean, standard deviation and t – test.

RESULTS Research Question 1: What are the ICT skills relevant for students mastering of basic computer skills? Table 1: Mean rating and standard deviation of the respondents on the ICT skills relevant for students mastering of basic computer skills.

S/N ITEM Ẍ SD REMARKS 1 Booting the 3.52 0.68 Very high computer extent 2 Shutting down the 3.53 0.59 Very high computer extent 3 Clicking the mouse 3.22 0.94 High extent 4 Double clicking the 3.33 0.83 High extent mouse 5 Dragging the mouse 3.21 6.88 High extent 6 Left clicking the 3.29 0.89 High extent mouse 7 Right clicking the 3.37 0.86 High extent mouse 8 Typing with the 3.44 0.80 High extent keyboard 9 Carrying out some basic computer operations like: A Copying 3.33 0.86 High extent B Cutting 3.28 0.84 High extent African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 47

C Pasting 3.28 0.86 High extent D Saving 3.40 0.79 High extent

E Retrieving 3.33 0.81 High extent F Printing 3.51 0.65 High extent

Data in Table 1 shows that items in 1 and 2 had a very high extent mean rating of 3.50 to 4.00 and items in 3-9f had high extent mean rating ranging from 2.50 to 3.49. This shows that the respondents upheld ICT helped them to master basic computer skills.

Research Question 2: To what extent does ICT foster student’s interest in their studies? Table 2: Mean rating and standard deviation of the respondents on the extent ICT foster students’ interest in their studies

S/N ITEM Ẍ SD REMARKS 10 ICT enables me to 3.09 0.98 High extent have zeal in my studies 11 I enjoy reading online 3.25 0.82 High extent information 12 Going online is the 3.22 0.76 High extent best approach to my studies 13 I enjoy spending most 3.44 0.79 High extent of my time on the internet 14 All my problems can 2.92 0.82 High extent be solved easily through the internet The analysis in Table 2 shows that all the items had a high extent mean rating ranging from 2.50 to 3.49. This points that the use of ICT in teaching – learning fosters students’ interest in their studies.

Research Question 3: To what extent does ICT broaden student’s career prospects? Table 3: Mean rating and standard deviation of the respondents on the extent ICT broadens students’ career prospects. S/N ITEM Ẍ SD DECISION 15 ICT helps the students 3.07 0.86 High extent to be creative in life 16 ICT helps students to 3.23 0.81 High extent access the internet for making their career choice 17 ICT helps students to 3.11 0.78 High extent actualize their dreams 18 ICT can help one to 3.36 0.76 High extent work as a pilot 19 ICT can help one to 3.53 0.59 Very high work as a computer extent scientist 20 One can work as a 3.48 0.68 High extent computer technologist 21 ICT can help one to 3.53 0.63 Very high work as a computer extent analyst

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22 ICT can help one to 3.59 0.56 Very high work as a computer extent programmer 23 ICT can help one to 3.58 0.61 Very high work as a web extent designer 24 One can work as an 3.33 0.81 High extent aeronautical engineer

Data in Table 3 pine points that items in 15 to 18, 20 and 24 had a high extent mean rating of 2.50 to 3.49. While items in 19, 21 to 23had a very high extent mean rating of 3.50 to 4.00. This means that all the items in Table 3 indicated that ICT broadens students’ career prospects.

Research Question 4: How can ICT enhance students study habit? Table 4: Mean rating and standard deviation of the respondents on how ICT can enhance students’ study habit.

S/N ITEM Ẍ SD DECISION 25 ICT help students to 3.53 0.59 be computer literate for technological development of the society 26 ICT is an effective 3.17 0.84 tool which enhances the quality of education

27 ICT helps the students 3.08 0.79 to understand what the teacher is teaching easily 28 ICT help students to 3.33 0.82 do their assignments 29 ICT help students to 3.35 0.76 do their projects

30 ICT help students to 3.52 0.68 share their study difficulties with their friends online

The analysis in Table 4 shows that all the items had a high extent mean rating of 2.50 to 3.49 except two items that had a very high extent mean rating of 3.50 to 4.00. This keynotes that ICT promotes students study habit.

H01: There is no significant difference between the mean rating of male and female students’ perception on the ICT skills relevant for mastering of basic computer skills.

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Table 5: The t-test of the mean rating of secondary school students on ICT skills relevant for mastering of Basic Computer Skills Gender N Ẍ SD DF t-cal t-crit DECISION Male 52 31.36 312.00 154 0.05 1.960 Accept Female 104 15.68 78.00 Null hypothesis

The level of significance used for the hypothesis 1 is 0.05 as seen in Table 5. The t-cal is 0.05 at 154 degree of freedom. The t-crit is 1.960. The null hypothesis that there is no significant difference between the mean ratings of male and female students’ perception on the ICT skills relevant for mastering of basic computer skills. This implies that students had a positive feeling on ICT skills relevant for mastering of basic computer skills. H02: There is no significant difference between the perception of male and female students on the extent to which ICT foster their interest in studies.

Table 6: t-test of the secondary school students’ responses on the Extent to which ICT foster their Interest in Studies Gender N Ẍ SD DF t-cal t-crit DECISION Male 52 47.04 94.08 154 0.05 1.960 Accept Female 104 47.04 23.52 Null hypothesis

The t-cal is 0.05 at 154 degree of freedom. The t-crit is 1.960. The null hypothesis that there is no significant difference between the male and female perception on the extent to which ICT foster their interest in studies.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The findings of this study in research question 1 indicated that all the 9F items on students’ response on relevance of ICT help in mastering basic computer skills like booting and shutting down of the computer using the mouse and keyboard, copying, cutting, pasting, retrieving and printing of documents. It promotes self reliance and self employed after school.

Secondly, it was found that ICT fosters students’ study interest like reading on-line information, spending time on the internet, solving problems through the internet.

From research question 3, ICT broadens students career prospects like working as a computer scientist, computer technologist, computer analyst, web designer, Aeronautical engineer. This is in line with Akudolu (2000) who reported that entrepreneurship education is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitude that enable the learner apprehend life challenges in whatever form and take decisive steps to realize new trends and opportunities for meeting those challenges in all aspects of human life.

The study in research question 4 revealed that ICT enhances students’ study habit like easily understanding of what has been taught by the teacher, doing assignments, projects and sharing their study difficulties with their friends on-line. The mean scores above the acceptable mean for all the items as seen in table 4 attest to it.

The analysis of the hypothesis as proved in Table 5 and 6 respectively portrayed that there is no significant difference between the mean rating of male and female students in their perception of an ICT skills relevant for mastering of basic computer skills (Table 5). There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of male and female students on the extent in which ICT foster students’ interest in their studies (Table 6). This supported the assertion early made by Okekeokosisi and Okeke (2015) that gender discrimination should not affect teaching-learning of students for their actual performance. However, Fabunmi (2012) stated that gender issue had been featuring in different research in which results of many had been found inconclusive. In consonant with Fabunmi (2012) findings made by Barrier and Margivio (1993) found out that there are no gender differences in an introductory computer course in a university setting, despite the author’s expectation.

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Nevertheless, Luchetta (2000) posited that gender differences occur when gender is considered alongside other variable like age, experience, exposure and so on.

Students responses to hypothesis 2 indicates that the use of ICT promoted their interest in their studies. This could be seen in the opinion made by Nwosu and Ogbom in Ezegbe, Idu and Mezieobi (2013) that ICT when used appropriately expounded access to education and rose educational quality by creating an active process connected to real life. Collodi (2006) find out that the use of ICT increased students’ understanding of concepts, intensified skills and encouraged transfer of knowledge.

CONCLUSION ICT is very useful instructional strategy for increasing meaningful teaching and learning. Students should be engaged in proper pedagogical skills, for effective knowledge, attitude and values. The world is increasing in high information technology. Secondary schools should be equipped with computer facilities as well as internet to follow the new trend of teaching-learning. Currently, teachers being trained to teach the secondary school students should be exposed to computer education and in-service training should also be provided to other teachers teaching in primary schools.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS The result of this study has some educational implications with regards to parents, students, teachers, researchers and ministry of education. Parents should provide computerand internet facilities to their children at home and monitor their effective usage. Students should ensure they use their computers and internet for their studies especially in their take home assignment. Teachers should improve the method of teaching and make it interesting to the students by using whiteboard, projectors and internet in their teaching. Researchers should make use of internet to carry out their research work. In all, the ministry of education is to improve the curriculum’s standard by making it available on the internet for easy accessibility of educationist and provide computer teachers and fund for their maintenance.

RECOMMENDATIONS Computer / ICT education should be made compulsory for all secondary school students; to help improve the students’ basic computer skills. This should be aided by the purchase of adequate number of computers in secondary schools by the assistance of the Educational Trust Fund (ETF) or other means should be solicited for in earnest. This cn be complimented by government providing retraining programme for secondary school teachers to meet up with the challenges and demands of the new curriculum

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Coolodi, J. (2006). E-Government in Africa: prospects, challenges and practices. Retrieved on April 20th,2013 from www.eldis.org

Ezegbe, B.N, Idu, G.O & Mezieobi, D.I. (2013). Re-Engineering the Teaching and Learning of Secondary School Government Through the Use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) For Global Competitiveness. International Journal of Educational Research. 12(2), 46-60.

Fabunmi, F.A. (2012). Undergraduate Students’ Perception of the Effectiveness of ICT use in Improving Teaching and Learning in Ekiti State University, Ado-EAkiti, Nigeria. International Journal of Library and Information Science, 4(7),121-130

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy of Education. Lagos: NERDC Press.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2008). National Policy of Education. Lagos: NERDC Press.

Ikemeu, C.R. (2015). Towards Effective Application of ICT Education for Classroom Curriculum Delivery: Science Teachers Perspectives.STAN 56th Annual Conference Proceeding, 230-238.

Luchetta, T. (2000). Gender and Computing. Tool box or Toy Store Paper presented at the sprint 2000 wisconsin Association of Academic Librarians Conference. April 12th,2000.

Madaki, S.D & Nwanze, M. (2015). Information Communication Technology Implications for Vision 20:2020. Journal of Research in Science and Technical Education. (JOREST).1(1), 90-96

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Okeke, O., O.C. & Okeke, C.N.A. (2015). The Effect of Constructivist Teaching Approach on Students’ Academic Achievement, Gender and Interest in Junior Secondary Schools Agricultural Science Subject. Contemporary Journal of Empirical Research. 1(1), 105-125.

Olorunsola, E.O. (2007). Information Communication Technology: A Tool for Effective Management in Nigerian Universities. Educ.Focus 1 (1), 80-87

Osakwe, R.N. (2006). Introduction to Teaching Profession. Benin City: Ethiope Publishing Corporation.

Shelly, G.B, Cashman, T.J, Gunter, G.A & Gunter, R.E. (2006). Teachers Discovery Computer: Integrating Technology and Digital Media in the Classroom.Boston: M.A. Thompson Course Technology.

Yerokun, O.M. (2015). Role of Information Communication Technology (ICT) Education on National Security. Journal of Research in Science and Technical Education (JOREST). 1(1),297-304

Yusuf, M.O. (2005). Information and Communication Technology: Analyzing the Nigerian National Policy for Information Technology. Intel.Edu. J. 6(3),316-332

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Android Based Computer Aided Learning System for Improved Education System in Nigeria

Okpalla, Chidimma L. Odii, Juliet, N. Dept. of Computer. Sci.ence FUTO, Nigeria Dept. of Computer. Sci.ence FUTO, Nigeria [email protected] [email protected]

Chukwu, Nnaemeka, C. Ezenwanne, Ebuka, C Dept. of Computer. Sci.ence FUTO, Nigeria Dept. of Computer. Sci.ence FUTO, Nigeria [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract Computer-Aided Learning (CAL) in recent time has received considerable attention among researchers by providing interactive, multi -sensory, and autonomous learning opportunities. But none of these researches has taken into consideration the learners’ access to the computer, neither have they captured some individual learning differences. This present study, therefore, is primarily concerned with the design and implementation of an Android Based CAL multimedia Application that is poised to providing flexible self- instructional materials in mathematical problems and equally tackles some of the learners’ personal learning problems such as poor assimilation or inability to easily figure out solutions. In achieving this system, the waterfall methodology was employed while Visual C-Sharp (C#) is the choice programming language and Macromedia Flash (11.0) for the video output display. The system obtained is a virtual classroom where the teacher is no longer the focal point of classroom activity and also a potential system on which the concept of university teaching and learning can be targeted. With an “export-book” function included in the application, any material can be shared. The software is as effective as other methods of teaching and can be used as a substitute to the conventional learning paradigm. It has much to offer when it is integrated into the curriculum in a well-organized fashion.

Keywords: Computer- Aided Learning, Multimedia Software, Virtual Classroom, Export

INTRODUCTION In most of our institutions of higher learning it has become a common practice for lecturers to be physically present in the classroom in order to deliver lectures to students. This norm is part of the reasons for inefficiencies and backwardness being recorded in our educational sector as both the lecturers and students are restrained to specific time and space. Learning through this conventional means only is no longer in vogue since the emergence of information and communication technology. Also the students are known to be more engaged in a learning process when they are in control over the process according to their needs, lacks or wants. Computers help students develop their reading skills in three ways: incidental reading, reading comprehension and text manipulation in which learners read the text with the purpose of completing the activities successfully, answer traditional comprehension questions and study a text in terms of content and structure (Jones et-al (1987).

Modern ways of structuring lectures, establishing and monitoring students’/ teacher interaction, as well as evaluating overall performance of students using relevant computer aided applications have evolved. A lot of drastic innovations that facilitate learning are now being employed rather than passively listening to the lecturers in classroom. Android Based Computer Aided learning (ABCAL) is one of the applications that can allow students to easily participate in more interactive learning. With ABCAL students are now offered opportunities to communicate and learn collaboratively whenever and wherever they want and at their own pace. This application gives the students the leverage to work independently, define their specific objectives, use the materials effectively, assess their results and redirect their minds according to the feedback and results they receive.

Though literatures review that a lot of work has been done on the Computer aided learning. But while the previous works centred on just the use of computers in learning, our work incorporates the learner’s /computer interactions, and also takes into consideration some individual differences such as personal

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 53 attitudes towards learning. The beauty of this present study, is that it is Android based and equally a multimedia application which is poised to providing flexible self-instructional materials that tackle particularly mathematical problems.

Literature Review A framework on how to conceptualize Computer Aided Learning (CAL) was defined as early as 1980 by Robert Taylor, (Taylor, 1980) to help understand computer use in education. He described the roles of computer as tutor, tool and tutee. In the tutor role, computers can provide instruction, feedback, and testing in grammar, vocabulary, writing, pronunciation, and other dimensions of language and educational learning. The computer evaluates the students’ responses and keeps complete records of them. In the tool role, computers provide statistical analysis, super calculation, word processing and ready access to written, audio, and visual materials relevant to the language and culture being studied. They also provide reference tools such as online dictionaries and encyclopaedias, grammar and style checkers and concordances for corpus analysis. Also, Warschauer (2002), argues that the role of the computer in education has been transformed from that of tutor to that of tool. While Kern (2006) states that CAL’s original focus was on tutorials but now the general trend has been toward tool and especially medium tools. Nevertheless, Hubbard and Siskin (2004) point out that despite its marginalization from the pedagogical mainstream, tutorial CAL is very much alive and debunking common myths, they declare its significant assistance in developing learners’ conscious knowledge, improving listening and reading comprehension and pronunciation (Hubbard et-al, 2004). Computers have been used in banking, test administration, scoring, data analysis, report generating, research, and the dissemination of research (Fulcher, 2001).

The current computer technology has many advantages for CAL and testing. According to Lee (2000) they are so many reasons why computer technology should be integrated as aided instructions. These reasons include: To provide practices for students through the experiential learning offer students more the learning motivation, enhance student achievement, increase authentic materials for study. Encourage greater interaction between teachers and students and students and peers, emphasize the individual needs, Regard independence from a single source of information, and Enlarge global understanding.

The use of CAL tutorials and tools in and out of the classroom provides new opportunities to promote students’ development by improving reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills together with grammar, vocabulary knowledge and computations. In testing, CAL has some advantages in terms of test administration and human considerations. Among test administration advantages, using computers increases test security and using computers instead of humans may reduce the marking cost while maintaining the reliability. IRT (Item Response Theory) and computer-adaptive testing allow flexibility and individuality in test administration as it can tailor the items in terms of difficulty according to the test takers proficiency. Thus, it provides more accurate assessment of the examinee’s ability since computers are more accurate than humans in scoring and reporting the results. The use of different tests for each student may minimize any special practice effects, studying for the test, and cheating (Drasgow et-al, 1987). Diagnostic feedback can be provided very quickly and effectively to each student on his or her incorrect answers. Such feedback can even be fairly descriptive if artificial intelligence is used (Baker, 1989; Bunderson et-al, 1988).

From the human point of view, the use of computers allows students to work at their own pace. Computerized tests generally take less time to finish than traditional paper-and-pencil tests and are therefore more efficient (Kaya et-al, 1991; Fulcher, 2001). CAL tools involve simulations, multimedia production, and communicative and interactive input that can be accessed 24 hours a day. In a word, computer technology also provides the interdisciplinary and multicultural learning opportunities for students to carry out their independent studies. Computer and its attached learning programs could provide learners more independence from classrooms and granting learners the space to work on their learning material at any time of the day and as many times as they need. Providing the necessary environment, equipment and privacy for students, computers allow both slow and fast achievers to work on their own pace without feeling anxious and worried to catch up or bored as they need to wait for the others. In addition to that, as Warschauer (2004) states, shy or inhibited learners can greatly benefit from the individualized technology-learning environment, and studious learners can also proceed at their own pace to achieve higher levels. Students tend to express themselves better than face-to-face interactions in a classroom where students feel pressure. A more relaxed atmosphere motivates students and enhances learning outcomes as they perform better. According to

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Robertson et al. (1987), the participants who joined CAL programs also have significantly higher self-esteem ratings than regular students.

When computer technology combines with Internet, it creates a channel for students to obtain a huge amount of human experience and guide students to enter the ‘global village’. The novelty of working with a new medium is also a motivating factor. They become the creators not just the receivers of knowledge. When they become more autonomous learners and take initiative for their learning, students not only can extend their personal view, thought, and experience, but also acquire the skills to survive in the real world.

Existing Computer Aided Learning Tools and Research Findings Examples of existing computer aided learning are the Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operation (PLATO) and Time-Shared Interactive Computer Controlled Information Television (TICCIT) that were designed to teach higher-order concepts using an instructional design. The TICCIT and PLATO systems attempted to test the effectiveness of computer-aided instruction (CAI) against the traditional classroom format. Though they recorded impressive achievements, research highlighted some factors beyond the instruction materials which influenced their effectiveness. For example, many students could hardly complete the mathematics CAI course because little or no attention was paid to their learning abilities. The application is characterized with minimal interaction with the students. Instead of the existing CAL applications analysing the needs of the users, and build in adequate support, the TICCIT math students did not receive sufficient feedback about their progress, and consequently made poor control decisions about what and when to study, practice, and test. Also, whereas all these instructional technologies were being developed and used overseas, here in Nigeria, there has not been any significant advancement and standardization of any CAL software and its associated tools in universities. This invariably implies that lecturing only still makes use of traditional methods where lecturers prepare lecture materials and would have to be present to deliver the lectures. Hence we summarize our findings as follows: i. The existing CAL is characterized by the absence of evaluation of how much learner control is appropriate given the skill base of the targeted learners. ii. Lack of availability of quality lecture materials, which have poised a lot of problem to a good number of students. iii. Lack of embedded feedback mechanism either into the program itself or through instruction training.

The Proposed Android Based Computer Aided Learning System The application developed in this work is not just another computer aided learning but it is android based with greater information access. This proposed system is a primary source of information on demand. A mastery of this software will become essential in order to gain access to an ever-growing body of recent and up-to-date knowledge available electronically. These new technologies when integrated effectively into the classroom environment have the capacity to facilitate higher order thinking skills and develop new ways of learning. Most interestingly, it operates asynchronously. This innovation favours every category of students by removing the barriers such as time, distance and space which before now impeded our normal learning culture in Nigeria. METHODOLOGY A hybrid methodology which consists waterfall methodology, the Object Oriented Analysis and Design Methodology (OOADM) and prototyping are used to realise this package. While Visual C-Sharp (C#) is the choice programming language and Macromedia Flash (11.0) for the video output display.

Justification of The Language Used C sharp (C#) is a simple, powerful, and type-safe programming language that allows a more flexible implementation of call-backs which in turn reduces the complexity of code and reduces the likelihood of logic errors. It increases robustness by providing type checking and reduces “copy-paste” errors because enumerations can be converted to their string equivalent unlike with Java where developers will need to spend more time testing and debugging. C# allows more natural syntax. It allows developers to embed metadata and program against that metadata. This increases the power and flexibility available to software developers. C Sharp modules are discoverable which greatly reduces the need to distribute related information across multiple source files. This reduces potential errors and hence testing and debugging time as well as increases

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 55 reliability and robustness. This is one of the strongest benefits of using C#, hence the choice language for this type of application.

HIGH LEVEL MODEL OF THE PROPOSED SYSTEM:

HOME PAGE

VIEW LECTURE TOPICS VIEW CHOOSE DIFFERENT TOPICS TOPICS SOLVE SELF TEST QUESTIONS

VIEW LECTURE VIDEOS CHOOSE VIDEO Figure 1: High Level model design.

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PROGRAM FLOWCHART START

SPLASH SCREEN

ELSE HOME

YES DISPLAY BREAK HELP? HELP

NO

DISPLAY YES ABOUT? NO ABOUT

NO

YES SEE SCORE TAKE TEST SELF TEST?

NO

SELECT NO SELECT WATCH COURSE? VIDEO? LECTURE

YES

COURSE YES TOPIC EXPORT?

READ MATERIAL YES

YES SELECT EXPORT? BREAK DEVICE

NO

ANOTHER COURSE?

NO

NO EXIT?

YES

STOP Figure 2: Program Flowchart

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RESULTS

Figure 3: Sample Course Topic Page

Figure 4: Self-Test Page

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CONCLUSION In conclusion, we have been able to develop an Android Based Computer Aided Learning System in this paper that has the capability to drastically change every aspect of study when incorporated with the latest advances in technology and educational curriculum. This innovation has indeed challenged the conventional means of learning. However, students’ attitudes play a great role in the success of the application developed in this paper. When students have positive attitudes towards it, they will be more motivated and are more likely perform better and achieve higher levels of knowledge acquisition. When it comes to preparing students for the future on their higher education and work, ABCAL has a lot to offer. Therefore, it is not just a technology for learning, but also an urge to assist students develop life skills.

RECOMMENDATION Based on the findings and conclusion above we recommend that in teaching, new approaches, methods, methodologies, strategies and tools such as ABCAL should be integrated into the curriculums in a well- organized way in order for students to keep up with the vast changing world. In line with that, facility to maintain the system's files, directories, programs and documentation should be develop, as well as a system that monitors learner’s co-operation should be looked into. Such first-hand observations can reveal the effectiveness of ABCAL in supplementing teaching and or learning. Also, a study capturing teachers’ attitude towards the realization of efficient ABCAL should be considered in subsequent researches.

REFERENCES Baker, F. B. (1989). Computer technology in test construction and processing. In R.L. Linn Educational measurement (3rd ed., pp. 409- 428). London: CollierMacmillan.

Bunderson, C. V., Inouye, D. K., & Olsen, J. B. (1988). The four generations of computerized educational measurement. In R. L. Linn (Ed.), Educational measurement (3rd ed., pp. 367-407). London: Collier Macmillan.

Drasgow, F., Levine, M. V., & McLaughlin, M. E. (1987). Detecting inappropriate test scores with optimal and practical appropriateness indices. Applied Psychological Measurement, 11, 59-80.

Fulcher, G. (2001). Computers in Language Testing.Language learning & Technology, 5 (2), 95-98.

Hubbard, P., & Siskin, C. B. (2004). Another look at tutorial CALL. ReCALL Journal, 16(2), 448-461.

Jones, P. K. (1987). The Relative Effectiveness of Computer Assisted Remediation with Male and Female Students.Technical Horizons in Education, 14, 61-6.

Kaya-Carton, E., Carton, A. S. & Dandonoli, P. (1991). Developing a computer adaptive test of French reading proficiency. In P. Dunkel (Ed.), Computer assisted language learning and testing: Research issues and practice (pp. 259-284). New York: Newbury House.

Kern, R. (2006). Perspectives on technology in learning and teaching Languages.TESOL Quarterly, 40 (1), 183-210.

Lee, K.W. (2000). English teachers’ barriers to the use of computer assisted language learning, The Internet TESL Journal.

Robertson, E. B., Ladewig, B. H., Strickland, M. P. & Boschung, M. D. (1987). Enhancement of self-esteem through the use of computer-assisted instruction. Journal of Educational Research, 80 (5), 314-316.

Seels, B., (1989). The Instructional Design Movement in Educational Technology, Educational Technology, 29/5, 11-15.

Schoen, H., and Hunt, T., (1977). The effects of Technology on Instruction: The literature of the last 20 years, AEDS Journal, 10: 62- 82.

Skinner, B.F. (1954). The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching. Harvard Educational Review, 24, 86-97

Taylor, R. (1980). Tutor, Tool, Tutee- CITE Journal. www.citejournal.org.semnl .article.Accessed July 2015.

Warschauer, M. (2002). A developmental perspective on technology in language education. TESOL Quarterly, 36(3), 453-475.

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Cervical Cancer: Need for Awareness of Preventive Measures Through Adult and Non-Formal Education

Chukwuemerie, Obiageli Chinyelu Tedjere, Sheke Rosaline Department of Adult Education Department of Adult Education Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. College of Education, Warri. [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract This paper attempted to discuss the need for creating awareness of the dangers of cervical cancer through adult and non-formal education. These researchers focussed on the need for awareness creation on preventive measures because studies show that Nigeria as a nation appears not to be equipped to tackle cervical cancer treatment. It was observed that the nation lacks adequate manpower, machines and infrastructure for tackling the disease and that available equipment for treatment are not functional most of the time. In the introductory part, the researchers highlighted the loss that result to the individual, families, communities and the nation on account of deaths and sufferings that result from the attack of cervical cancer. It was emphasized that cervical cancer reduces the quality of life and life expectancy of people and militates against development. Lack of awareness of risk factors, vaccines and screening services were highlighted as fundamental problems to be tackled if cervical cancer burden must be reduced. The writers subsequently discussed issues pertaining to awareness creation on the dangers of cervical cancer under the following headings: Cervical cancer statistics and morbidity; Risk factors of cervical cancer; Cervical cancer prevention measures; and Common myths about cervical cancer; Relevance of adult education in the fight against cervical cancer and Non- governmental organizations’ efforts in fighting cervical cancer. The writers recommended urgent strict adherence to World Health Organisation [WHO] guidance in formulating a federal government-powered national cervical cancer programme; multisectoral/interdisciplinary approach in efforts to reduce the burden of cervical cancer through enlightenment campaigns, workshops, seminars and application of adult and non- formal education’s various programmes and approaches such as ‘each one - teach one’ which will enable taking the campaign to the door-posts of adults and adolescents through various media and using what appeals to each group among other things.

Key words: Women, cervical cancer, preventive measures, awareness creation, adult and non-formal education

INTRODUCTION The purpose of every developmental effort is to better the life of man. In other words, man is at the centre of development. The popular maxim that ‘development is of man, for man and by man’ said to have originated from the work of Julius Nyerere holds sway for all times. Unfortunately, certain factors militate against initiating, executing and enjoying developmental efforts by man. These factors include poverty, illiteracy, ignorance and diseases. Diseases destabilize, debilitate and often cause death and serious set-backs for direct victims, relatives, organizations and the larger society. It is not surprising that the issue of healthy living is one of the major goals of United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals [SDGs]. Goal 3 is about ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all at all ages (United Nations, 2015). Cervical cancer (the subject of this discourse) results in premature mortality and is one of the diseases targeted to be reduced by one third by the year 2030. These researchers posit that creating awareness on dangers of cervical cancer and concentrating efforts on educating the populace on preventive measures through adult and non-formal education at this point in time is the best option for a nation like Nigeria.

Cervical cancer is one of the numerous types of cancers that terrify man. Cancer is a disease in which the cells of a tissue undergo uncontrolled and often rapid proliferation. Cancer has also been described as something which spreads within something else, damaging the latter (The English Dictionary Online, 2015). Many cancers form solid tumours, which are masses of tissue. Cancerous tumours can be benign or malignant. Benign tumours do not spread into, or invade, nearby tissues and do not grow back when removed. Cancerous tumours that are malignant spread into and invade nearby tissues. As these tumours grow, some cancer cells can break off and travel to distant places in the body through the blood or the lymph system and form new tumours far from the original tumours. There are more than 100 types of cancer. Cancers are usually named

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 60 after the organ or tissues where they form. For example, brain cancer form in the cells of the brain while cervical cancer forms in the cervix. Cancer does not spare any group of person (National Cancer Institute, USA, 2015). There exist childhood cancers, aged cancers, male and female cancer but adults, the drivers of development, die mostly from breast, cervical, and prostate cancer. Whereas males exclusively suffer prostate cancer, females mainly suffer breast and cervical cancer. Out of these two types of cancers that are mostly suffered by females, cervical cancer is said to be virtually preventable (Okoye, as cited in Olayiwola, 2014). It is therefore unacceptable that women should continue to die from cervical cancer.

Cervical cancer is a type of cancer that occurs in the cells of the cervix. Cervix is the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina. Cervix is simply described as the mouth of the womb. Unlike some other cancers, cervical cancer is mainly caused by a viral infection that is related to human papilloma virus (HPV). Various strains of the HPV, a sexually transmitted infection [STI], play a role in causing most cervical cancer (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2003, May 22). When exposed to HPV, a woman’s immune system typically prevents the virus from doing immediate harm. In some women, however, the virus survives for years. According to Committee Encouraging Corporate Philanthropy [CECP] (2015), tissue changes that lead to cervical cancer usually develop very slowly over a period of 5-30 years), contributing to the process that causes some cells on the surface of the cervix to become cancer cells if untreated.

Cervical cancer has resulted in the death of many women in Nigeria. According to Committee Encouraging Corporate Philanthropy (2015), cervical cancer kills about one woman every hour in Nigeria. Women in their 30s, 40s and 50s are the major victims of cervical cancer. Yet this is the age brackets that are expected to yield highest return for investments in their lives. The most distressing part is that these are avoidable deaths. Deaths that result from cancer have robbed and continued to rob the nation of the contributions of great women in their prime. Cervical cancer results in deaths of women when they are most strategically located to contribute greatly to women development and that of the larger society.

Cervical cancer attacks both the rich and the poor and does not respect socio-economic position. In fact, every sexually active woman is at the risk of contracting cervical cancer (Entonu, as cited in Nwachukwu, 2015). The pervading problem of late diagnoses leads to many regrettable and painful deaths of women. In fact, studies show that even health professionals in Nigeria have not embraced vaccination and screening practices in a measure expected of people that should know better (Oche, Kaoje, Gana & Ango, 2013; Udigwe, 2006). The situation of rural woman who are largely poor, ignorant and uneducated can only be worse in terms of knowledge of dangers of cervical cancer and attitude to its prevention. The case of rural women is also compounded because of the near total absence of facilities for screening and treatment. Indeed, studies carried out at different times across the country show low level of awareness on their part (Abiodun, Fatungase and Olu-Abiodun, 2013; Igwilo et al., 2012 and Aminu, Dattijo & El-Nafaty, 2013). Invariably, it is important to let both the uneducated poor and educated rich know that the risk of developing cervical cancer can be reduced by having screening tests and receiving a vaccine that protects women from HPV infection. Aside these, there are other preventive measures which knowledge of risk factors of cervical cancer would enable women adopt.

The aim of this paper is to highlight the need to create awareness on the dangers of cervical cancer and its prevention through adult and non-formal education programmes, techniques and agencies. The concern for this paper arose because of the threat to the lives of adults, howbeit women - who should be alive to contribute to developmental efforts and who are meant to be beneficiaries of development. Although these writers do not boast of knowledge of medical science and cannot offer insights expected of experts in that field, it is hoped that this paper will awaken people’s interest to contribute to the advocacy and mobilization of efforts needed to create awareness of the dangers of cervical cancer in every community. Adult and non-formal education which is reputed for taking education to the people wherever they are and tailoring it to suit their convenience is a veritable tool for fighting cervical cancer which thrives due to low awareness.

These writers acknowledge that studies have been conducted around cervical cancer awareness by scholars in medical field (who found for the need to create awareness) but much progress has not been made in implementation of findings. Rather the incidents of the disease seem to be on the increase. Attempts being made by these researchers to get statistics on prevalence in Anambra State has not yielded result due to bureaucratic bottle-neck and not very organized record - keeping practice. Application was made to two major public hospitals in the State (Chief Odimegwu Ojukwu University Teaching Hospital [COOUTH] Amaku-

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Awka and Nnamdi Azikiwe University Teaching Hospital [NAUTH], Nnewi) for the number of diagnosis and number of deaths from cervical cancer in the last 5 years. Nothing conclusive has been gotten despite follow-ups. Not much problem was encountered in getting approval in COOUTH but while only 13 cases were traced from their Out-patient unit, the register at the gynaecological unit was difficult to access because the clerks were using them to make entries as they attend to patients all day long. Besides this, headings in the entries did not clearly indicate cervical cancer diagnosis. As lay men, these researchers expected that annual reports of diagnosis, successful treatments and deaths by various units would have easily captured the statistics sought but record keepers said such was not available. Sadly, the application to NAUTH is still making the rounds for approval for several months. There is need for proper record keeping, documentation and accessibility of information in order to present things in proper perspective so that the enormity of the situation will be driven home. It may well be that patients from South-East geopolitical zone mostly visit University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital [UNTH] Enugu which is the only cancer treatment centre serving the whole zone.

Clearly much progress may not be made if the issue of creating awareness is left solely for those in the medical field who already have their hands full with attending to their clinics and other needs. It is the opinion of these writers that all hands should be on deck to sensitize women especially on preventive measures. Ideally, integrated efforts of all stakeholders, which may sometimes entail multi-sectoral collaborations, may be needed. In addition, since women are the most direct victims and are the worsted by cervical cancer, it is necessary to help them to help themselves. This is because they bear the burden of every other group and most times neglect their own needs (Ekong, 2013). This problem should not be neglected in the way most women issues are neglected by policy makers due to gender inequality. In fact, the burden of cervical cancer affects everybody. It is more than a gender issue. Every effort should be made to fashion out a detailed functional plan for prevention of cervical cancer through vaccination, early detection and treatment of cancer by operators in every discipline. These researchers proffer concerted efforts at the use of adult education programmes, techniques and approaches.

Supporting this view is the fact that everything about cervical is very costly and Nigeria lags behind in the provision of basic requirements in terms of personnel, equipment and conducive environment for treatment. It does not appear that Nigeria can meet these needs in the next couple of years. Efforts should therefore be concentrated on creating awareness on preventive measures through adult and non-formal education agencies, programmes and approaches.

Cervical Cancer Statistics and Morbidity Cervical cancer cuts short life of women at their prime and denies the community their contributions to development when it is ripest and needed. Cervical cancer does not respect affluence, educational level, race, religion, profession or even position in the society. Its diagnosis spells doom to most people. Gharoro (2013) aptly captured the fear that overwhelms most people at the diagnosis of cancer thus: Nearly all human beings are agitated and overwhelmed with fear, ‘fear of death’. When we are sick after a thorough physical examination and a couple of investigations our doctor tells us it is cancer ... Sometimes, it takes time for this reality to settle on us after the diagnosis is made. In other times, we completely deny it, with uttered statements like, ‘it is not my portion. I reject it’. The notion is that ‘cancer is deadly; it has no cure’. Today that statement is not completely true (p.2).

The fact that cervical cancer is deadly is incontrovertible but the notion that it has no cure has been thoroughly debunked by advancement in medical science and technology. Although cervical cancer is one of the three common cancers (others are breast cancer and prostate cancer) that kill 90 Nigerians daily (Solaja, 2015), experts assert that it is preventable, treatable and curable. Okoye as reported in Olayiwola (2014) asserted that cervical cancer was 99% preventable. Agbara also lent credence to this fact in that report. According to World Health Organisation [WHO] as cited in Solaja (2015), one third of every cancer can be prevented, another one-third can be effectively cured with early diagnosis; and palliative care can improve the quality of life of the last third. Cervical cancer is virtually 100% preventable while the survival rate for early-stage breast cancer and early-stage prostate cancer is virtually 100% (Solaja, 2015).

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Worldwide, 530,000 new cases of cervical cancer are identified each year, with 270,000 deaths. Approximately 85% of these deaths occur in low/middle income countries (WHO, 2013). Nigeria accounts for more than 10%. Cervical cancer is the number two cancer killing Nigerian women (Gharoro, 2013). According to Okoye (as cited in Olayiwola, 2014), cervical cancer was killing more people worldwide than HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria put together. From their survey, 48 million women were at risk, 17,500 women were diagnosed yearly, 9,659 die annually and 26 women die on daily basis in Nigeria. Society for Family Health (SFH) as reported in Nwachukwu (2015) corroborated this statistics, the Committee Encouraging Corporate Philanthropy (CECP) Nigeria (2015) placed the figure of women that die daily at 22. The difference between 22 and 26 is considered a non issue by these writers because it may be due to difference in time of studies among other things. Besides, it could be that efforts made by government agencies and NGOs to create awareness on this which though insufficient must have elicited some sensitivity towards cervical cancer. CECP confirmed this position by attributing the 15% reduction of cervical cancer deaths between 2008 and 2012 to what they described as the monumental efforts of National Cancer Prevention Programme (NCPP) - a charitable organisation. Nevertheless, going by the two figures, the incontrovertible fact remains that death toll from cervical cancer in Nigeria is massive and therefore alarming. There is need to mitigate the problem.

Ignorance largely appears to be the bane of people in developing and under developed countries as far as cervical cancer scourge is concerned. Whereas a significant drop in the incidence of cervical cancer has been recorded in developed countries as a result of intensive programme of cervical screening, the situation of things in developing countries is still alarming due to a number of factors including lack of appreciation of the fact that most women can be susceptible to cervical cancer.

Additionally, as revealed by various studies, the low level of awareness of cervical screening services makes the matter worse (Chinaka & Udeajah, 2012; Igwilo et al., 2012; and Abiodun, Fatungase & Olu-Abiodun, 2014). Sadly, some studies that found high level of awareness by respondents (health workers) still revealed that respondents were not assessing pap smear screening because they felt they were not at risk and some respondents blamed it on doctors’ referrals (Oche et al., 2013; Udigwe, 2006). Although it can be easily assumed that there is general lack of awareness of the dangers of cervical cancer and its preventability among rural dwellers, there is still need to focus attention on creating awareness not only in rural communities but also among the supposedly enlightened that will drive the campaign in their native communities. Undoubtedly, spreading information to impart knowledge of risk factors of cervical cancer is among the fundamental steps in preventing that disease.

Risk Factors of Cervical Cancer and Other Prevention Measures A risk factor is a variable associated with increased risk of disease or infection. It is something that increases a person’s chances of developing a disease. Several risk factors predispose people to cervical cancer. They include early sexual debut, keeping multiple sexual partners, cigarette smoking and high parity (Balogun et al, 2012; Abiodun, Fatungase, Olu-Abiodun, 2013; Oche et al, 2013 & Igwilo et al, 2012). Gharoro (2013) grouped the risk factors under living pattern and biological environment. According to him, these factors include the following: Sexual behaviour; Multiple sexual partners; Young age at first intercourse (below 16 years); Unprotected sexual intercourse (any age); Having a promiscuous male partner; Having sex with a male partner who is not circumcised; Non penetrative sexual contact

The biological and environmental risk factors include the following: Poor nutrient status (diets low in fruits and vegetables); High parity; Advanced age; Smoking; Immuno-compromise. Oche et al (2013) added co- infection with HIV, Chlamydia trachomatis, herpes simplex virus type-2, immune-suppressants and certain dietary deficiencies. Igwilo et al (2012) added prolonged oestrogen contraceptive use and poor genital hygiene to the list. They asserted that it has been found that diets deficient in carotenoids, vitamin A, vitamin E and folate increase the risk. Oche et al also observed that findings from studies have suggested that unscreened women were at high risk of cervical cancer.

Cervical Cancer Prevention Measures The good news is that cervical cancer has not been found to be hereditary therefore taking the risk factors into cognisance and generally adopting a healthy lifestyle can protect one from developing cervical cancer. Igwilo

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 63 et al (2012) particularly observed that the risk of progression of cervical cancer can also be reduced by measures such as the following - abstinence, discouraging the use of diethysilbestrol in pregnancy, uptake of human papilloma virus vaccination, male circumcision, and promoting educational awareness of the disease with its associated risks.

Comprehensive prevention involves the use of diverse tools suitably applied to the resources available (Global Guidance for Cervical Cancer Prevention and Control FIGO 2009 and 2012, as cited in Gharoro, 2013). WHO (2013) advocated for a national level comprehensive approach to cervical cancer prevention and control because it benefits from being multidisciplinary. This approach is made up of various key components ranging from community education, social mobilization, vaccination, screening, and treatment to palliative care. WHO emphasized that it is important to involve representatives from various disciplines and national health programmes such as immunization, reproductive health, cancer control and adolescent health. It further advocated for the introduction of screening programmes in countries where HPV vaccine is introduced. Thus, it can safely be said that prevention strategies are in three levels - primary, secondary and tertiary.

Primary Prevention. This level of prevention of cervical cancer is based essentially on healthy lifestyles and vaccination against HPV. According to WHO - Cervical Cancer Risk Factors and Prevention (2015), two types of vaccines against HPV infection were available on the market. One acts against HPV genotype 6, 11, 16 and 18 (quadrivalent vaccine) and the other against genotypes 16 and 18 (bivalent vaccines). The WHO recommended group for vaccination is 9-13-year-old girls who have not yet become sexually active (WHO Guidance note - Comprehensive, 2013). Subsequently, the United States of America Food and Drug Administration (2014) approved the use of Gardasil 9 (nanovalent) vaccine in December 2014. This new vaccine can be administered on both male and female adolescents. The vaccines cannot treat HPV infection or HPV associated diseases. All the vaccines work best if administered prior to exposure to HPV.

In fact, any female no matter the age, who has not been sexually exposed, is qualified to take the vaccination. Targeting girls of 9-13 years for vaccination is because studies have established that people that had early sexual debut (below 16 years at first coitus) are more susceptible to being infected with HPV than women that were exposed to sex at advanced age. This could be because advanced people have gathered immunity that enables their body fight infection.

Moreover, government or any other stakeholder may not afford the cost of providing for every eligible woman at the same time. Women that have been sexually exposed can take the vaccine depending on the outcome of proper screening. Both vaccines require 3-doses administered over a period of 6 months (Agbara, as cited in Olayiwola, 2014). Agbara further explains that the vaccine is given at first contact, at the fourth week and at sixth month in the upper arm. According to her the vaccination, like all vaccines, has side effects, but the side effects are tolerable ranging from fatigue, pain in the joints and general body weakness to gastro-intestinal symptoms. She described the side effects as a passing phase and described the vaccine as relatively safe.

Problems of lack of follow-up of initial vaccines should be anticipated and strategies for overcoming it should be mapped out. According to WHO, safety of these vaccines are being closely monitored. The good news is that every woman can be vaccinated provided due process is followed, e.g. screening before vaccination for those beyond 9-13years. Even HIV-infected individuals can be vaccinated.

Secondary Prevention. This level of prevention is done by screening for precancerous lesions and early diagnosis followed by adequate treatment. According to WHO - Guidance Note (2013), cervical cancer screening is the systematic application of a test to identify cervical abnormalities in an asymptomatic population. Targeted women may feel perfectly healthy and see no reason to visit health facilities. Women, who have been sexually active, should do a pap smear test to know the state of the cells at the neck of their wombs before the vaccination. The main techniques used are cytological screening of cervical cells and visual inspection of the cervix. WHO - Guidance Note suggests that screening services may be provided as organized or opportunistic (taking advantage of a woman’s visit to the health facility for another purpose) service or a combination of both. There is a consensus that organized screening is more cost-effective than opportunistic screening. Part of the reason for this position is that available resources can be used better and it will ensure that greater number of women will benefit.

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WHO - Guidance note (2013) highlighted key facts about cervical cancer screening and treatment which include - that screening is recommended for every woman 30-49 years of age at least once in a life time; early detection and treatment of precancerous lesions can prevent the majority of cervical cancers; and HPV vaccination does not replace cervical cancer screening. Cervical cancer screening in the developed world has been a great public health achievement as most cases are caught in the precancerous stages and prevented from proceeding to invasive cancer (Adimorah, 2013). Screening should be given adequate attention by developing nations and be made to complement vaccination if the burden of cervical cancer can be reduced. Any positive test should be followed by adequate treatment.

Tertiary Prevention. This involves the diagnosis and treatment of confirmed cases of cancer. Treatment is through surgery, radiotherapy and sometimes chemotherapy. Palliative care is provided for patients when the disease has already reached an incurable stage (WHO - Cervical Cancer Risk Factors, 2015). Treatment of cervical cancer is very expensive and cumbersome even if detected early. The situation of victims at incurable stage that require palliative care is even worse.

Palliative care is all about ensuring that patients with life-threatening cervical cancer are provided with relief from pain and suffering (both physical and psychological). This requires resources, special skills and supervision. Effective palliative care engages a team of doctors, nurses, other specialists and community members who work together in health facilities, the community and homes (WHO - Guidance Note, 2013). It is obvious that there is insufficient capacity to provide the services needed at this level in most countries including Nigeria. Even the few available services are not optimally used because of lack of awareness of available services and understanding of the benefits (Salako, as cited in Okafor, 2015). In the words of Gharoro (2013), people still die of cervical cancer because of the following - Policy makers are reluctant to fund projects with no immediate self benefit; Individuals feel that investing in treating cancer is money wasted because they believe that cancer has no cure therefore money spent on providing services is a waste; the community is uninformed about the natural history of cancer, care and prevention; Surgical treatment of cancer is expensive and this view is strengthened by the fact that cancer is a chronic disease and treatment is expensive both in time and money.

The fact that government alone cannot provide all the resources needed to win the war against cervical cancer can never be over-emphasized. This uphill task is not only against battling a dreadful disease and lack of awareness that surround it but that of equally dispelling the myths and misconceptions in its trail.

Common Myths and Misconceptions About Cervical Cancer Wrong ideas about cervical cancer can lead to needless worry and even hinder good prevention and treatment decisions. Some of the misconceptions and myths about causes of cervical cancer are as follows:  Cervical cancer cannot be prevented. The truth remains that cervical cancer is virtually preventable.  Some people wrongly feel they are too young to worry about cervical cancer. The truth is that younger people are more susceptible to be infected by HPV virus. This is why age bracket of 9-13 is targeted for vaccine. In addition, HPV though transmitted through sexual intercourse can stay for 10 years before manifesting (Entonu as reported by Nwachukwu, 2015).  Some people erroneously believe that because they do not have sexual intercourse, they should not worry about cervical cancer. According to Johnston (as cited in Fawcett, 2013), the truth is that HPV can be passed from one partner to another through intercourse as well as orally and through touching. Abraham (2014) had contrary opinion on this issue. He argued that the belief that cervical cancer is contagious is erroneous. National Cancer Institute (2015) is of the opinion that cancer is not contagious. They acknowledge that a virus or bacteria can spread from person to person, but the cancers they cause cannot spread from person to person.  The view that cancer surgery or tumour biopsy cause cancer to spread in the body is wrong. Biopsy is the removal and examination of a sample of tissue from a living body for diagnostic purposes. A lot of people have paid the ultimate price because they rejected biopsy on account of this belief. Any spread of cancer had already happened before biopsy.  Some people believe that since they had the vaccine they don’t need to use condom during sex. Similarly, others believe that once they have had cervical cancer, they cannot develop any other cancers in the reproductive tract. The truth is that HPV vaccine protects from only infection from

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four types of HPV but there are other strains of HPV coupled with a whole lot of other types of sexually transmitted diseases. Abstinence is the best protection.  The belief that a person found to have cervical cancer is a prostitute is also wrong. (This group of people feel that only promiscuous women are at risk of developing cervical cancer.)  People think that cervical cancer does not result from sex but that it is a satanic curse or as a result of spiritual manipulation or bewitchment and therefore should be treated solely spiritually.  Some people baselessly believe that a dirty womb causes cervical cancer so you have to wash yourself out every day.  Some people erroneously feel that family planning medicines that they give out in clinics causes cervical cancer.  Some people wrongly think that cervical cancer is a family disease (hereditary).  Some people wrongly think that eating bad food causes cervical cancer. (Fawcett, 2013; Chirwa et al, 2010 & Abraham, 2014)

Misconceptions and myths that may be responsible for low uptake of screening services include the following:  Nurses who do the screening services may be diabolical people that will take our children.  The instrument they use causes a lot of pain  Cervical cancer diagnosis implies they will remove my womb and I don’t want to reincarnate without womb.  Screening destroys the ability of a woman to have a baby.  There is no privacy, I m just too scared to be screened by people who may know me (Chirwa et al, 2010).

In addition, some research findings show that women do not access pap smear screening services because of low level of education, poor perception of the disease, the feeling that they were not at the risk of contracting the disease (Oche et al, 2013; Igwilo et al, 2012; Abiodun, Fatungase and Olu-Abiodun, 2013; Balogun et al, 2015). The result of study conducted by Aminu, Dattijo and El- Nafaty (2013) in North- East Nigeria among female health workers revealed the following barriers to uptake of pap smear:  Lack of screening centre  Lack of awareness of a nearby centre  High cost of screening  Some women felt they do not need it because they were in a monogamous relationship.

Early detection of cancer greatly increases the chances for successful treatment. According to WHO - Early Detection of Cancer (2015), screening through the pap smear (cytology) is the only test that has been used in large populations and that has been shown to reduce cervical cancer incidence and mortality. Other tests (visual inspection with acetic acid VIA, visual inspection with Lugol’s iodine VILI, HPV) show promise but there is as yet no comparable evidence on their effectiveness (WHO - Early Detection of Cancer, 2015). There is need to remove every obstacle that militates against women’s adoption of screening.

In addition, if these unfounded fears and misconceptions are not dealt with, they will continue to stop women from taking up available help. It is incontrovertible that the task ahead is enormous. Medical officials cannot do it alone. Government efforts thus far is grossly inadequate and below expectation (WHO - Country Profile on Cancer Awareness and Treatment, 2014). A multi-sectoral and interdisciplinary approach through the application of adult and non-formal education programmes and approaches appear to be the way forward for urgently creating the much needed awareness among women.

Relevance of Adult and Non - Formal Education in The Fight Against Cervical Cancer It is remarkable that all consulted studies on cervical cancer in writing this paper recommended that concerted efforts should be made to package a well designed health and community education programme to be used in creating awareness of the dangers of cervical cancer and its preventability and treatment through the usage of screening services, prompt treatment of early cases and referrals of advanced cases or as the case may be. This shows that the battle against cervical cancer largely depend on awareness for it to succeed. In effect, to survive man must have awareness and to become aware, man must be educated (Oreh, 2014).

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Education has been described as a powerful driver of development. It is said to be one of the strongest instrument for reducing poverty, raising incomes, promoting economic growth and shared prosperity and improving health, gender equality, peace and stability (World Bank, 2015 as cited in Akani, 2015). Unfortunately, developing countries face peculiar challenges that include ignorance, illiteracy, poverty, gender inequality and apathy on the part of the adult population among others. Government neglect of corporate responsibility to citizenry also escalates these problems. All these, directly and indirectly, affect chances of avoiding and surviving cervical cancer respectively. Since the problem of morbidity from cervical cancer is largely a result of ignorance and seeming apathy on the part of the adult populace, it stands to reason that adult education should be looked upon as the best form of education to be employed to tackle the problem of cervical cancer. This is more so because both people susceptible to cervical cancer, their care givers and health educators are adults - the clientele of adult education and the vectors of development.

The term ‘adult’ is a subjective term because it means different things to different people. Complicating the issue further is the fact that words used to define or describe adult such as mature, grown-up, independent, responsible, and so on mean different things to different people. Moreover, various people of different cultural backgrounds have differing opinions concerning who an adult is. This is because they see the issue from different perspectives. Scholars have also tried to define adult from different forms/aspects (biological - those with reproductive ability; social - those deemed adult by their culture; situational - those whom playing the role of an adult is thrust upon by the situation they find themselves in such as untimely deaths of parents). Such other parameters that include age, marriage, sense of economy, stock of energy, intelligence have also been used to define who an adult is (Ugwoegbu, 2003). Nevertheless, authors have not been able to find a well delineated and generally acceptable stage in the life of a man that defines adulthood. The definition by UNESCO (1976, as cited in Onyeozu, 2007) that an adult is a person regarded as an adult by the society he belongs to enjoys wide acceptance.

Interestingly, the fact that adolescents are very susceptible to HPV infection on account of early sexual debut makes them an adult for this purpose. Most cultures see sexual intercourse as the exclusive reserve of adults not children but due to moral degradation in the society, the age of sexual debut has been found to have reduced drastically. It is as low as 9 years in some societies. This supposes that adult educators and other agents of adult education should equally take whatever campaigns and programmes they have to the adolescents, their parents and their teachers in order to reduce death from cervical cancer.

Moreover, the popular maxim that ‘prevention is better than cure’ particularly holds sway for cervical cancer. Prevention of cervical cancer through adult education will save the nation and victims from daunting problem and cost of treatment and management of cervical cancer. Victims of cervical cancer face the challenges of lack of availability of adequate number of experts (especially oncologists and medical physicists) for treatment coupled with lack of access to few available treatment and screening centres. Indeed, everything about cervical cancer is very expensive. CECP (2015) cited the case of a well known Nigerian Philanthropist, who was said to have died of cervical cancer on September 18, 2014. It was reported that N36 million had just been raised by her well-wishers in a last minute attempt to save her life. At the time she died, she owed N25 million in hospital bills in Germany. Meanwhile cervical cancer is virtually 100% preventable.

Due to the fact that cancer is a chronic disease, treatment is expensive both in time and money. Even the vaccine has to be greatly subsidized for the common man to want to put scarce resources into that. According to Gharoro (2013), the cost of surgical treatment is prohibitive, approximately N450, 000 per surgical operation. He also explained that the expenditure on radiotherapy used to be as high as N300, 000 until the World Atomic Energy intervention, through the federal government, which reduced the cost to below N100, 000 in federal government treatment centres. This massive expenditure will be avoided if due attention will be paid to efforts at creating awareness of risk factors and promotion of utilisation of prevention measures through Adult education.

Adult education comprehends formal, informal and non-formal education. Adult education is that education which everybody needs and wants as long as they are alive and regardless of their previous education (Nzeneri & Haliyu as cited in Nzeneri, P. & Abe, 2013). Adult education lasts through entire life span. It is dynamic. Adult education encompasses multiplicity of programmes and its programmes are designed according to the peculiar circumstances of a particular group of people in order to meet their peculiar needs (Obidiegwu, as

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 67 cited in Obiozor and Obidiegwu, 2013). Adult education is meant to help adults improve their skills, knowledge, attitude and behaviours for their personal, family and community well-being. Loss as a result of cervical cancer threatens personal, family and community well being.

Age old clarion calls for public enlightenment by researchers and efforts of other concerned groups such as non-governmental organisations[NGOs] to improve awareness level of the threat and acceptability of screening and vaccination to preserve lives of women persists but do not appear to have significantly brought the problem under perspective. There appears to be no significant increase in the level of awareness and attitude to dangers of cervical cancer and its preventability. Thus the situation calls for conscious application of the principles, theories and practice of adult education in the delivery of strategies for prevention of cervical cancer. Adult education looks to be a veritable tool to bring about attitudinal and behavioural changes that will positively affect rate of intake of vaccines and screening by women.

Adult education is provided by trained adult educators and other groups of people that may not even be aware that they provide adult education. Adult education is provided by NGOs such as Community based organisations [CBOs], trade unions, faith based organisations, universities and others. It is also provided by International Organisations such as UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP and Action Aid (Obiozor & Obidiegwu, 2014). The scope of adult education is as wide as life itself and includes Remedial education, Continuing education, literacy education, Labour education, Functional literacy, Women education, Retirement education, Civic education, Environmental education, Extension education, Community development and Distance education.

The highlighted areas in the immediately preceding paragraph are very vast in scope too. For instance, the scope of Community Development is as wide as community life itself. The scope covers agriculture, health, domestic science, rural industries, housing, cooperatives, public amenities and recreation. The scope expands to accommodate new challenges that may arise as a result of break-through in science and technology, natural occurrences and all other needs that affect the life of men in the community. Barikor (as cited in Ezima, 2004) emphasized that a mandatory function of community development programme should be to improve ways by which target community is educated and motivated to promote the quality and scope of personal and communal life and their contribution to nation building. According to Barikor, aspects of community development programmes include those programmes which enhance the living conditions and health of people. Community development’s emphasis is on bringing about positive change that makes the life of the people better. NGOs undertake development activities for the benefit of communities with or without the aid of any government. They are adult education agents and will be more successful if they apply adult and NFE programmes and strategies.

Specific Adult and Non-Formal Education Strategies for Tackling Cervical Cancer Application of some Adult and Non-Formal Education programmes through its various approaches by its agencies whether in formal school settings or non formal school settings via their work places, rural and urban community social gatherings, cooperative societies, door to door campaigns or as the case may be, can contribute substantially in the fight against cervical cancer. Adekola and Uzoagu (2014) described adult education as all forms of education that are acquired by individuals at their matured years. Non-Formal Education [NFE] programmes are activities organized for people outside the formal school system to meet them at the point of their needs and situations. Adult and NFE programmes necessarily encompasses a list of educational and learning programmes for those regarded as adults. They are potentially strategic education tools of action to combat diseases and similar problems. Quite contrary to the common view that adult education is used to tackle merely the basic literacy needs of adults, adult and NFE is the tool per excellence for tackling every need of man. Adult education provides the necessary channel for enlightenment of adults on healthy practices that will result in reduction of infant and maternal mortality rates, improved sexual reproductive practices, increasing life expectancy and reduction of the spread of diseases such as HIV/AIDS, VVF and of course HPV which is the main cause of cervical cancer.

Scholars in the field of adult and NFE evolved various approaches to facilitate adult learning which include - Functional literacy approach, Andragogy, REFLECT, Conscientization and Each - One -Teach - One (Adekola & Uzoagu, 2014). Each - One -Teach - One is of particular interest to these writers because it accommodates the other approaches and at the same time has the potential of spreading information on

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 68 cervical cancer in geometrical proportion. The phrase is said to have originated in the US during slavery period when black people and their descendants were denied access to formal education. The phrase was popularized by Frank Laubach, a missionary to the Philippines who had adopted the programme in order to continue to teach literacy to the people he was evangelizing despite lack of funds. The approach involves a literate person voluntarily taking up an illiterate and teaching him to become literate.

This approach was advocated for use in Nigeria to wipe out illiteracy in 1990 by late Professor Babs Fafunwa. Fafunwa added the phrase ‘and fund the teaching of one’ to it. This was informed by the principle that every literate person owes it a duty to make one illiterate person literate or pay somebody else to do so. This approach is apt for tackling cervical cancer because concentrating efforts at its prevention is the more viable option for a nation like Nigeria that can scarcely afford resources for treatment of its teeming populace. Besides, a lot depends on knowledge of risk factors and preventive measures and this can be spread and better explained on one-on-one basis. In this way proper language (mother tongue of learner where necessary) can be used and explanation is done to accommodate reasoning power of the adult learner among other benefits. Adults can be conscientized to sponsor the education of others by donating funds to NGOs to organize seminars and workshops to enlighten the populace or even sponsor the vaccination of women. Since Nigerians like marking events, they can sponsor such to mark their birthdays or as part of funeral programmes for the burial of their loved ones or their remembrance. Similarly, non-formal education programmes advocated for use by Obiozor (2016) in combating HIV/AIDS could be adapted for use in tackling cervical cancer. They include but are not exclusively the following:  Mass awareness and enlightenment programmes carried out through field visits, production of reading materials, posters, brochures, jingles and movies and other video documentations.  Community mobilization programmes where programme providers and facilitators meet with traditional rulers, community opinion leaders, youths in clubs such as Boys and Girls Brigade, people in the market places, churches, mosques and other local gatherings and stimulate and sensitize them for them to initiate and sustain programmes.  Counselling services should be provided at grass root levels especially for adolescents who are the most susceptible while victims of cervical cancer and their families should also be counselled on what to expect and how to go about things. If government can enable the diagnosis of the stage of the disease by making adequate manpower, machines and other resources available and affordable, counselling services will reduce the trauma people go through.  Health education programmes should be provided by experts or their trained agents to reach every community and school. Pupils of senior primary school and secondary schools should be compulsorily educated on the dangers of cervical cancer and the preventive measures. Agents of adult education such as NGOs can collaborate with Ministry of Education, Health, Youths and Women of Affairs to facilitate this and also organize programmes to educate out-of -school youths, orphans, non-literate adults and other groups meant to be catered for through NFE. They can show home videos based on cervical cancer in public places such as in community education/ literacy centres and during wake-keeping s organised as part of funeral rites.  Civic education should be used to emphasize the responsibility to tell others about the disease in order to save their lives. The implication of the immediately preceding section which can also be deduced from other sections is that NGOs are the major catalysts needed to mobilize other sectors and groups in the fight against cervical cancer. Some of their activities are highlighted hereunder.

Non-Governmental Organisations Efforts in Fighting Cervical Cancer Undoubtedly, cervical cancer threatens the well being of members of the community and negatively affects efforts at community development. Governments of developing nations have not been able to do much to help the communities against this scourge. Nigeria is said to have a national cancer control programme which has developed the National Cancer Control Policy and also provided guidelines for private sector involvement in the cervical cancer control (Nwachukwu, 2015). The fact remains that the impact of the said programme or policy is yet to be significantly felt across the nation. Just as in other issues where government could not do

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 69 much to help the people, NGOs contributed greatly in highlighting the issues of dangers of cervical cancer and have been in the vanguard of the fight to reduce death tolls from cervical cancer scourge.

World Bank (as cited in Akani, 2015) defines NGOs as “private organisations that pursue activities to relieve the suffering, promote the interest of the poor, protect the environment, provide basic social services, or undertake community development” (p.413). Similarly, Barikor (2005) stated that NGOs can be formed by individuals, groups and associations to provide services or resources that seek to promote, protect or even advance the interests and needs or even solve the problems of another especially the needs of a sub-group like women, the sick, the poor, disabled and the adults which may not be met by government assistance due to ignorance or lack of resources and other constraints. The Company and Allied Matters Act, 1990, Section 26(1) permits NGOs to be registered as companies limited by guarantee. The income and property of such companies are applied solely towards the promotion of their purposes. Indeed, certain NGOs are permitted by law to solicit support in terms of funding, manpower and equipment supply from even international publics because the demand for their activities, which are based on charity and voluntarism, are often too wide and cumbersome for them to handle with internally generated fund.

NGOs are often referred to as civil society organisations (CSOs). According to Adamu (2015) the role of CSOs worldwide is essentially to facilitate the design of strategies for development; to act as service providers under the aegis of community and national non-governmental organizations; and to be watchdogs in order to make governments accountable for their commitments.

It is regrettable that today NGOs proliferates, yet their impact is questionable because of corruption. According to Akani (2015), NGO fraternity in Africa are echoing and mimicking the state of corruption happening within the leadership circles of their countries. Akani further observed that reports indicate that those entrusted with funds for NGOs misused them for personal benefit and in some instances corruptly access funding. There is urgent need to evaluate the activities of NGOs especially those that enjoy foreign sponsorship and particularly as it pertains to their awareness creation activities towards reducing the burden of cervical cancer.

It is important to emphasize that notwithstanding the failure of some NGOs, their benefits to the society far outweigh their failings. NGOs are very necessary for development and should be encouraged and supported to do well. Part of this support should be to ensure that they do what they preach so that they can act as examples in virtue to other organisations. Conducting research to find out the problems that hinder their optimal performance and what can be done to ensure that they do their very essential duties well is a way of supporting them. As NGOs are very essential in the fight against cervical cancer, government should create enabling environment for them to perform their duties. Some NGOs work with international organisations while others collaborate with professional and private organisations to enlighten the people on preventive measures and also bring treatment. These researchers’ searches show that some NGOs have contributed in creating awareness, organizing screening programmes and facilitating treatment of cervical cancer cases whether alone or in concert with governmental agencies and other private organizations such as the media. The general public can recourse to them for information on cervical cancer. They include:  Mass Medical Mission (MMM), which started with the campaign against cervical cancer in 2007 and later incorporated other types of cancer, now known as National Cancer Prevention Programme (NCPP);  Medical Women Association of Nigeria (MWAN);  Well Women Centre;  Breast Without Spot (BWS) - an NGO that works with Union for International Cancer Control (UICC), with a mission to create increased awareness of the prevention and early detection of cancers in general and other non-communicable diseases with shared risk factors in Nigeria;  The Committee Encouraging Corporate Philanthropy, Nigeria (CECP) - whose focus includes to acquire and deploy Mobile Cancer Centres (MCC) and reach every local government at least once in a year for screening;

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 Anambra Women in USA (ASA women) - who, through their medical mission programme centred on cancer and maternal health, promote community educational workshops on cervical cancer and promote their project (construction of ultra modern cancer treatment centre at Awka);  Society for Family Health (SFH);  Planned Parenthood Federation of Nigeria (PPFN)  Marie Stopes Nigeria (MSN)

The list is by no means exhaustive. It is noteworthy that SFH, PPFN and MSN subscribed to the National Cancer Control Programme and inaugurated a four-year cervical cancer screening and preventive therapy (CCS & PT) to last from 2012 to 2016. Nwachukwu (2015) reported that the programme provides cervical cancer screening services and cryotherapy to women who have precancerous cervical lesion across the country. They also provided for referrals to government facilities for people that require higher treatment. Therapy is said to be available for women of 30 - 49 years in Abuja, Lagos, Kaduna, Enugu, Ibadan, Owerri, Makurdi among others. Nwachukwu also revealed that SFH said the programme is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation through Marie Stopes International as the principal recipient in Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya.

These organisations have done well to do the much they have done but one cannot truly commend them without evaluating their activities against the objectives which they sought to achieve. Besides, it is no longer strange for NGOs to exist and front their activities in the pages of the newspaper and electronic media without being found to exist or have carried out claimed activities in any identifiable physical location. Some NGOs touted to be fighting cervical cancer may not be immune from this practice. The situation and the fact that it is suspected that a lot of NGOs sprang up to attract and siphon funds from international donors for personal use led to calls for stricter regulation of NGOs above what Corporate Affairs Commission currently does. If the war against cervical cancer must be won, NGOs in this course must be sanitised, supported and sustained.

RECOMMENDATIONS In view of the serious threat to lives that cervical cancer pose and the fact that the situation is not hopeless because it is virtually curable if detected early, coupled with the fact that a lot depends on prevention and early detection respectively, the following recommendations are made.  Nigerian government should adopt and strictly comply with the various directives of WHO concerning efforts at preventing deaths from cervical cancer and reducing its morbidity. WHO gives directives on regular basis based research findings and innovative best practices. WHO (2013) had earlier recommended the addressing of cervical cancer control in a comprehensive manner. They pledged to help countries develop national cervical cancer prevention and control strategic plan. It is high time the Federal Government of Nigeria formulated a government driven national cervical cancer prevention and control programme by adhering to evidence-based standards of care and multidisciplinary approach.  Culturally specific communication campaigns, social mobilization and education efforts to raise awareness of cervical cancer, risk factors and methods of prevention should be developed by community based organizations using adult and NFE techniques. For instance, faith based organizations or town unions can advocate for inclusion of articles in burial programmes educating people on health issues especially when cause of death is related to that type of disease.  Government should partner with NGOs and equally facilitate more collaborative efforts among NGOs to ensure a more comprehensive and wider reach.  Activities of NGOs should be promoted and sustained though regulated. NGOs have contributed greatly in the fight against cervical cancer whether working alone or in collaboration with government and private organisations in the bid to reduce death from cervical cancer as well as other types of cancer.  Government should sponsor the understudying (with a view to adopting or adapting) the cancer prevention programmes of nations that have succeeded in greatly reducing the incidents of deaths from cervical cancer.  Researchers should be encouraged to conduct studies that assess, evaluate and identify problems of NGOs in their quest to fight cervical cancer. Studies to elicit opinion of experts from various

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disciplines such as lecturers in the faculty of education and mass communication on effective media and platforms for spreading awareness on cervical cancer should also be embarked on.  Efforts at educating adolescents on dangers of cervical cancer and the vaccination programme should be scaled up for wider reach. In this regard, government can give directive that parents - teachers associations (PTAs) of each school should incorporate cervical cancer enlightenment programme into their activities at least annually where students sit with their parents to be taught.

CONCLUSION Whereas it is incontrovertible that cervical cancer kills, debilitates and wastes resources meant for development while robbing man (the object and subject of development) the dividend of development, it has been fully established that the menace of cervical cancer is virtually avoidable since it is preventable, curable and treatable. Both men and women, private and public organizations, NGOs whether faith-based, community-based or internationally based and operators from every discipline should join forces to reduce the burden of cervical cancer by adapting adult and NFE approaches and techniques. The popular saying about HIV/AIDS that ‘if it doesn’t kill you, it affects you’ is also true of cervical cancer. All hands should be on deck in this war. Nigeria should no longer lag behind in the global scheme of things. The government and people should join the rest of the world to promote well being of all ages especially women. A federal government driven national cervical cancer programme, that will provide regular vaccination, screening and treatment services in all local government areas, should be put in place immediately to be complemented by efforts of NGOs.

World Cancer Day is marked every 4th February. The theme for 2016 World Cancer Day was ‘we can I can’. Marking the World Cancer Day is an opportunity for individuals, public and private organizations to take action and advocate for a cancer free world by challenging perceptions, creating healthy environments, improving access to cancer care, mobilising their networks to drive programmes and making the case for investing in cancer control in general. This can be done effectively through the use of adult and non-formal education programmes and approaches such as each-one-teach-one or sponsor the teaching of one.

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Compulsion Vs Advocacy: In Search of Effective Mobilization Strategy for Agricultural Development

Agbanu, Venatus N. Dept of Mass Communication Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam Campus, Nigeria [email protected]

Abstract For some time now, it has become increasingly difficult for Nigeria to produce enough food to feed her teeming population. Although mechanized farming and effective pest control measures have taken root in the developed nations, the success story is not the same in the developing countries where majority of the people still live in rural communities and eke out a living through subsistence farming. So, the question remains how to change or improve the living standard of the people through better agricultural yields. Events in deferent parts of the world have continued to point out that communication in central to rural development especially in effecting attitudinal change. In Nigeria for instance, though the government from time to time, come up with different agricultural programmes, the success or otherwise of such efforts is largely determined by the use of effective media strategy to educate the rural farmers and mobilize them for the success of such programme. This work, through the triangulation research approach – using the survey and focus group research methods studied the effectiveness of compulsion and persuasion (advocacy) media campaign approaches in mobilizing farmers in the agrarian Igbariam community of Anambra State. The researcher found that rather than compulsion where people are compelled to adopt a new idea, the persuasive or advocacy approach where they are convinced of the benefit derivable from such innovation produces better result. For a long term effect, the advocacy method works better while the compulsion method, if it records any success initially, lasts only for a short while. The researcher therefore recommends the use of the advocacy approach by policy makers and media practitioners for mass mobilization of the people for agricultural production since if the farmers are genuinely convinced of their need gratification, they would sincerely adopt any new innovation.

Key words: Compulsion, Advocacy, Mobilization strategy, Agricultural development, Farmers.

INTRODUCTION Governance in different parts of the world is a social contract between those who find themselves in leadership position and those who consented to be led. The leaders promise to impact positively on the lives of the people while the followers give their consent and loyalty without which there will be anarchy. In different parts of the world, change in whichever form is usually introduced by few individuals in the society. However, none of these changes can make any headway without the support and active participation of majority of the people. Though at times, some leaders tend to impose their will on the people, experience in different parts of the world have also shown that such imposition does not produce a lasting impression (Opubor, 2005), especially when it did not enjoy the acceptance and support of the target audience.

In different parts of the world, Nigeria inclusive, one of the headaches of the government is how to feed their increasing population through agriculture. Though mechanized farming has taken root in some of these nations, especially the technologically advanced ones, it is still alien in the less developed nations where majority of the people still live in rural communities and eke out a living through subsistence agriculture. For any social change to take place, these people must be mobilized to become active partners in such a social change. Or, as Adeyanji and Mbibi (2005), cited in Adeyanju, Haruna and Abubakar (2011) said, “The productive level of the Nigerian farmer depends largely on the kinds of information available to him.”

Then, what is the role of the media in all these? Media and development scholars believe that development cannot take place without the mobilization of the people. And, development cannot exist without communication (Wilson, 2006). Mobilization here means to rally the people for a purpose or a process of achieving a goal through organized group action (Okafor, 2005).

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In Nigeria for instance, the topical issue is agriculture. The leaders want to improve the living standard of the people through mechanized farming and the use of modern agricultural implements. Since food is one of the basic necessities of life, the leaders try to see that their people have enough to eat through agricultural reforms. Since these agricultural reforms cannot take place without the government reaching the rural dwellers through communication and applying the best communication strategies, the question has always been the best campaign strategy in communicating these social change to the people to elicit the desired impact. Nkala (1990) described the inability of governments to use the effective communication strategy in reaching the people as a tragedy. According to the author, for government to think without communicating, for government to articulate sound policies without reaching the target is a tragedy.

Media scholars have identified three media campaign strategies available to people wishing to move others into action or effect attitudinal change. These campaign strategies are: Compulsion, Compensation and Persuasion. In compulsion, the people are left with little or no alternative and the consequence of non- compliance stares them on the face. Compensation on the other hand involves offering of direct reward to the audience for compliance while Persuasion or advocacy involves convincing the people that a viewpoint or programme serves their self interest as opposed to the social or public interest. It tells them of what they are about to benefit if they adopt the canvassed change.

In Nigeria, the government fathom different strategies to communicate their policies to the people However, the crisis point or the missing link has always been the right strategy to reach the target audience or the end users. Nwosu (1990) states that Nigeria has produced a typical example of an ad-mixture of media campaign failures and successes in rural development and overall social mobilization. And, Nwabueze (2007) laments that though the Nigerian government comes up with development policies, programmes and projects from time to time, the success or otherwise of such efforts is largely determined by the ability to educate the rural dwellers and mobilize them for the success of such programmes and projects.

Some of the campaigns programmes done by the government in collaboration with the media in Nigeria’s history include:

. Immunization campaigns. . Use of Insect Treated Mosquito Nets. . Pest Control Measures. . Campaign against bush burning . Use of natural fertilizers. . Flood control measures. . Refuse disposal etc.

The campaign programmes listed above recorded different levels of compliance and, it is assumed that these levels of successes or failures depend on the campaign strategies employed by both the government and the media. This situation led to different reactions. While some scholars argued that the advocacy method achieved better compliance, others are of the view that compulsion strategy where the people are left with no alternative records more compliance. For instance, Nwosu (1990) posits that:

This observation has led some reputable scholars to generalize that if we want to guarantee success in any development of mobilization campaign, we should not give the target audience of such project any alternative, but should through legislative, economic and political sanctions compel them to adopt the idea or practice being introduced

But, if one may ask, is compulsion the best strategy to mobilize rural dwellers for development purposes? Can we really compel of force rural dwellers through the media to change in-built attitudes and beliefs and adopt desired behaviour in a lasting manner or permanent form? This is what this study sets out to verify, with special focus on farmers in Igbariam, an agrarian community in Anambra State, Nigeria.

Objectives of The Study and Research Questions The work is anchored on three basic objectives. The objectives further gave rise to three research questions. The objectives are: . To ascertain if the government uses both the compulsion and advocacy methods in mobilizing the farmers.

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. To ascertain if both methods have impact on the farmers. . To ascertain the strategy that makes enduring impact on the farmers.

The three objectives listed above were translated into the following research questions that were tested via the respondents’ responses to questions as contained in the questionnaire and the Focus Group Discussion (FGD) held with farmers from the community. The research questions are:

1. Does the government make use of both compulsion and advocacy campaign strategies in mobilizing the rural dwellers? 2. Do both methods have impact on the people? 3. Which of the methods has long term (lasting) impact on the people?

Statement of Problem Development in whichever form cannot take place without the active participation of the people who are the end-users of government development policies and projects. And, in this era of urbanization and globalization, the governments find it difficult to reach the people without the mass media. Also, because of other socio-economic and political variables, the government adopts different strategies to achieve the desired result or make the expected impact. The question then is: which media campaign technique or strategy achieves the most enduring impact? Is it the compulsion, compensation or the advocacy method? This forms the thrust of this study.

Theoretical Framework This work is anchored on the Diffusion of Innovation, and Uses and Gratification theories. The diffusion of innovation theory explains how innovations are introduced and adopted by various communities (Baran & Davis, 2006). The Theory was developed by Everett Rogers and explains the human behaviour or responsiveness of members of a community when new policies or programmes are introduced in the community (Singhal, 2008; Imoh, 2008). According to the theory, individual members of the society pass through four distinct stages in the process of adopting a new innovation which may come through the opinion leaders or the mass media. The four stages are: (1). Awareness of the new programme or innovation. (2). Developing interest in it. (3). Trying it out and (4). Taking a decision either to accept or reject the innovation.

These four stages, McQuail (2005, p. 490) referred to as: information, persuasion, decision or adoption and confirmation. What this means is that before and innovation is embraced by members of a community, the people should in the first place be aware of the innovation. This is usually done either directly through the mass media or through the opinion leaders who may be relaying information from the mass media. The awareness created will either make them to develop interest in the innovation, then try it out and finally take a decision either to accept or reject the innovation.

On the other hand, the Uses and Gratification Theory is rooted on the assumption that the reception of the content of a mass mediated message takes place in anticipation of some rewards. The assumption that the reception of the contents of mass mediated message takes place in anticipation of some “rewards” forms the basis of the concept of the Uses and Gratification Approach which origin was linked to an idea expressed by Herta Herzong in her 1944 article titled; “Motivation and Gratification of Daily Serial Listeners” (Ijeh, 2011; Folarin, 1998). This was before it was brought to limelight by the works of Elihu Katz, Jay Blumler, and Michael Gurevitch in 1974.

Through Uses and Gratification Approach, communication scholars have shown that people selectively expose themselves to the mass media choosing only those messages that would satisfy or gratify their individual and/or societal needs (DeFleur, 2010). According to Littlejohn and Foss, 2008, p. 301):

The audience is assumed to be active and goal directed. The audience members are largely responsible for choosing media to meet their own needs. In this view, media are considered to be only one factor contributing to how needs get met… They know their needs and how to gratify these needs.

In the rural communities and among the farmers, people basically respond to communication according to their perception of its use to them or the benefit they expect to derive from it. That explains why Nwosu (1986) cited in Nkala (1990) posits that:

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The first task of any communicator or official … is to identify the various needs of the individuals and communities that he wishes to inform and influence in any communication exercise. Knowledge of the target audience or communities would for sure be very useful to such a communication campaign.

The rural dwellers especially the farmers are likely to respond to media messages depending on their individual needs and expectations. And, any message that does not satisfy these needs is likely to be ignored

METHODOLOGY This study employed the triangulation research approach in gathering data. The triangulation approach is a social science research approach that uses more than one research method in the investigation of a research question to enhance confidence in the finding (Agbanu, 2014). The approach gained popularity because of the assumption that if a study is based strictly on a single research method, it will suffer from the limitations associated with the single research method. However, when such study is replicated through another research method, the limitations are reduced and the findings become more reliable.

This work therefore made use of survey research method and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) in gathering data. A sample of 350 respondents was selected from Igbariam community. Fifty respondents were purposively selected from each of the seven villages that made up the town. These villages are: Eziama, Ubaru, Irualo, Eziafor, Ifite, Anakwem and Imendu (Ogwugwu Etiti). The 50 copies of questionnaire were purposively administered to the farmers in each of the seven villages. Because of the literacy level of the respondents, the questions were mainly close ended and bother on how they get information on the acquisition and usage of farm implements, seedlings, fertilizers, farming procedures and general information about farming to increase their yields. They were also asked to compare the two major campaign strategies that are used by the government and the one that makes more impact on them.

In the Focus Group Discussion (FGD), a participant was purposively selected to represent each of the seven villages. The participants (seven in number), with the researcher controlling, discussed issues bothering on their access to information from the media, their perception of the media information and how this information help them in their farming activities.

DATA PRESENTATION

Data collected are presented in the tables below. Each table represents responses to each of the research questions.

RQ I: Does the government make use of both the compulsion and advocacy strategies in mobilizing the rural farmers?

Table 1: Responses to RQ I

S/No Category of No of Percentages Responses Respondents 1 “Yes” Respondents 280 80 2 “No” Responses 70 20 Total 350 100

According to the responses as tabulated above, the researcher found that the government uses both the compulsion and advocacy methods in mobilizing the people for development purposes. This view was acceded to by about 80 percent of the respondents to the questionnaire and all the participants in the Focus Group Discussion. Only 20 percent of the respondents answered in the negative. According to the participants in the FGD, while some campaigns had an admixture of both strategies, some purely use each of the methods. In the FGD, the respondents mentioned the campaign against bush burning as the area where the government through the media used the advocacy method. In the campaign, the government harped on the negative effects of bush burning on the farmers.

RQ II: Do both strategies have impact on the farmers?

Table 2: Responses to RQ II African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 78

S/No Category of No of Respondents Percentages Responses 1 “Yes” Responses 300 85.7 2 “No” Responses 50 14.3 Total 350 100 As shown in the table above, 85 per cent of the respondents to the questionnaire agreed that both mobilization strategies have impact on the people. Only 14 percent of them said no to the question. Also, the participants in the FGD agreed that both mobilization strategies have different forms of influence on the farmers. According to them, though both strategies have impact on the farmers. The degree of impact however differs depending on so many other factors.

RQ III: Which of the Strategies has long term (lasting) impact on the people?

Table 3: Responses to RQ III

S/No Response Category No of Respondents Percentages 1 Advocacy Method 280 80 2 Compulsion Method 70 20 Total 350 100

As shown in the table above, 80 per cent of the respondents said the advocacy strategy has lasting effect than the compulsion method while only 20 percent said the compulsion strategy make more enduring impact. This view got collaboration from the participants in the FGD. To them, if there is compulsion, compliance ceases once the compulsion is withdrawn. Adoption lasts more or becomes permanent only when the interests of the people are built into the campaign and they see it so rather than seeing it as government propaganda.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS Though the respondents agreed that they would react to media messages that either compel them or offers compensation for adopting an innovation, they insisted that in most cases, response to media messages that involves compulsion ceases once such compulsion is withdrawn. The same they said, goes for the message that promises compensation from the government or other authorities which also attracts compliance only when such reward continues to come.

On the contrary, they said that the persuasive message produces long lasting compliance because they are not complying as a result of any external influence or under compulsion. The respondents argued that most of the time, people are skeptical about government programmes and policies once they are forced to adopt such a programme or policy, or promised any reward, it reinforces their fear.

To the respondents, they are more convinced and are likely to adopt for a longer period of time the campaign or policy that would satisfy their needs rather than government promises or threats. This was buttressed by the participants who shared their experiences during the focus group discussion. All the participants agreed that the advocacy method makes lasting impact on the people.

John Okeke (not real name) a 57-year-old farmer from Eziama village succinctly captured their views in the following words: In this modern age, as farmers we depend on the media for information on the weather, high yield seedlings, flood control measures, pest control measures etc. we look out for those ones that will benefit us and apply them. When you are compelled to do something, you do it because of the fear and end immediately the fear is over. When you are given a reward, you are skeptical or fear that the government has hidden intention. On the contrary, when you are convinced of the need to adopt an innovation, the acceptance is always long lasting.

Referring to some of the government campaigns, the participants argued that compliance to some of the programmes that involved compulsion ceases immediately the compulsion were withdrawn. Making reference to some of the campaigns, they argued that the best way to get the people into action, and lasting one indeed was to convince them rather than compelling them. Another participant, Josiah Nworah (not real name) said: African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 79

If the government wakes up one day and compels us to adopt an innovation, we will be afraid because we do not know the reason. Today, people are adopting different farming methods because they are convinced of the benefits and not because they are compelled. When we are told to change our traditional ways of doing things, we have to be convinced of the benefits.

This finding in a way differs from the position of Nwosu (1990) which states that: If we want to guarantee success in any development of mobilization campaign, we should not give the target audience of such project any alternative, but should through legislative, economic and political sanctions compel them to adopt the idea or practice being introduced

The participants made special reference to some of the social, health and agricultural campaign programmes that were executed earlier and the level of success they recorded. According to them, despite the threat from governments, improper refuse disposal, flood control etc, the campaigns always record a great level of failures since only a small percentage of the people adhere to government guidelines.

It is evident that in Nigeria of today, neither legislation nor economic and political sanctions provide a permanent solution. If so, with a deluge of laws in existence, many people would hardly engage in both economic and social vices. The researcher in the contrary found that if compulsion yields result, such result will not last for long but exists only while the compulsion lasted. In view of this therefore, the researcher recommends persuasion as an enduring campaign strategy. Also, during campaigns, the government should identify the needs of the target audience and tie their campaigns around these needs for them to get enduring compliance.

RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings, the government and the media should as a matter of necessity, feel the pulse of the people and empathize with them before embarking on any campaign programme. This is because the people are ready to accept any programme or innovation that incorporates their needs and shows them that those needs could be satisfied through the adoption of the programme. The essence of this is to anchor such a programme on the perceived needs and expectation of the people who are the target or the end users of the campaign messages. As disclosed from the findings, when such a campaign is not anchored on the needs of the people, it hardly makes any impact and if it does, it produces only a temporary result. But, when the needs of the people are taken into consideration, they will nurse no fear and suspicion; but embrace the programme with their whole heart.

REFERENCES Adeyanju, A. M., Haruna, A. and Abubakar, A. (2011). Information and agricultural developmentin Nigeria: Analysis of NAQAS, NAERLS, ABU Zaria. In Des Wilson (ed.) Communication for social change and development. pp. 31-46. Uyo: African Council for Communication Education.

Agbanu, V. N. (2014). Propaganda & Public opinion: A discourse on political communication and mind management. Enugu: Rhyce Kerex Publishers.

Anaeto, S. G and Solo-Anaeto, M. (2010). Development communication: Principles and practice. Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publishers Limited.

Baran, S. J. and Davis, D. K. (2006). Mass communication theory: Foundations, ferment and future. Belmont: Thomson Higher Education.

Borton, G. (2005). Media and Society: Critical perspectives. Berkshire: Open University Press.

DeFleur, M. L. (2010). Mass communication theories: Explaining origins, processes and effects. New York: Allyn and Bacon.

Folarin, B. (1998). Theories of mass communication: An introduction. Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publishers Nig. Limited.

Ijeh, P. (2011). Media uses and gratification theory in educational broadcasting: A theoretical analysis. In Des Wilson (ed.). Communication for social change and development. pp. 91-108.Uyo: African Council for Communication Education.

Imoh, G. O. (2008). Communicating change in health behaviour in Nigeria: Determinant of compliance at the implementation level. The Nigerian Journal of Communications, 6(1 & 2), pp. 160-184.

Littlejohn, S. and Foss, K. (2008). Theories of human communication. Belmont: Thomson Higher Education. African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 80

McQuail, D. (2005). McQuail’s mass communication theory. London: SAGE Publications.

Nkala, N. (1990). Traditional channels of communication and rural development policy implementation: The neglected symbiotic relationship. In I. E. Nwosu (ed.). Mass communication and national development. Aba: Frontier Publishers Limited.

Nwabueze, C. D. (2007). Role of traditional media in grassroot mobilization and poverty reduction for sustainable human development in I. E. Nwosu, N. Fab-Ukozor and L. C. Nwodu (eds.). Communication for sustainable human development: A multi- perspective approach. Enugu: African Council for Communication Education.

Nwosu, I. E. (1990). Mass media and rural development: An analysis of some basic cases, theories and strategies. I. E. Nwosu (ed.). Mass communication and national development. pp. 65 – 77. Aba: Frontier Publishers Limited.

Okafor, O. (2005). Mobilising the Nigerian Masses for elections: The role of the mass media and communication practitioners. Journal of Media Studies, 1(1). Pp. 108 – 113.

Opubor, A. E. (1985). Mass communication and modern development in Nigeria. In O. E. Nwuneli (ed.). Mass communication in Nigeria: A book of reading. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers. Singhal, A. (2008). Legacies in diffusion of innovations and social change: A tribute to Everett M. Rogers. In Mohammed Kuta Yahaya (ed.) Communication for social change in developing countries. pp. 49-63. Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited.

Wilson, D. (2006). Indigenous- Modern communication interface for sustainable environmental development. Nigerian Journal of Communication, 4(1 & 2). pp. 7-17.

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Deforestation: Impacts on the Socio-Economic Activities of People of Ekwusigo Local Government Area, Anambra State, Nigeria

Igwe, P.U. Department of Environmental Management, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli, Nigeria [email protected],

Abstract The upward trend of deforestation across the globe and its accompanying consequences on the socio- economic activities of the impacted indigenous people are a minus to sustainable development. This study, thus, investigates the impacts of the environmental problem of deforestation on the socio-economic activities of the people of Ekwusigo Local Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria. Two hundred respondents, fifty from each of the four constituent communities of the study area, were randomly selected. The study made use of both descriptive statistics and chi-square analysis. The results of the study showed that people in the study area perceived deforestation as a driver of loss of soil fertility, low crop yield, non-availability of animal and plant foods and soil erosion/landslides, among others. Another outcome of the study was the establishment of a significant relationship (p<0.05) between age, educational level, farming experience and the people’s perceived impacts of deforestation on their socio-economic activities. The study recommends a number of mitigation measures to stem the tide of deforestation, including adaptation strategies to deforestation, such as use of efficient wood stoves, reduction in fuelwood utilization, use of kerosene and cooking gas as alternative energy sources, among others.

Keywords: Deforestation, Socio-economic activities, Perception, Impacts, Adaptation strategies.

INTRODUCTION Deforestation is simply defined as the uncovering of forests as a result of both natural and human factors. It involves random felling of forest trees without any replacement. During deforestation, vegetation is removed or damaged to the extent that it does not support its natural plant and animal species any longer. Removal of vegetation cover (deforestation) is phenomenal everyday across the globe. This is a big threat to the remaining planet earth’s forest cover and indeed sustainable development---a development which seeks to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987). Earthwide, forests cover 30% of the total land mass (FAO, 2005; UNEP, 2007), which is approximately 4 billion hectares corresponding to 0.62 hectares per capita (Mujuri, 2007).

Therefore, forests which act as good sinks for carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are being threatened with elimination by a number of factors such as rising human population. In the opinion of UNEP (2007), deforestation was about 13 million hectares a year by 2005. This includes 6 million of primary/frontier forests. Frontier forests are defined as forests where there are no clearly visible indication of human activity and where ecological processes are not significantly disturbed (UNEP, 2007). According to Butler (2005), primary forests have no sign of past or present human activities and are considered to be the most biologically diverse ecosystems globally.

Deforestation figures indicate that Nigeria has the worst rate in the world of 55.70% (FAO, 2005). It has lost more than half of its primary forests in the last five years according to this estimate. Nigeria’s original natural forest cover used to be 600,000km2 at the beginning of the 20th century. However, deforestation mostly for fuelwood and wood for export has within a century reduced the forest cover to less than 38km2 which is less than 5% of its original forest (Raufu, 2003). According to him, the World Bank estimates that Nigeria loses over US $700 million annually due to deforestation, more than 484 plant species have become threatened with extinction, and deforestation has decimated several country’s species of wildlife. Vision 2010 Report has it that Nigeria’s wildlife is rapidly declining as a result of habitat loss and rising pressure from hunters, poachers, and bush burning. According to the report, animals that have disappeared in Nigeria include the cheetah, pygmy hippopotamus, giraffe, black rhinoceros and giant eland. The vision 2010 also says that about 10 to 20 species of primates including the white throated guenon species of primates and scloter’s guenon are under severe threat resulting from habitat loss and deforestation.

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Deforestation is triggered by a number of factors, including infrastructural development, lack of investment in human capital base, economic pursuit and human inequality in access levels to land. Other drivers of the phenomenon of deforestation in Nigeria are poverty, urbanization, rise in human numbers, low access levels to knowledge and information about environmental imperatives and powerful interest group in the conversion of forested lands for agricultural purposes. FAO (2005) and MEAR (2005) capped it all by stating the three main causes of deforestation in the world as agriculture, infrastructure expansion and wood extraction. Whenever deforestation occurs it leads to lots of adverse environmental impacts which undermine the usefulness of forests.

Forests are very important environmental and economic assets. They are sources of livelihoods to indigenous people, stocks of medicinal herbs, maintaining the world’s climate system and homes to world’s indigenous cultures. Over 50 million people and at least 400 indigenous groups, comprising of approximately 1 million people live in the tropical forests. Only Amazon Basin forests have at least 400 indigenous groups, comprising of approximately 1 million people (Bryant, Daniel and Laura, 1997). Indigenous people have a bank of knowledge and information about nature. In this way, transforming forests to displace indigenous people is not only unacceptable, but an environmental injustice as they become environmentally displaced persons out of their homeland. Nigeria with its highest rate of deforestation in the world (FAO, 2005) is also experiencing the displacement of indigenous people who rely on forest products for their survival. According to Oni, Oladele and Ajayi (2003), the high rate of deforestation in the country draws from people’s perception of forests as stock resources and free good with land freely available for conversion to other uses. Today in Nigeria, deforestation is a factor of some environmental hazards, namely: flooding, soil erosion, desertification, climate change and loss of sources of livelihoods.

This study is another effort in the determination of the perceived environmental impacts of deforestation on the socio-economic activities of the people of Ekwusigo Local Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria focused on the examination of (1) the socio-economic characteristics of the people (2) their socio-economic activities (3) the extent of deforestation impacts on their socio-economic activities, and (4) the determination of the ways by which the environmental impacts of deforestation can be mitigated.In the context of this study, socio-economic activities are an allusion to agricultural production. No doubt, forests contribute in a great measure to socio-economic development and environmental security. This is because plant leaves are known to add organic matter to the soil, fix nitrogen, improves soil fertility and ultimately increase agricultural productivity.

Conceptual Framework: Environmental Sustainability This research is based on environmental sustainability which is a component of two key words: environment and sustainable development. Akinbode (2002) defined the environment as the totality of the places and the surrounding in which we live, work and interact with other people in our cultural, religious, political and socio-economic activities for self-fulfilment and the advancement of our communities, socities or nations. The environment is the geographical and physical location of a place in which we live, work and produce (Okosodo and Omonzejie, 2004). WCED (1987) opined that sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development has three objectives: social, economic and ecological (Agbola, 2008). It connotes the idea of ensuring that future generations inherit an earth which will support their livelihoods in such a way that they are not worse off than the present generation. Deforestation is a major cause for risks, particularly in developing democracies. Apart from adverse environmental impacts, it also has lots of socio- economic consequences on the people of Ekwusigo Local Government Area which this research sets to investigate.

The Study Area The study area consists of an occupation known as Ekwusigo Local Government Area, Anambra State, Nigeria. It is located within latitudes 5○ 43ꞌ N and 6○ 12ꞌ N and longitudes 6○ 38ꞌ E and 7○ 05ꞌ E (Figure 1). It is bounded by Nnewi North and Idemili North Local Government Areas in the north, Ihiala Local Government Area in the south, Nnewi South Local Government Area in the east, and Ogbaru Local Government Area in the west. The component towns of the study area are Ihembosi, Ozubulu, Oraifite and Ichi. The climate is a humid equatorial (tropical) type characterized by mean maximum temperature of 33○C and minimum temperature of 23○C. Total mean annual rainfall is 1900mm yearly, except during the short

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 83 spell of “August break” in the area. Most of the precipitation occurs between March and November. The relative humidity is generally high throughout the year, with figures between 70-85%.

Geologically the area lies on 6,000m deep of sedimentary rocks. These sedimentary rocks comprise of ancient Cretaceous Deltas which are somewhat to that of the Niger Delta with Nkporo Shale, the Mamu Formation, the Ajali Sandstones and Nsukka Formation constituting the main deposits. The geology of the area is simply that its rocks are sandstones, calcareous shales and shelly limestones in thin bands. Outcrops of sandstones occur at different places on the higher Cuesta found in Oraifite and Ozubulu. Lignite deposited in the Oligocene to Miocene in the area alternates with grilty clays in some places. Benin formation or the coastal plain sands deposited from Miocene to Pleistocene is the latest geological formation.

Soils of the area which are lateritic in nature, derived from underlying sandstones and shells. They are well- drained and weakly consolidated in most parts of the area. Topographically, the area is characterized by rolling undulating terrain with an altitude between 100-400m. Most of the lowlands are rivers or streams that trigger major morphological expressions of massive sheet, rills, channel and gully erosion. The area which was hitherto known for its luxuriant rainforest vegetation as it lies within the rainforest zone of Nigeria has been reduced to derived savanna vegetation of scrub/shrub/bushes. With a population of 158,429 people by 2006 census (NPC, 2006) and a projected population of 189,814 in 2013, agricultural production is a major economic activity of people in the study area.

Figure 1: Location map of the study area: Ekwusigo Local Government Area, Anambra State Source: Ekwusigo Local Government Area Planning Department, 2013

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 84

METHODOLOGY Source of Data Primary data were mainly used for the study. They were collected from the four constituent towns of the study area, namely: Ihembosi, Ozubulu, Oraifite and Ichi from farming household heads through the use of questionnaire. Use was also made of secondary information from the Head of Department of Agriculture, Ekwusigo Local Government Area. Other sources of secondary data are textbooks, journals and other write- ups that were considered very relevant to the research.

Sampling Techniques and Procedure of Data Analysis Simple random sampling techniques were employed in the selection of the farming household heads that form the respondents of the study. In order to ensure adequate coverage of the study area, respondents were randomly chosen from each of the component communities (Ihembosi, Ozubulu, Oraifite and Ichi) of the study area. Five villages were selected at random from each of the constituent communities, making a total of 20 villages. Then 10 respondents were selected at random from each of the 20 villages, giving a total of 200 respondents which is the sample size of the study. The primary instrument used for gathering data for the study is the questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed in open- and close-ended patterns and administered directly on the household heads in the selected areas. Furthermore, in order to ensure a reduced possibility of questionnaire missing in transit or misplaced, the questionnaires were retrieved in same manner which they were administered.

Data generated were analyzed by the descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages and inferential statistics (chi-square). The chi-square equation is given in a relationship: X2 =Σ(O-E/E)2 or 2 -1 =>Σ[(Oi-Ei) (Ei) ] where, X2 = chi-square statistic O = observed frequency E = expected frequency Σ = summation sign The evaluation criteria can be summarized as follows:  The X2 (chi-square) must be as small as possible; and  The P value for the X2 (chi-square) must be equal or less than 0.05. This was done through the test of goodness of fit so as to decide whether the probability distribution is close enough approximation to sample frequency distribution of the population from which the sample was drawn.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION As shown in Table 1, the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents indicated that the study sample comprised of more males (80.00%) than females (20.00%). This implies that the male folk is more farm- inclined than the women folk in the study area. More so, the sample size consisted of respondents of ages: 30 to 40 years (20.00%); 14 to 41 years (28.50%); 52 to 62 years (36.50%) and respondents above 62 years were 15.00%. Since about one-half of the respondents (51.5%) were 52 years and above, the implication is a dwindling productivity stage occasioned by the increasing age of the respondents. The 51.5% of the respondents are not expected to be productive due to their old age. Moreover, only 20% (40 persons) of the sample size constitute the youngest people who are productive. This spells doom for productivity as time will come when nobody may engage in agricultural productivity in the study area because of the adverse environmental impacts of deforestation.

Majority of the respondents (45.50%) do not have formal education while 36.00% had only primary education. This means that majority of the respondents do not have the Universal Basic Education (UBE) which implies that farming populations in the study area are illiterates. The demographic analysis also showed that majority of the sample (71%) are married; with 17.5% widowed and 6.5% divorced while 5.00% are single. The analyses indicate that the farming population in Ekwusigo Local Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria is family persons. The study also revealed that a good number of the respondents are well experienced in the farming practices. 21% of them had above sixteen years farming experience; 32%

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 85 had within 11 to 16 years’ experience, 28% had 5 to 10 years farming experience and 19% had less than 5 years farming experience.

Table 1: Distribution of respondents based on their socio-economic characteristics Socio-economic variable Frequency Percentage Gender Male 160 80.00 Female 40 20.00 Age 30-40 40 20.00 41-51 57 28.50 52-62 73 36.50 >62 30 15.00 Marital status Married 142 71.00 Single 10 5.00 Widowed 35 17.50 Divorced 13 6.50 Educational status No formal education 91 45.50 Primary education 72 36.00 Secondary education 33 16.50 Tertiary education 4 2.00 Farming experience (years) Less than 5 38 19.00 5-10 56 28.00 11-16 64 32.00 >16 42 21.00 Source: Researcher’s field survey, 2013

The economic activities of the respondents in the last 15 years are shown in Table 2. The review revealed that some of the economic activities engaged in the past 15 years included cropping (farming), fuelwood collection, collection of animal foods (e.g. snails) and tapping/sale of wine from raffia palms. The current economic activities indicated that commercial motorcycling, animal rearing (e.g. piggery), street hawking (e.g. banana and groundnuts hawked along the Onitsha-Owerri expressway), among others. It was observed that there was a clear difference between the current and past economic activities of the people of the study area as a result of the deleterious environmental impacts of the phenomenon of deforestation.

Table 2: Socio-economic activities of respondents Socio-economic activities in the past 15 years Socio-economic activities in 2013 1997-2012 Cropping (farming) Working as labourers (eg. Cutting of grasses Hunting and sale of bushmeat Riding of commercial motorcycles Fuelwood collection Sale of kerosene Gathering of medicinal herbs Migration to cities in search of jobs Collection of wild fruits and vegetables Sale of banana and groundnut along Onitsha-Owerri expressway Gathering of animal foods (eg. Snails) Rearing of animals (eg. Piggery farming) Tapping and sale of wine from raffia palms Tapping and sale of wine from oil palm trees Fishing at wetlands/streams/rivers Sale of smoked fish from northern Nigeria Source: Researcher’s field survey, 2013

Table 3 shows the perception of these seeming adverse environmental impacts of deforestation on the socio- economic activities of residents of Ekwusigo Local Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria. 92.50%

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 86 of the respondents were of the opinion that deforestation has triggered loss in soil fertility, resulting in marked decline in agricultural productivity. Similarly, 90% of them were of the view that deforestation is a factor of low crop yield in the area. Soil erosion, landslides and fuelwood shortage were perceived by 87% and 80% of the respondents respectively as problems caused by deforestation. Furthermore, 75.50%, 68%, 57.50%, 51%, 45% and 37% of the respondents claimed that scarcity of bush-meat, flooding, scarcity of animal foods, non-availability of plant foods, sedimentation of the “eyes” of streams/springs and water scarcity respectively are also negative environmental impacts of deforestation. The findings are in line with FAO’s (2005) submission that Nigeria has the worst world’s deforestation rate of 55.70%. This is also in tandem with the assertion of Abere and Opera (2012) that from the economic point of view, deforestation has created a negative impact in the average Nigerian.

Table 3: Distribution of respondents based on their perception of the socio-economic impacts of deforestation Socio-economic impact *Frequency Percentage Soil fertility loss 185 91.50 Low crop yield 180 90.00 Flooding 136 68.00 Soil erosion/landslides 174 87.00 Scarcity of animal foods (e.g. snails) 115 57.50 Non-availability of plant foods (e.g. fruits/nuts) 102 51.00 Fuelwood shortage 150 51.00 Scarcity of bush meat (e.g. grass cutter) 151 75.50 Sedimentation of ‘eyes’ of stream/springs 90 45.00 Water scarcity 75 37.50 *Multiple responses Source: Researcher’s field survey, 2013

Table 4 shows the consistency and validity of some survey data using the chi-square test. The study tested statistical significance of socio-economic factors on selected deforestation attributes. The computed chi- square value (X2Cal) is greater than the table value (X2tab) at the 5% significance level for age (X2Cal>X2tab), educational status (X2Cal>X2tab) and farming experience (X2Cal>X2tab). The result indicates that age, education and farming experience have statistically and significantly (ρ< 0.05) influenced the impact of deforestation on socio-economic activities of the people of the study area. This simply translates into the fact that these socio-economic variables significantly determined people’s perception about how deforestation affects their socio-economic activities. Education, for instance, is very important for people to have a sound understanding of the root cause(s) of their problems after accessing data and information from other people’s experience. Age has a direct correlation with an individual’s experience. Generally, the older an individual becomes, the more historical he will be so as to relate events in his lifetime. It is, therefore, expected that older individuals should have a wealth of information on deforestation than the younger ones. Also, experience accounted for the understanding of the respondents about the impacts of deforestation. However, other socio-economic variables as gender (X2Cal

Table 4: Chi-square analysis depicting the relationship between socio-economic characteristics of respondents and their perception of the impacts of deforestation on their socio-economic activities Socio-economic Degree X2Cal X2tab Decision variable offreedom Age 5 13.654 7.815 Reject Ho = SS Gender 1 3.211 3.841 Accept Ho = NS Marital status 3 4.340 7.815 Accept Ho = NS Educational status 3 17.659 7.815 Reject Ho = SS Farming experience 3 20.865 7.815 Reject Ho = SS Source: Researcher’s computation, 2013

CONCLUSION African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 87

The outcome of the study revealed that one-half (51.5%) of the respondents were in their old age (52 years and above). This underlines the reason why they were able to account for the conditions of forests in their area in the last 15 years (1998-2013). Their socio-economic activities which were hitherto dependent on forests have now been replaced by other activities (e.g. ridding of commercial motorcycles). It was also clearly shown that the people’s perceived impacts of deforestation on their socio-economic activities were significantly influenced by their socio-economic characteristics. The consequences of deforestation in the study area that negatively impacted the people’s socio-economic activities included soil fertility loss, flooding, soil erosion/landslides, low crop yield, among others. It is therefore, recommended that adaptive measures to deforestation be adopted to mitigate the adverse impacts of the phenomenon. These include use of fuel efficient wood stoves, reduction in the quantity of fuelwood consumption, use of kerosene as an alternative energy source, participatory agro-forestry programme, protection of economic trees (e.g. Magnifera indica), environmental monitoring of the few remaining forests, creation of awareness on the negative impacts of deforestation and enforcement of anti-deforestation laws and regulations as an integral element in development processes so as to achieve sustainable development.

REFERENCES Abere, S.A., and Opera, J.A. (2012). Deforestation and Sustainable Development in the Tropics: Causes and Effects. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 2(4): 105-109

Agbola, T. (2008). The Value of Land Use Planning to Sustainable Development. Paper presented at the Urban Summit held at the Transcorp Hillton Hotel, Abuja 1st-3rd September, 2008.

Akinbode, A. (2002). Introductory Environmental Resource Management. Ibadan, Daybis Ltd.

Bryant, D., Daniel, N., and Laura, T. (1997). The Last Frontier Forests: Ecosystems and Economics on the Edge. World Resources Institute. Washington, 42p.

Butter, R.A. (2005). Mangabay.Com. World Deforestation Rates and Forest Cover Statistics. 2000-2005 (Updated to Correct FAO Change in Data). Accessed at http://news.mongabay.com/2005/1115-forests.html. 12-11-2013.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2005). FRA-2005-Key Findings.Accessed at http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/32246/en, 25- 02-2013.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Report (MEAR) (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Current State and Trends. Island Press Washington.Lowelo. London I. Accessed at http://www.maweb.org/en/index.aspx, 16-10-2013.

Mujuri, E.K. (2007). Deforestation and Afforestation, A World Perspective with Three Case Studies in Brazil, Nigeria and Japan. NRES 523 International Resource Management, May 17, 2007, pp.4-8.

National Population Commission (NPC) (2006). National Population Commission (NPC); Provisional Census Figure, Abuja, Nigeria.

Okosodo, L. A., and Omonzejie, P. I. (2004). Environmental Problems and Sustainable Development in Nigeria. In: O. A. Ibitoye (ed.) Scientific and Environmental Issues in Population, Environment and Sustainable Development in Nigeria, pp. 33-37.

Oni, O.A., Oladele, O.I., and Ajayi, O.M. (2013). Economics of Tropical Deforestation in Nigeria. Life Science Journal, 10(2): 1048- 1055.

Raufu, A. (2003). Fuel Price Hike Spells Doom for Nigeria’s Forest.Accessed at http://www.ensnewswire.com/ens/jul2003/200307-15- 01.asp, 15-11-2014.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2007). Billion Tree Campaign.Accessed at http://www.unep.org/billiontreecamaign/factsfigures/QandA/index.asp, 08-09-2014.

World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) (1987). Our Common Future, From One, Earth One World. Oxford University Press.

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 88

Determining the Reliability and Content Validity of the Mathematics Tests Constructed by Senior Secondary School Mathematics Teachers in Edo State, Nigeria.

Chinelo Blessing Oribhabor Osaze Dominic Emafo Department of Educational Evaluation and Department of Educational Evaluation and Counseling Psychology, Faculty of Education, Counseling Psychology, Faculty of Education, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria University of Benin, Benin City [email protected] Nigeria.

Abstract This study assessed the quality of tests constructed by Mathematics teachers in Egor Local Government Area, Edo State. Samples of mathematics tests constructed by Senior Secondary School Two (SS2) Mathematics teachers in Egor Local Government Area of Edo State, Nigeria were used. The purpose of the study is to ascertain whether the tests are sufficiently valid and reliable to make decisions about students' learning. The results obtained indicate that the tests have moderate internal consistency reliability and low in content validity. It is recommended amongst others that a measurement course be introduced in the teacher training program.

Keywords: Reliabilty, Validity, Content Validity, Cronbach Alpha Coefficient

INTRODUCTION The increase in the poor performance of students in Mathematics examinations in the recent past in Nigeria creates a public concern (Alli, 2013; Adepoju and Oluchukwu, 2011 and Oweh, 2014). This situation becomes crucial point of reference because candidates sitting for public examinations are expected to have been taught and prepared adequately by their teachers through several methodological activities in the classroom. One of the myriads of these activities is classroom achievement tests, which are to be used in obtaining information (in form of responses or answers to questions) that will enable the teacher to place the candidate to particular achievement level (in terms of results) after results are released. This then serves as feedback for the candidates’ parents and government, both of which are stakeholders in the day-to-day running of the school system.

Classroom achievement tests do not only provide basis for setting students’ level of achievement in particular school subject, they also help the teacher in monitoring the likelihood or otherwise of achieving the goals of teaching the subject at that particular level of schooling. When results of teacher-made classroom achievement tests are released, all those involved in the procedures that led to the release of that result (the students, teachers/school, government and students’ parents) are able to evaluate the quality of their contributions and thereafter, remediation (when results are poor) or consolidation (when results are good) activities are planned (Faleye and Afolabi, 2007). In considering how effective teachers are, Adodo (2007) opined that the problem in Nigeria lies on the availability of truly qualified, committed, dedicated and vocationally spirited teachers to achieve the schools’ objectives and national goals on Education. Learning is maximized when teachers are trained and educated very well in various assessment techniques. One of the characteristics of teacher-made tests is the flexibility it confers on the teacher in the choice of words and structure of options (in the case of multiple-choice objective items) to be used in item design. As a result, series of test item formats in terms of length of words (for the item stem), number of options, plausibility of the options and clarity of grammar and tense used abound. Not only this, a number of the items used in classroom evaluation across private schools in Edo State, Nigeria (as could be the case elsewhere since most of the tests are not validated before use) have been found to be of varying degrees of psychometric qualities. The nature of the test formats used during the regular classroom evaluation is an important issue in classroom assessment. Thus, the quality of the items used by the teacher will have impact on the performance of the students during examinations (Faleye, 2005). Validity and reliability are two important characteristics of behavioral measure and are referred to as psychometric properties. It is important to bear in mind that validity and reliability are not an all or none issue but a matter of degree.

Omorogiuwa (2006) defined as the consistency with which a test measures what it sets out to measure. This means that reliability is the dependability or trustworthy a test can. The types of reliability are (1) Test-retest

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 89 reliability which is a measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals. The scores from period A and period B can then be correlated in order to evaluate the test for stability over time; (2) Parallel forms reliability is a measure of reliability obtained by administering different versions of an assessment tool (both versions must contain items that probe the same construct, skill, knowledge base, etc.) to the same group of individuals. The scores from the two versions can then be correlated in order to evaluate the consistency of results across alternate versions. (3) Inter-rater reliability is a measure of reliability used to assess the degree to which different judges or raters agree in their assessment decisions. Inter-rater reliability is useful because human observers will not necessarily interpret answers the same way; raters may disagree as to how well certain responses or material demonstrate knowledge of the construct or skill being assessed. Internal consistency reliability is a measure of reliability used to evaluate the degree to which different test items that probe the same construct produce similar results and there are two types of internal consistency reliability, such as: (a)Average inter-item correlation is a subtype of internal consistency reliability. It is obtained by taking all of the items on a test that probe the same construct (e.g., reading comprehension), determining the correlation coefficient for each pair of items, and finally taking the average of all of these correlation coefficients. This final step yields the average inter- item correlation. (b) Split-half reliability is another subtype of internal consistency reliability. The process of obtaining split-half reliability is begun by “splitting in half” all items of a test that are intended to probe the same area of knowledge in order to form two “sets” of items. The entire test is administered to a group of individuals, the total score for each “set” is computed, and finally the split-half reliability is obtained by determining the correlation between the two total “set” scores. Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is supposed to measure. A test can be judged valid if it measures what it is intended to measure (Hathcoat, 2013). There are types of validity, and they are (1) Face Validity ascertains that the measure appears to be assessing the intended construct under study. (2) Construct Validity is used to ensure that the measure is actually measuring what it is intended to measure (i.e. the construct), and no other variables. (3) Criterion-Related Validity is used to predict future or current performance - it correlates test results with another criterion of interest. (4) Content validity is used to ascertain the extent to which a test is able to measure what it purports to measure. When a test has content validity, then the items on the test should represent all the range of possible items the test should cover.

According to Osadebe (2015), in his study on the construction of valid and reliable test in Economics found out that the Economics achievement test has a high and content validity. He also established the reliability of the test through the use of Kuder-Richardson formula 20 and 0.95 reliability coefficient was gotten and this means that the test is valid and reliable for assessing students internally and prepare them for external examinations. Kinyua and Okunya (2014) carried out a study to establish the factors influencing the validity and reliability of teacher-made tests in Kenya and found out that the experience of teachers, training on test construction and analysis, level of tests, use of Bloom’s taxanimy have an effect on validity and reliability of the tests. Bamidele and Oluwole (2014) determined the content and cognitive validity of the selected undergraduate multiple choice tests used in Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife, Nigeria and found that only one course has a very high content coverage and CVR of 96.60% and 0.91 respectively; it was also found that majority of items on the tests measured lower cognitive outcomes (knowledge, comprehension and application). Amajuoyi, Eme and Udoh (2013) in their study assessed the content validity of May/June West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) questions in Chemistry from 1999-2002 and found out that some topics were over-emphasized, under emphasized or totally ignored and the questions emphasized more of lower levels of the cognitive domain as knowledge and comprehension. Adebule (2009) examined the reliability and difficulty indices of multiple choice (MC) and True or False (TF) types of objectives test items in a Mathematics achievement test and found out that there was no significant difference between the reliability coefficients of MC and TF test items.

Hamafyelto, Tukur and Hamafyelto (2015) in their study assessed the relationship between Commerce teachers’ competence in test construction and content validity of teacher made examination questions and found out that there was significant relationship between teachers of Commerce competence and content validity; it was also found that teachers concentrated on the lower levels of the cognitive domain. Nwaogazie (2014) in his study on the influence of content validity on secondary school students’ academic achievement in Imo state, Nigeria found that the mean academic achievement of students tested on items with high content validity indices is 3.48 while their mean academic achievement on items with low content validity indices is 2.19. This result reveals that secondary school students in Imo State had greater achievement mean when African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 90 tested with high content validity than when tested on items that have low content validity indices. It was also found that there is a significant difference between the mean academic achievement of students tested on items with high content validity indices and their mean academic achievement on items with low content validity indices. This result shows that the academic achievement mean of students on items with high content validity indices is greater than their mean academic achievement on items with low content validity indices. Valid and reliable assessment of students’ achievement is very important. Test constructed by Mathematics teachers are the primary tools used in this process, but research implies that they are seriously flawed.

Problem of Study One of the most used tools which are to assess students’ achievement in classroom is tests. These tools are often fraught with reliability and validity problems as the process for constructing such tests is often not followed or misunderstood, and this leads to significant measurement error into the measurement process. When the measurement is poor, then there will be an inaccurate data-based inference, which in turn leads to bad decision- making. The use of poorly designed Mathematics achievement test is a major problem as it affects students’ interest and achievement in Mathematics. It has already been pointed out that poorly designed tests could make the students loose interest in a particular subject (Osadebe, 2001). When the test instrument does not possess the necessary characteristics it ought to, this means that the test is not valid and reliable, and the effort to achieve the instructional objectives will be in futility. Could this be the case in the tests instrument used by Mathematics teachers Egor Local Government Area of Edo state? Hence, the study seeks to determine the reliability and content validity of The Mathematics tests used by Mathematics teachers in Edo State.

Purpose of The Study The main aim of this study is to assess the quality of Mathematics tests constructed by Mathematics teachers in Egor Local Government Area of Edo State. The study has the following specific objectives:  Determine the reliability of Mathematics tests constructed by Mathematics teachers in Egor Local Government of Edo State.  Determine the content validity of Mathematics tests constructed by Mathematics teachers in Egor Local Government of Edo State.

Research Questions The following research questions were posed to guide this study: 1. What are the reliability indices of the Mathematics tests constructed by Mathematics teachers in Egor Local Government Area, Edo State? 2. What is the content validity of the Mathematics test items used by Mathematics teachers in Egor Local Government Area, Edo State?

METHODOLOGY The research design employed for the study was a survey design in which the Mathematics tests constructed by Mathematics teachers in Egor Local Government Area were collected and analyzed.

The population for this study included all the Senior Secondary Schools Two (SS2) Mathematics teachers in Egor Local Government Area, Edo State. The population of the study also includes all the Senior Secondary Schools Two (SS2) students in Egor Local Government Area, Edo State. The sample for the study has thirty- six (36) senior secondary two (SS2) Mathematics teachers who were randomly selected from the private senior secondary schools in Egor Local Government Area, Edo State. Thirty-six (36) Mathematics teachers were randomly selected from 102 private senior secondary schools in Egor Local Government Area of Edo State. The instruments used for the collection of data for the study were copies of multiple choice Mathematics achievement tests constructed by Mathematics teachers in Egor Local Government Area of Edo State and their students’ marked answer scripts at the end of 2012/2013 academic session. Cronbach coefficient alpha was calculated for the results of all the tests which were accompanied with students' marked answer scripts. The content validity was established through expert agreement determined through Kendall Coefficient of concordance. Two Mathematics specialists and the researcher labeled -rater 1, rater 2 and rater 3, rated the content-related validity evidence of the tests using a 10-point scale. A rating of 1 indicates very low content validity and a rating of 10 indicates very high content- related validity. African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 91

RESULTS Research Question one: What are the reliability indices of the Mathematics tests constructed by Mathematics teachers in Egor Local Government Area, Edo State?

Table 1: The Cronbach Coefficient Alpha of the Test Scores School Coefficient school Coefficient School Coefficient alpha alpha alpha 1 0.66 13 0.74 25 0.67 2 0.72 14 0.52 26 0.77 3 0.84 15 0.83 27 0.79 4 0.55 16 0.57 28 0.83 5 0.86 17 0.73 29 0.53 6 0.66 18 0.86 30 0.69 7 0.54 19 0.51 31 0.53 8 0.71 20 0.94 32 0.59 9 0.81 21 0.71 33 0.64 10 0.62 22 0.81 34 0.57 11 0.51 23 0.67 35 0.82 12 0.56 24 0.80 36 0.68

Table 1 show that the highest Cronbach alpha is 0.94 while the lowest is 0.51. The mean Cronbach coefficient alpha for all the tests results is 0.69. This indicates that in general, the test results are reliable. The internal reliability indicates that items of the tests consistently measure the same ability.

Research Question Two: What is the content validity of the Mathematics test items used by Mathematics teachers in Egor Local Government Area, Edo State?

Table 2: Correlation of the three raters on the content validity of Mathematics questions used by Mathematics teachers in Egor Local Government Area, Edo State

rater1 rater2 rater3

Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .389 .431

rater1 Sig. (2-tailed) . .001 .000

N 36 36 36 Correlation Coefficient .389 1.000 .336

Kendall's tau_b rater2 Sig. (2-tailed) .001 . .004 N 36 36 36

Correlation Coefficient .431 .336 1.000

rater3 Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .004 .

N 36 36 36

Table 2 shows that the degrees of agreement were low and significant with the use of Kendall co-efficient of concordance. The agreement among the raters is evidence that the Mathematics achievement tests used by Mathematics teachers in Egor Local Government Area, Edo State have a low content validity.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The result of this study is in agreement with the earlier position of Iwuji (1997) that a student’s failure in a test may be partly or wholly due to factors inherent in the test itself as well as circumstances surrounding its

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 92 administration and scoring. One of the factors inherent in the test is item validity index. It was observed that the content validity of the Mathematics tests used by Mathematics teachers in Egor Local Government Area, Edo State is very low.

For some tests, objectives of the syllabus were not well represented and the weighting of items was not balanced. Furthermore, the items mainly focused on the lower level of the cognitive domain of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives; moreover, tests submitted for this study were not accompanied with a plan or a table of specifications. The teachers reported that it would take them a lot of time to write the objectives of the tests they submitted. The low content-related validity evidence of the tests may be explained by the lack of planning in test construction.

It was also found out in the study that Mathematics tests used by Mathematics teachers in Egor Local Government, Edo State have consistency. Marso and Pigge (1992) noted that a major reason why quality of teacher-made tests is poor is because of the lack of preparation in the test construction. Also Kinyua and Okunya (2014) found out that the experience of teachers, training on test construction and analysis, level of education, moderation of tests and length of tests, use of Bloom’s taxonomy have an effect on the validity and validity of the tests. Tuckman (1988) described careful planning as one way of ensuring the content- related validity of a test. The use of a table of specifications is recommended in order to provide a base for careful sampling of items thus ensuring that the relationship between objectives and items is established within the test (Linn & Gronlund, 1995).

CONCLUSION Despite the presence of internal reliability of the tests, the study reveals that the overall quality of the tests is far from ideal. Teachers should be cautious in using the results of these tests to make decisions about the education of the students under their care. In-service teachers need assistance in test construction and other measurement areas so that they eventually lessen their dependence on tests to measure students' performance. They should be encouraged to develop and implement other assessment instruments. It would be advisable to include a measurement course in the pre-service teacher training program.

RECOMMENDATION Based on the result this study, the following recommendations were made: 1. Teachers should ensure that they adequately cover the subject syllabus and that all their test or examination questions should be drawn from all the content areas of the subjects which students were taught. 2. School administrators should ensure that their teachers teach their students regularly and cover the subject scheme of work for the academic session. 3. Parents should provide their children with the relevant text-books and ensure that their children do their assignments and work hard academically.

REFERENCES Adebule, S.O. (2009). Reliability and levels of difficulty of objective test items in a Mathematics Achievement Test: A study of ten senior secondary schools in five Local Government Areas of Akure, Ondo State, Educational Research and Review, 4(11), 585- 587.

Adepoju, T. L. and Oluchukwu, E. E. (2011). A Study of Secondary School Students’ Academic Performance at the Senior School Certificate Examinations and Implications for Educational Planning and Policy in Nigeria. African Research Review, 5(6). Available: http://www.ajol.info/index.php/afrrev/article/view/72369

Alli, U. (2013). Tackling the challenges in Nigeria’s public examinations. [Online] Sunday Trust, 23rd June, 2013. Available: http://sundaytrust.com.ng/index.php/comment-debate/13415-tackling-the-challenges-in-nigeria-s-public-examinations

Amajuoyi, I.J.; Eme, U.J. and Udoh, N.A. (2013). Content validity of May/June West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) Questions in Chemistry. Journal of Education and Practice, 4(7), 15-21.

Bamidele, A.F. and Oluwole, R.A. (2014). Taxonomical analysis of selected teacher-made multiple choice tests in Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 4(3), 315-324.

Faleye, B. A. & E. R. I. Afolabi (2007). Continuous Assessment Practices in Osun State (Nigeria) Secondary Schools: From Policy to Practice. International Journal of Learning, 12 (12), 11-16.

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Faleye, B. A. (2005). Establishing and Maintaining Standards in Nigeria’s Senior School Certificate Examination: The Challenge of Malpractice. Paper presented at the 2005 Conference of the International Council on Education for Teaching (ICET) held at International Council on Education for Teaching. Illinois: ICET (CD Rom).

Hamafyelto, R.S.; Tukur, A.A. and Hamafyelto, S.S. (2015). Assessing teacher competence in test construction and content validity of teacher made examination questions in Commerce in Borno State, Nigeria, Education, 5(5), 123-128.

Hathcoat, J. D. (2013). Validity semantics in educational and psychological assessment. Practical Assessment, Research and Evaluation, 18(9):1-14.

Iwuji, V.R. (1997). Measurement and Evaluation for Effective Teaching and Learning.Owerri, Joe Mankpa’s prints.

Kinyua, A. and Okunya, C. (2014). Validity and Reliability of teacher-made tests: Case study of year 2 Physics in the Nyahururu District of Kenya. African Educational Research Journal, 2(2), 61-71.

Linn, R. L., & Gronlund, N. E. (1995). Measurement and assessing in teaching (7th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.

Marso, R. N., & Pigge, F. L. (1992). A summary of published research: Classroom teachers' knowledge and skills related to the development and use of teacher-made tests. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 346 148)

Nwaogazie, J.I. (2014). Influence of content validity of secondary school students’ academic achievement in Imo State, Nigeria. JORIND, 12 (1), 182-190.

Omorogiuwa, K.O. (2006). Research and Applied Statistics for the Behavioural Science: An Introduction. Mindex Publishing Company Limited, Benin. Nigeria

Osadebe, P.U. (2001). Construction and Validation of Test. A Seminar Paper Presented at the University of Port Harcourt.

Osadebe, P.U. (2015). Construction of Valid and Reliable test for Assessment of students. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(1), 51-56.

Oweh, I. (2014). Unending Worries over Mass Failures in Public Examinations in Nigeria. [Online] Daily Independent.Retrieved on September 17, 2015. Available: http://dailyindependentnig.com/2012/12/unending-worries-over-mass-failures-in-public- examinations-in-nigeria/

Tuckman, B. W. (1988). Testing for teachers. (2nd ed.). Sydney: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers.

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Distributed Management Systems for Business Enterprise in Nigeria.

Onyebuagu Bedewell Chima Obioma Department of Computer Science Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli Anambra State [email protected]

Abstract The study evaluates the tangible benefit of distributed system as a facilitator and its influence on business activities. This paper reveals that there exists a relationship between well integrated distributed management channels and improvement in service delivery. Also there exist a relationship as regards to customers’ choice of business and implementation of distributed management system in business. The effect of distributed systems is forcing banks and many other companies to examine a more balanced, integrated approach to customers’ experience and growth. In the long term, the main driving force for integration of distributed systems into our businesses here in Nigeria will be the existence of large numbers of personal computers and the need for people to work together and share information in a convenient way without being bothered by geography or the physical distribution of people, data, and machines. This paper looked at how banks and firms must move beyond simply meeting their profits and growth goals to how reformatted branches of banks and firms can implement distributed channel for their services and to consistently deliver an enhanced experience and foster better customer relationships so as to increasingly add more value to customers’ satisfaction. The paper detailed how effective distribution channel will play a central row in customers’ relationship process, which fuels growth. The paper underscores the importance of understanding some dynamics to this distribution management as critical to developing effective customer-focus and the strategies applied helps in determining the role that this distributed channels could play for integrated development.

Key words: Distributed system, distributed transactions, distributed channels

INTRODUCTION A distributed database is a system which consists of two or more database located at the same physical location or distributed over a networks of connected computers such as mainframes, PC’s, tablets, cell phones. Since the database is distributed, different user profiles can access to the different parts of the database without interfering each other.

"A logically interrelated collection of shared data (and a description of this data) physically distributed over a computer network." Dinesh Thakur, (2014). The software system that permits the management of the distributed database and makes the distribution transparent to users. Dinesh Thakur, (2014). However, the term distributed system here means a cohesive set of computing resources acting together to achieve a common objective. While the routing infrastructure of the Internet can be considered to be a massively distributed application.

A Distributed Database Management System (DDBMS) consists of a single logical database that is split into a number of fragments. Each fragment is stored on one or more computers under the control of a separate DBMS, with the computers connected by a communications network Hardik P (2008). Each site is capable of independently processing user requests that require access to local data (that is, each site has some degree of local autonomy) and is also capable of processing data stored on other computers in the network.

The distributed database system started to appear when companies and business get larger and operation spread out to different geographical locations. Distributed network may be located on the network servers on Internet, intranets or extranets or on other company networks.

By now, IT and business staff alike understand that data is an organization’s most valuable asset. They’ve come to realize that data has a value beyond the application through which it was created and beyond the silo in which it resides. Accurate, consistent, current data is a strategic asset that has the power to increase

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 95 competitive advantage, drive revenue growth and market share, and enhance an organization’s reputation. Raj N, (2009). The key to unleashing its value is to make it available anywhere, anytime to the individuals and groups that can put it to work in the service of the organization’s mission and strategies. Distributed data management is essential to driving the enterprise mobility strategies that increase productivity, reduce expenses, and create efficiencies in a tight economic environment and ultra-competitive situations. Raj N, (2009).

Distributed Systems Reasons and Benefits The leading reason for the trend toward distributed systems is that these systems potentially have a much better price/performance ratio than a single large centralized system would have. “In effect, a distributed system gives more bang for the buck.” In the sense that today’s real- time system (RTS) are characterized by managing large volumes of business data making distribute processing a real-time platform to adopt. Udai Shanker, Manoj Misra, Anil Sarje (2008). The researcher prefers to use the term "distributed system" in the broadest sense to denote any system in which multiple interconnected CPUs work together.

A next reason for building a distributed system is that some applications are inherently distributed. A supermarket chain might have many stores, each of which gets goods delivered locally (possibly from local farms), makes local sales, and makes local decisions about which vegetables are so old or rotten that they must be thrown out. It therefore makes sense to keep track of inventory at each store on a local computer rather than centrally at corporate headquarters. After all, most queries and updates will be done locally. Nevertheless, from time to time, top management may want to find out how many rutabagas it currently owns. One way to accomplish this goal is to make the complete system look like a single computer to the application programs, but implement de-centrally, with one computer per store as have been described. This would then be a commercial distributed system.

Another potential advantage of a distributed system over a centralized system is higher reliability. By distributing the workload over many machines, a single chip failure will bring down at most one machine, leaving the rest intact. Ideally, if 5 percent of the machines are down at any moment, the system should be able to continue to work with a 5 percent loss in performance. For critical applications, such as control of nuclear reactors or aircraft, using a distributed system to achieve high reliability may be the dominant consideration.

In the long term, the main driving force will be the existence of large numbers of personal computers and the need for people to work together and share information in a convenient way without being bothered by geography or the physical distribution of people, data, and machines.

Performance. Since the closest data has greater demand access speed and performance is better compared to centralized systems. In addition to this, each node, site deals with the small portion of the overall database, CPU and I/O will be different again compare to centralized systems Thakur (n.d)

Budget. It does require less budgets to set up a distributed system rather than one powerful centralized system. It is also very cost effective to add nodes when it is necessary rather than the whole mainframe

Growth. In a distributed growth expansion can be handled easily. New sites can be added without doing modifications on the other sites Coronel (2011).

Traffic.Traffic on the network can be reduced since the system is divided into different pieces.

Organizational Structure: In these days many business and companies are operating in different parts of the world. So it is an advantage to have database servers located in different parts of the world, custom made and designed for the needs of the local market but connected to the international network of the company. In these systems user can create local queries on the other hand, headquarters may create global queries about the situation of the company so there is no bottleneck. Distributed systems mirror the structure of an enterprise.

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Sharing and Freedom: Data located at one geographical location can be shared with another user at another location, as can been seen in Automated Teller Machines (ATM) machines, (POS) Point of Sale machines etc. Depending on the need of the local business rules, database can be customized and local DBA (data base administrator) can maintain the system. Global DBA is responsible for the whole system management. So different levels of autonomy can be assigned to users.

Data Maintainability: In centralized systems if database fails all users is influenced from the result. But in distributed systems if one node fails this does not influence the user on other nodes. Distributed systems are designed taking these failures into account. This affected node can be re-routed.

Data Accessibility Since the same or similar data exists in many different nodes, failure at one node may not affect the others so data is still accessible. Also any errors made on the local database do not affect the whole organization. This describes the flexibility nature of a distributed system. Data can be joined and a new table can be created even data resides on different local sites.

Disaster Protection Geographic distribution is an essential aspect of disaster recovery. Distributing applications and data geographically limits the scope of a disaster and protects against natural disasters and sabotage.

Local autonomy control. Security, integrity, storage representation and hardware are controlled locally. At the same time user can access remote data when necessary. Availability is the capacity of a system to limit as much as possible this latency (note that this implicitly assumes that the system is already reliable). The process of setting up a protection system to face and fix quickly node failures is usually termed failover.

Pitfalls in Distributed Systems Complex System Distributed systems are much more complex to setup and difficult to maintain.

Integrity Integrity of such systems are difficult to maintain because of its various server site nature.

Security Security is one of the leading concerns in developing dependable distributed systems of today, since the integration of different components in a distributed manner creates new security problems and issues. Service oriented architectures, the Web, grid computing and virtualization – forms the backbone of today’s distributed systems. A lens to security issues in distributed systems is best provided via deeper exploration of security concerns and solutions in these technologies. Abhijit Belapurkar and Harigopal Ponnapalli (2009). Also based on location and level of exposure of people in certain region security is dependent of this fact.

Since the system is distributed to many remote locations, new entry points increases security risk. In central systems data can be supervised rather easily compare to the distributed systems. But in distributed systems whole network must be secured as well.

Data Format With different data formats and systems used in different sites, data management might be problematic.

Optimization: Optimization is difficult to apply in such systems because of the variety of the site.

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Distributed Transactions A transaction is a sequence of data update operations, which is required to be an “all-or-nothing” unit of work. That is, when an orderis requested, the system has to perform allthe updates in the transaction. We say the transaction has been validated. In case of problem, the system has also the option to perform nothingof it. We say the transaction has been aborted. On the other hand, the system is not allowed to perform some of the updates and not others, which is to say that partial validation is forbidden.

Figure 1: The two- phase commit protocol

In a distributed setting, the update operations may occur on distinct servers calledparticipants. A typical case is the eager replication explained earlier. The problem is to find a protocol, implemented and controlled by a distinct node called coordinator, that communicates with the participants so that the all-or-nothing semantics is ensured. The main algorithm that is used to achieve this goal is the two-phase commit (2PC) protocol:

* first, the coordinator asks each participant whether it is able to perform the required operation with a Prepare message;

* second, if all participants answered with a confirmation, the coordinator sends a Decision message: the transaction is then committed at each site.

Figure 2 The figure 2 directly above shows an insight on how a distributed business enterprise will work and coordinates its transaction faster than when the system is decentralized as shown in the figure3 below

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Figure 3

With the decentralized approach business enterprise will find out that transacting business in this system will proof a little difficult than expected. Hence customers’ satisfaction will not be improved. The notion of distributed database is different from that of decentralized database. The latter does not imply sharing of data by a communication network. The former implies a collection of sites connected together with some kind of network and where each site has a database in its own right, but the sites work together as if data was stored at only one site. Mahipal Padigela (2006).

Trends Internet banking has received the most coverage in the past years, but however, the adoption of new technology has influenced the distribution of retail banking. One area of impact may be the movement towards greater mobility as mobile phones become more sophisticated and therefore, more capable of handling advanced application and services. Banking through mobile phones appeals to consumers on multiple fronts. Customers may not know the location of their closest branch or even where their credit or debit cards are, but always have their mobile phone always with them.

Mobile phones also serve as an effective distributed platform for making countless payments or person-to – person transaction, providing greater security protocols and strong in-depth immediate information through its distributed technology. Various software platforms for mobile phones and other device will allow consumers to use the web through their handheld phones as easily as they will do through their distributed computer systems Don Ogilvie (2008). It is in anticipation that it will spur rapid demand for mobile- transactions in years ahead.

Advanced Distribution Management (ADM) Tasks in Power Sector Advanced Distribution Management (ADM) connects Smart Grid customers, distributed resources, and utility operations technologies to a real-time information-rich distribution network Gartner (2010).

Network Reinforcement The ability of distributed generation (DG) to produce electricity close to the point of consumption alleviates the need to use network capacity for transport over longer distances during certain hours. However, the need to design the distribution networks for peak load remains undiminished Per Hallberg (2013).

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Product Contributions Across the Grid Life Cycle

Source: Gartner (December 2010) “Advanced Distributed Management Systems Product” Figure 4: Product Contributions Across the Grid Life Cycle

ADM builds on its outage management that roots to: Automatically minimize the impact of outages using self-healing capabilities like Fault Location, Isolation, and Service Restoration (FLISR). FLISR reduces the number of customers affected by an outage by automatically sensing faults and circuit lockouts to identify and isolate the faulted circuit sections. It then restores power to all of the unhalted circuit section’s affected customers by automatically switching them to adjacent sections of the line.

Advanced Distribution Management (ADM) has become an umbrella name for a software “system-of- systems” Oracle, (2011). Advanced distributed management organizes and analyzes the complicated volumes of new near-real-time data then uses that data to achieve goals like: •Decreasing the number and length of outage by using self- healing un-faulted circuit section to restore customers automatically. •Supporting demand reduction program •Integrating large amount of intermittent renewable energy into the grid. •Managing micro grid and virtual power plant. •Supporting electric vehicle recharging.

Advanced distributed management builds on technologies developed over previous decade to analyze the grid, operate it and restore service following outage.

Specific functions assigned to ADM include: •Calculation of overload •Volt optimization •Fault location, isolation, and service restoration (FLISR). •Conservation through voltage reduction (CVR).

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•Microgrid control. •State estimation. •Incorporation of increasing divers supply (for instance, from intermittent renewable and small distributed generation sources).

Optimize reliability. ADM might, for instance, forecast what the circuit loading will be during the peak hours of the day and identify any overload equipment or lines. Then ADM could generate an optimal switching plan to relieve the overload by transferring loads to adjacent circuit sections with available capacity. Automated switching could be done by a click of the button, with manual switching scheduled and dispatched.

Reduce distribution system losses. In a process called volt optimization, ADM calculates the amount of active and reactive power on a line. It then reduces the effect of the loss-producing reactive power by switching on devices like capacitor banks in locations close to the loads consuming the reactive power (e.g. electric motors, fluorescent lights).

Technological Context Availability and the knowledge of technology could be regarded as the main basis for successful implementation. The performance characteristic and the standard of technology will determine the associated risk of adoption. Different categories of innovation exhibit that efficient process innovation can take place only through major changes, Janis Kossahl, Johann Kranzand Lutz M. Kolbe (2012). The entrepreneurial risk associated with adoption grows also with increasing network uncertainties. So business enterprises will only like to switch to distributed systems when the forecasted future attracts a reasonable profit to an accepted degree. Therefore, the researcher then proposes:

Hypotheses 1: Perceived benefit will positively influence the adoption of distributed management systems Hypotheses 2: Perceived bottleneck will negatively influence the adoption of distributed management systems. Hypotheses 3: Perceived cost will negatively have influenced the adoption of distributed management systems.

METHOD OF ANALYSIS Data were collected based on random sampling of different geography location, primary data was used and was obtained through research questions and sampling techniques. The primary data was based on questionnaire pattern wish was distributed to 225 persons and 200 was returned. This represents 88.89% response rate. The data were analyse using cross-tabulation to determine whether their exist any linear relationship and linearity between distributed management systems, firms and customers’ satisfaction while employing the study under consideration in business transactions.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Table 1: Field Survey Analysis. Distributed Systems Improves Rate of Increases Cost of Can it function effectively in any have an impact on business transactions running business part of the Country business

Strongly Agree 98 100 106 47

Agree 90 78 89 30

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Disagree 7 14 5 104

None of the 5 8 0 19 above Source: Field Study, February 2016.

Distributed Systems have an impact on business Improves Rate of business transcation Increases Cost of runing business Can it function effectively in any part of the Country

Figure 5: Bar Chart representing peoples view in distributed management system on business enterprise. Distributed Systems have an impact on business Strongly Agree

Agree

Disagree

Non of the above

Figure 6: Line chart representing different peoples view on the impact distributed systems on business.

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Improves Rate of business transcation Strongly Agree

Agree

Disagree

Non of the above

Figure 7: Shows acceptances on peoples believe that it can improve business transactions.

The information from the figure 7 shows that many people agree that it have a very high and positive impact on business transactions. Can it function effectively in any part of the Country Strongly Agree

Agree

Disagree

Non of the above

Figure 8: Showing the rate of believe that it could work in any part of Nigeria. Based on level of exposure of certain people in neglected locality they still believe that the implementation might be difficult in certain location, especially in rural areas that have not really experience any form of development. But they fail to realize that if mobile phones can work in most places, that the same idea applies to distributed systems if well integrated and implemented.

Application in Freight Management Intermodal transport can be described as the transport of merchandise by at least two transport modes with a minimum of one stage being made by train, by truck, or by maritime modes. In other words, it is a cargo unit that is transferred from a transport mode to another. The optimal combination of modes allows transporters to achieve what is known as economies of scope, Jean-Paul (Claude Comtois and Slack, 2013). In a majority of cases, the first and/or last steps of the cargo itinerary consist in truck transportation and are to be

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 103 minimized. More than ever, delivery firms' activities are based on intermodal transport to optimize delivery times and, in turn, their overall efficiency.

United Parcel Service (UPS) is an enterprise specializing in the collection and the routing of parcels throughout the world. It represents an excellent example of a corporation actively involved in freight distribution and the application of logistics using a distributed systems network. In 2007, UPS generated incomes around 50 billion dollars and employed 425,000 people, 358,000 of them in the United States. Its service area covers 200 nations and handles 4.0 billion parcels per year; around 15.8 million per day, of which 2 million are carried by air transport, most of them in the United States. UPS handles about 61% of all parcels ground deliveries in the United States while this share drops to 34% for the overnight air freight market. It is estimated that UPS delivers more than 6% of the American Gross Domestic Product and 2% of global GDP each and every day (Jean-Paul, Claude Comtois and Slack, 2013).

The infrastructures of UPS are extensive and include 2,400 distribution centers, 93,000 vehicles and 268 airplanes going to 391 airports in the USA and 219 abroad. Besides, UPS makes call to about 310 planes on a contractual basis according to variations in demand, making it the 2nd largest freight airline in the world and the 9th largest airline in terms of revenue (Jean-Paul, Claude Comtois and Slack, 2013). UPS has also an extensive information system specifically adapted to the needs of parcel collection. Each parcel handled requires numerous data elements that are transmitted over an optic cable network supported by satellite and wireless communication in a distributed network. This network is named UPSnet. The storage is necessary for the management of the very complex logistics of the several millions of parcels sent each week having different origins, destinations and recipients. Without a good distributed network to handle such a large volume of parcel there will be high rate of losses and miss-management.

The UPS system is mostly aimed at servicing businesses since 80% of the traffic handled is business to business. To be effective, UPS relied on the efficiency of its distribution system network. Reliability and efficiency are key issues in the establishment and management of freight distribution systems leaning on parcels. Optimal locations for the hubs are sought, as well as the possible delivery routes to avoid unnecessary movements, congestion and assure timely deliveries. Every single parcel has to go through the UPS network regardless of its destination. It could be bound for the other side of the planet or addressed to the neighbor; the parcel will have to go through the distribution system, which has a hub-and-spoke structure. This distribution system involves three major functions:

 Consolidation. The first step obviously involves the collection of parcels by trucks assigned to specific routes. To optimize the driver's effectiveness, traffic trends and road conditions are continuously monitored to insure that the optimal path is taken. From his/her truck, the driver has access to a hand-held computer device (DIAD) that enables to capture information about each packages and delivery. This is essential to track a parcel or be alerted in any road change or unplanned situation. The parcels are then assembled at the closest distribution center.  Distribution. The main air hub is Louisville, Kentucky, which handles over 100 flights a day. In 2002, a distribution center of 5.2 million square foot, called UPS Worldport, opened at the Louisville International Airport. This facility handles about 1.6 million packages each day. The main land hub is the Chicago AreaConsolidation Hub, which is the largest distribution center in the United States (Jean-Paul, Claude Comtois and Slack, 2013).  Fragmentation. This step is the inverse of consolidation as parcels have to be delivered to each individual destination. Commonly, fragmentation is combined with consolidation as a delivery truck route can be integrated with a pickup route. This can be achieved only with a high level of control on the logistical chain in the distributed network.

Mobility is fundamental to economic and social activities such as commuting, manufacturing, or supplying energy. Each movement has an origin, a potential set of intermediate locations, a destination, and a nature which is linked with geographical attributes. Distributed systems are composed of infrastructures, modes and terminals which are so embedded in the socio-economic life of individuals, institutions and corporations that they are often invisible to the consumer.

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CONCLUSION The study reveals that there exists a linear relationship between customer’s satisfaction on business were distributed management have been implemented and it also reveals high level customers and firm’s satisfactory acceptance on the positive impact distributed systems yields to the growth of business enterprise.

The researcher strongly believes that, we all will also accept that with distributed systems well implemented, integrated and initiated into various sectors of Nigerian Business System and SME (small and medium sale enterprises) our pattern of running business will be well stepped-up and we will be well equipped to stand- out among equals and meet up with our global challenges.

RECOMMENDATION The researcher will strongly recommend that this paper should be looked into for more elaborate exploit on the research since the research was carried out only in one country, namely Nigeria. Further research may be carried out to investigate the impact on other countries especially the African countries to account for different business platform and to improve the generalization of findings so as to come out with future initiatives that will put our great continent at the forefront when it comes to the global standard of transacting business. My study’s result, suggests that in the light of regulated market, technology adoption of distributed management systems is very different form unregulated ones as location, technology and environmental factor have a very high influence on implementation and adoption.

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Lipase Production in Submerged Fermentation by a Bacterium Isolated from Nigerian Soil.

Okpalla Jude Umeh Sophina Ogonna Department of microbiology, Department of Microbiology and Brewing, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka Anambra State Anambra State [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract Lipase production in submerged fermentation by a bacterium isolated from Nigerian soil was studied. Soil samples were collected at 5cm depth from different automobile service stations within Aguata LGA Anambra State. The bacteria in the soil samples were isolated by growing them in nutrient agar medium using streak plating method. The isolated bacteria were thereafter screened for lipase production and the best lipase positive isolates were selected and used for submerged production. The results showed that out of 61 bacteria isolated, 20 were active lipase producers, with isolates SP7 (9.8mm), PC5 (9.0mm), TL6 (8.5mm), PC3 (8.0mm) and PC6 (7.6mm) selected as the best producers. The highest lipase accumulation of 32 U/ml was recorded by isolate PC5 when grown in submerged fermentation after 72h, it was closely followed by isolate TL6 with maximum lipase yield of 26U/ml after 96h and isolate PC6 with a yield of 21U/ml after 72h. The isolate PC5 was selected, characterized and identified as Bacillus species PC5.The highest growth and lipase production (35U/ml) were observed when 6% seed inoculums were employed, while the least accumulation(15U/ml) was observed when 10% seed culture was utilized. Medium volume of 60ml enhanced maximum enzyme yield of 37U/ml, while the least lipase production was observed when 100ml medium was used. Maltose was observed to encourage the highest growth and lipase production (33U/ml), while sucrose enhanced the least production of 23U/ml. NH4NO3 was found to enhance the highest growth and lipase level(41U/ml), while NaNO3 stimulated the least with a yield of 27U/ml. The result revealed that lipase producing bacteria are present in soil and optimization studies can enhance increased lipase production.

Keywords: Lipase, Bacterium, Soil, Submerged Fermentation, Bacillus species

INTRODUCTION Lipases (EC3.1.1.3; triacylglycerol acylhydrolases) are hydrolases which catalyze the hydrolysis of carboxylic ester bonds to liberate glycerol and free fatty acids. Lipases from several sources have been purified and some of their properties investigated. Generally, they are acidic glycoproteins of molecular weight ranging from 20,000 to 60,000 (Dhima and Chapadgaonkar, 2013). Lipases are ubiquitous in microbial world and are mainly produced by bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes. The extracellular bacterial lipases are of considerable importance commercially as their bulk production and recovery is much easier than from fungi and actinomyces (Bhosale, Kadam, Sukalkar, & Adekar, 2012). The common lipase producing bacterial sources are species of Acinetobacter, Bacillus, Lactobacillus, Chromobacterium and Pseudomonas (Bhosale et al., 2012; Ban, Kaieda, Matsumoto, Kondo, & Fukuda, 2001; Padmapriya, Rajeswari, Noushida, Sethupalen, & Venil, 2011). Under experimental conditions, lipases can hydrolyze reverse reactions including synthesis of esters by esterification, transesterification and interesterification (Franken, Eggert, Jaeger & Pohl, 2011). Lipase production is influenced by the type and concentration of carbon and nitrogen sources, the culture pH, the growth temperature and the dissolved oxygen concentration (Elibol and Ozer, 2001). Lipases of microbial origin have considerable industrial potential due to their biochemical diversity and wide application in food industry for the production of emulsifying agents and flavouring agents (McNeil, Shimizu, S. and Yamanae, 1991). They are also used in various Agro-chemical industries, as biocatalysts in biotransformation reactions in semi-synthesis of drugs (Jaeger and Eggert, 2002; Gotor-Fernandez, Brieva, & Gotor, 2006) and laundry detergent industries to remove fats and oil stains (Tatara, Fujii, Kawase & Minagawa, 1985; Newmark, 1988; Hasan, Shah, Javed, & Hameed, 2010). Modern screening programmes involving large number of yet unexplored microorganisms can be used to isolate lipases which posses the desired properties. The present research was undertaken to isolate bacteria from the soil and screen them for extracellular lipase production.

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MATERIALS AND METHODS Sample Collection Soil samples were aseptically collected at 5cm depth with the help of a spatula into a sterile container from different automobile services station within Aguata L.G.A. Anambra State.

Isolation and screening of bacteria for lipase production One gram of soil was suspended into 9ml of distilled water and shaken. 10 fold. After serial dilution, 0.1ml of the suspension was inoculated into tributyrin agar plates and incubated at 300C for 24h. Colonies that displayed zone of hydrolysis were selected and subcultured on fresh nutrient agar plates to obtain pure cultures. The representative pure cultures were thereafter stored on agar slants.

Submerged production of lipase A loopful of the chosen isolates was taken from agar slant and inoculated into 50ml of sterile nutrient broth and incubated at 300C for 24h. This serves as the seed inoculum for the fermentation. A cotton plugged Erlenmeyer flask(250ml) containing 30ml of fermentation medium which comprises of (g/l) Na2HPO4 12; KH2PO4 4.2; MgSO4, 0.3; CaCl2 0.25 and NH4SO4, 2. Two percent of olive oil was added separately and the pH adjusted to 7. The medium was sterilized at 1210C for 15 min. Two millilitre of a 24h seed inoculum was inoculated into fermentation medium. The flask was incubated at 300C for 144h on a rotary shaker (150rpm). At interval of 24h sample was removed and centrifuged at 5000rpm for 30min and the supernatant was used for the determination of lypolytic activity. The best isolate was identified as Bacillus sp. based on morphological and biochemical characteristics (Buchanan and Gibbons 1974).

Determination of lipase activity The modified method of Jensen, (1983) was adopted. One ml of culture supernatant was added to assay substrate containing 10ml of 10%(w/v) homogenized olive oil in 10%(w/v) gum Arabic, 2ml of 0.6%(w/v) CaCl2 solution 5ml of phosphate buffer (pH 7). The enzyme substrate was incubated on rotary shaker at 150rpm at 300C for 1h. To stop the reaction 20ml of acetone: alcohol (1:1) was added to reaction mixture. The liberated fatty acid was titrated with 0.1M NaoH using phenolphthalein as an indicator. One unit of lipase activity was defined as the amount enzyme that liberated 1milli mol fatty acid per min at 370C and at pH 7 under the assay conditions.

Effect of inoculum size: Various inoculum sizes (2-10%) were inoculated into in 250ml Erlenmeyer flask containing 30ml of fermentation medium and incubated at 300C for 72h. At the end of the period sample was removed and centrifuged at 5000 xg for 30min and the supernatant was used for lipase activity determination. Bacterial growth was determined by measuring the optical density of the at 660nm using a spectrophotometer.

Effect of medium volume: Various 250ml Erlenmeyer flasks containing 30-100ml fermentation medium volumes were inoculated with 3ml of seed inoculum and incubated at 300C for 72h. At the end of the period sample was removed and centrifuged at 5000 xg for 30min and the supernatant was used for lipase activity determination. Bacterial growth was determined by taken a sample and measuring the optical density at 660nm using a spectrophotometer.

Effect of Carbon sources: Different carbon sources (1% w/v) comprising of fructose, glucose, maltose, sucrose and galactose were separately added to 250ml Erlenmeyer flask containing 30ml of fermentation medium. The medium was inoculated with 3ml of seed inoculum and incubated at 300C for 72h. At the end of the period sample was removed and centrifuged at 5000 xg for 30min and the supernatant was used for lipase activity determination. Bacterial growth was determined by taken a sample and measuring the optical density at 660nm using a spectrophotometer.

Effect of nitrogen sources: Different nitrogen sources (1% w/v) comprising of (NH4)2SO4, NH4Cl, NH4NO3 and NaNO3 were added separately to fermentation medium. The medium was inoculated with 3ml of seed inoculum and incubated at 300C for 72h. At the end of the period sample was removed and centrifuged at 5000 xg for 30min and the supernatant was used for lipase activity determination. Bacterial growth was determined by taken a sample and measuring the optical density at 660nm using a spectrophotometer

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RESULT AND DISCUSSION A total of 61 bacteria isolates were isolated from the soil and screened for lipolytic production. In the result it was observed that 20 isolates were capable of lipase production as indicated by the zone of hydrolysis (Table 1). Five of the isolates which included SP7(9.8mm), PC5(9.0mm), TL6(8.5mm), PC3(8.0mm) and PC6 (7.7mm) were selected as the best lipase producers. The result showed that the soil is replete with a lot of bacteria that can produce lipases. This is similar to the findings of Dahiya and Purkayastha, 2011 who obtained lipase producing isolates from the soil with Bacillus species PD-12 and PD-20 showing high lipolytic activity. Also Dhiman and Chapadgaonkar 2013 reported the isolation of a bacteria strain ISC I that showed high lipase production from soil. Table 2 shows the result of submerged production of lipase by bacterial isolates. Bacterial isolates PC5 produced the highest lipase level of 32U/ml at 72h, while the least was produced by PC3 after 48h of incubation with a lipase level of 12U/ml. The bacterial isolate (PC5) with the Highest lipase activity was selected and was identified as Bacillus species. Maximum lipase production was obtained by isolate PC5 after 72h fermentation, this is contrary to the finding of Dahiya and Purkayastha, 2011 who reported that maximum lipase production by Bacillus sp PD-12 was obtained when grown for 24h. Also Bhosale et al., 2012 observed maximum lipase yield (51U/ml) after 96h of incubation. The effect of inoculum size on growth and lipase production by Bacillus was investigated (Table 3). The highest lipase production (35U/ml) was observed when 6% seed inoculum was used, while the least was observed when 2% inoculum was used. The effect of inoculum size showed that the maximum lipase production was achieved with 6% v/v cell density. This is contrary to the report of Chauhan and Garlapati (2013) who observed maximum lipase activity after 48h of fermentation by Staphylococcus arlettae JPBW-1 when the production medium was inoculated with 10%(v/v) of seed culture. Table 4 show the effect of medium volume on lipase production by Bacillus species. Maximum growth and lipase (37U/ml) was observed when 60ml medium was used, while the least was observed when 100ml was utilized. The result of the effect of carbon source on lipase production is shown in table 5. Maltose was observed to stimulate the highest growth and lipase activity (33U/ml), while sucrose stimulated the least lipase activity. It was observed that maltose stimulated maximum lipase accumulation by the Bacillus species. This is contrary to report of Papaparaskevas et al (1992), Mates and Sudakevitz (1973) and Hassan and Hammed (2001) who observed that fructose stimulated enhanced lipase production by Rhodotorulaglutinis, Bacillussubtilis and Staphylococcusaureus respectively. Anurag et al. (2006) reported that mannitol was found to be the best carbon source among sugars used for lipase production by Bacillus megaterium AKG-1. Ginalska et al (2004) reported the stimulating effect of sucrose on lipase production by Geotrichum sp strain R59. Table 6 shows the effect of nitrogen sources on lipase production NH4NO3 was found to stimulate the highest growth and lipase activity of 41U/ml, while NaNO3 stimulated the least lipase activity. In the study NH4NO3 stimulated the highest production of lipase. This is corroborated by Anurag et al.(2006) who reported that NH4NO3 enhanced the highest lipase production by Bacillus megaterium AKG-1. Again, Barbosa et al (2011) reported that NH4NO3 stimulated the highest lipase production by Botryosphaeria ribis EC-01 grown in medium. Dahiya and Purkayastha (2011) reported that the addition of ammonium nitrate resulted in maximum lipase production by Bacillus species PD-12. Burkert et al.(2004) demonstrated the stimulating effect of ammonium nitrate and corn steep liquor on lipase production by Geotrichum species.

Table 1: Lipase positive bacteria isolated after screening

Bacteria isolate Average Zone of Clearance (mm) TL9 3.5 PC1 7.1 PC5 9.0 SP4 2.0 TL2 6.5 SP7 9.8 AC4 4.2 SP6 3.7 PC9 5.3 AC1 4.4 PC6 7.6 PC3 8.0 African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 108

TL6 8.5 SP5 5.5 TL4 6.3 SP1 4.6 AC8 6.0 PC7 5.4 TL3 3.8 SP2 4.1

Table 2: Submerged production of lipase by bacteria isolates

Bacteria Lipase activities (U/ml)

Isolate 24h 48h 72h 96h 120h 144h

SP 7 5 11 14 17 15 9

PC5 13 23 32 26 21 18

PC6 7 12 21 18 18 15

TL6 5 14 19 25 22 17

PC3 3 12 8 8 6 5

Table 3: Effect of inoculum size on lipase production by Bacillusspecies PC5

Inoculum size (%) Lipase activity (U/ml) Bacteria growth(OD660nm)

2 27 1.58

4 29 1.63

6 35 1.72

8 32 1.70

10 15 1.68

Table 4: Effect of medium volume on lipase production by Bacillus species PC5

Medium volume (ml) Lipase activity (U/ml) Bacterial growth(OD660nm)

30 19 1.46

40 25 1.57

50 31 1.62

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60 37 1.63

70 34 1.55

80 32 1.51

90 23 1.50

100 15 1.50

Table 5: Effect of carbon source on lipase production by Bacillus species PC5

Carbon source (1%w/v) Lipase activity(U/ml) Bacteria growth(OD660nm)

Fructose 25 1.45

Glucose 27 1.52

Maltose 33 1.66

Sucrose 23 1.60

Galactose 29 1.57

Table 6: Effect of nitrogen sources on lipase production by Bacillus species PC5

Nitrogen source(1%) Lipase activity(U/ml) Bacteria growth(OD 660nm)

(NH4)2SO4 36 1.50

NH4NO3 41 1.58

NH4Cl 33 1.52

NaNO3 27 1.65

CONCLUSION In the study, some bacteria were isolated from the soil were found to be active lipase producers and the best producer was selected and identified as Bacillus species. Optimization of culture conditions showed that extracellular lipase production can be greatly enhanced.

RECOMMENDATIONS Microbial lipases have wide applications in food, pharmaceutical, leather, dairy and detergent industries. Many of these industries exist in Nigeria but the enzymes they use have to be imported and this add to the cost of operation in the industries. In the study, lipase was produced by bacteria isolated from the soil, so it is an indication that lipase production in commercial quantity is feasible in Nigeria. It is recommended that government should encourage local production by providing attractive incentives to investors. Adequate funds should also be made available to research institutes for the purpose of carrying research in this area with the view to producing the enzyme cheaply and simply using standard methods. Government should also remove import duty on some of the equipments that will be used in the production.

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Barbosa, A.M., Messias, J.M., Andrade, M.M., Dekker, R.F.H. and Venkatesagowda, B. (2011). Soybean oil and meal as substrates for lipase production by Botryosphaeria ribis and soyabean oil to enhance the production of Botryosphaeran by Botryosphaeria rhodina. www.intechopen.com 101-119

Bhosale, H.J., Kadam, T.A., Sukalkar, S.R. and Adekar, S.D. (2012). Lipase production from Bacillus species using soybean oil cake as substrate 3(5): 213−221.

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Burkert, J.F., Maugeri, F. and Rogriques, M.I. (2004). Optimization of extracellular lipase production by Geotrichum species using factorial design. Bioresource Technology 91: 77-84

Chauhan, M. and Garlapati, V.K. (2013). Production and characterization of halo, solvent, thermo-tolerant alkaline lipase by Staphylococcus arlettae JPBW-1 isolated from rock salt mine. Applied Biochemistry and biotechnology, 171(6): 1429-1443

Dahiya, P. and Purkayastha, S. (2011). Isolation, screening and production of extracellular alkaline lipase from newly isolated Bacillus sp. PD12.Journal of Biological Sciences11(5): 381−387.

Dhiman, S. and Chapadgaonkar, S.S. (2013). Optimization of lipase production medium for a bacteria isolate. International Journal of Chem Tech Research5(6): 2837−2843.

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Mates, A. and Sudakevitz, D. (1973). Production of lipase by staphylococcus aureus under various growth conditions. Journal of Applied Bacteriology36: 219−226.

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Padmapriya, B., Rajeswari, T., Noushida, E., Sethupalen, D. and Venil, C. (2011). Production of lipase enzyme from Lactobacillus spp and its application in the degradation of meat, World Applied Sciences Journal12(10): 1798−1802.

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Tatara, T., Fujii, T., Kawase, T. and Minagawa, M. (1985). Studies on application of lipolytic enzymes in detergents II. Evaluation of adaptability of various kinds of lipases in practical laundry condition. Journal of the American Oil Chemist Society 62: 1053−1058.

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Perceived Determinants of Non-Utilization of Antenatal Clinic among Mothers in Ezinihitte-Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria

Oparah, J. Stella Ibhafidon, Akhere Nwaobiala, Chinenye Mgbeahuruike, Clara C. Department of Physical & Department of Physical & Department of Physical & Department of Physical & Health Education Health Education Health Education Health Education Alvan Ikoku Federal University Alvan Ikoku Federal Alvan Ikoku Federal University Alvan Ikoku Federal University of Education University of Education of Education of Education Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract The study focused on ascertaining the perceived determinants of non-utilization of antenatal clinic among mothers in Ezinihitte-Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. The descriptive survey research design was used for the study. A sample of two hundred and twenty (220) mothers were drawn using purposive sampling technique. The instrument used for the study was self developed perceived determinants of non-utilization of Antenatal Clinic Questionnaire (PDNACQ) with a reliability coefficient of 0.81. The data collected were analysed using Chi-square at 0.05 level of significance. The result showed that cost of health care, inaccessibility of health care, and longtime spent in health facilities were perceived as determinants of non-utilization of antenatal clinic among mothers in Ezinihitte-Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. It was therefore recommended that, the three tiers of government including non- governmental organizations as well as well meaning individuals should ensure that highly subsidized drugs are available in the clinics and that the fee paid by mothers in the clinics should be reviewed downwards. Also, government clinics already established in the rural areas should be equipped with enough qualified medical personnels as this will encourage mothers to seek medical aid there.

Keywords: Perceived, Determinants, Non-utilization, Antenatal clinic, Mothers

INTRODUCTION Health services utilization continues to be an important research topic studied by many researchers. This is informed by the fact that, millions of women in developing countries experience life threatening and other serious health problems related to pregnancy or child birth. Complications of pregnancy and child-birth cause more deaths and disability than any other reproductive health problems (EC/UNFPA, 2000). The situation is worse in developing countries like Nigeria due to inadequate access to modern and poor utilization of health services. According to Celiska (2002), antenatal clinic refers to a place where expectant mothers receive medicare during pregnancy, while prenatal care refers to a treatment given to expectant mothers before pregnancy (Kusum, 2004).

The goal of pre-natal care is to detect any potential complications of pregnancy early, to prevent them if possible and to direct the woman to appropriate specialist medical services (Yangye, 2008). Women in developing countries experience a variety of difficulties in accessing good medical care, including their unwillingness to be attended to by male health professionals. Distance and poor roads together with cultural restrictions on women compound this effect (Timyan, Brechin, Measham & Ogunleye, 1993).

In a study carried out by Moronkola, Ajao and Bello (2000), it was found out that delay in calling at hospitals by pregnant women was unanimously perceived as correlate of maternal mortality. This may be due to several factors like cost of care, lack of access to health institutions, attitude of health workers to patients and so on. Okafor and Rizzuto (1994) reported that most Nigerian men are usually responsible for all decisions about pregnancy and childbirth, including which, prenatal and delivery services their wives would use. On the other hand, their wives reported that their friends may give advice and warnings and mother in law may recommend the traditional Birth Attendants (TBAs) who delivered their children.

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Most African women live far from the paved roads leading to modern health facilities distance, thus, poor road, together with cultural restrictions on women’s mobility are usually the determining factors of what type and where women get their health care services (Timyan, Brechin, Measham & Ogunleye, 1993). Distance and delay in treatment are in fact recurrent factors determining maternal death (Taddeus & Maine, 1990).

The attitude of some medical personnel especially nurses to their patients have been said to be poor and this in most cases, is the reason some pregnant women give to TBAs since they see them to be kind among other reasons. Colman and Colman (2003), Godman and Guiteridge (2000) independently revealed that accessibility and availability of health care system, cultural background and attitude of health workers influence choice of health care system in time of health problem. They also added that rejection of public health facilities is sometime associated with the attitude of health care workers who lack compassion and respect for patients. It was reported by Association for Reproductive and Family Health (2001) that maternal mortality rate worsened in the last two decades. Maternal mortality rate was 1500-3000 per 100,000 live births and of all the 585,000 maternal deaths that occurred worldwide annually, 60,000 (10.3 percent) were Nigerian women from complications of pregnancy and childbirth.

In Nigeria, primary healthcare was established in 1989 according to WHO Alma-Ata declaration to bring health care to the community in which provision of maternal child care including family planning was part of the components. Since its inception, cases of maternal mortality have been reduced drastically; expectant mothers are taken care of while complicated cases are referred for further examination. Inspite of the numerous benefits derivable from attending antenatal clinic, some expectant mothers, as shown above have failed to utilize health care services provided by the primary health care centres. From the foregoing, this study is aimed at determining the perceived determinants of non-utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria.

Objectives of the Study The objectives of this study were to determine whether: 1. Cost of care would be perceived as a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinic among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. 2. Inaccessibility to health facilities would be perceived as a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinic among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. 3. Long time spent in health facilities would be perceived as a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinic among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria.

Research Questions 1. Would cost of care be perceived as a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinic among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria? 2. Would inaccessibility to health facilities be perceived as a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria? 3. Would long time spent in health facilities be perceived as a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinic among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria?

Hypotheses The following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. 1. Cost of care would not be significantly perceived as a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. 2. Inaccessibility to health facilities would not be significantly perceived as a determinant of non- utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. 3. Long time spent in health facilities would not be significantly perceived as a determinant of non- utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria.

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METHODS The descriptive survey research design was used for this study. The population for the study comprised all the women in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. A sample of two hundred and twenty (220) mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria was used for this study. The purposive sampling technique was used to select the respondents. To get a total of 220 respondents, the researchers and their research assistants embarked on data collection from mothers that attend clinic at the twelve (12) health countries that run maternity care (maternal and child health care) within Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State on their meeting days.

The instrument for this study was a self-structured, valid and reliable questionnaire called Perceived Determinants of Non-utilization of Antenatal Clinics Questionnaire (PDNACQ). The questionnaire was designed according to the hypotheses that were tested in the study. The questionnaire was in closed-ended form in line with the modified likert scale technique of summated ratings. The responses were on four-point rating of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD).

The instrument was validated by three lecturers in the Department of Physical and Health Education, Alvan Ikoku Federal University of Education, Owerri for content and face validity. The corrected version of the questionnaire was administered to ten (10) mothers in Ahiazu Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State. The data collected were correlated to determine the reliability of the instrument using Pearson Product Moment Correlation in order to bring out the degree of relationship of the scores obtained. The reliability coefficient was found to be 0.81 and was regarded as appropriate for use.

The researchers and two trained research assistants administered the questionnaire during the meeting days. Those who were not educated among the mothers were assisted in filling the questionnaire. Out of the two hundred and twenty-five copies of the questionnaire administered, two hundred and twenty were collected. The completed copies of the questionnaire were coded and analyzed using the inferential statistics of chi- square at 0.05 level of significance.

Hypothesis 1: Cost of healthcare would not be significantly perceived as a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. Table 1: Chi-square (x2) table showing summary of cost of health care as a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers. S/N Cost of care Agree Disagree Total O E O E 1. Transport fare to the hospital is too high for me, so I don’t 179 166 41 54 220 attend antenatal clinic. 2. I do not attend ante-natal clinic because the fee charged is 158 166 62 54 220 too high. 3. I do not attend ante-natal clinic because I cannot afford the 161 166 59 54 220 drugs. Total 498 162

Average 166 54

Percentage 75.5% 24.5%

Cal. x2 = 6.34; table value = 5.991, df = 2; P <0.05 Table 1 showed that out of the total respondents of 220, 166 (75.5%) agreed that cost of health care is a deterrent to their non-utilization of antenatal clinics while 54 (24.5%) disagreed to cost of health care being a deterrent to their non-utilization of antenatal clinics.

The table also showed that the obtained x2 value is 6.34 while the critical value is 3.84 at 0.05 level of significance and I degree of freedom. Since the x2 cal value is greater than the table value, the hypothesis which stated that cost of health care will not be significantly perceived as a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria is therefore rejected. The researchers concluded that cost of healthcare is a perceived determinant of non- African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 115 utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria.

Hypothesis 2: Inaccessibility to health facilities would not be significantly perceived as a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinics by mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. Table 2: Chi-square table showing summary of inaccessibility as a perceived determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinic among mothers.

S/N Location of health facility Agree Disagree Total O E O E 1. Health facility is too far from where I live. 182 163 36 57 20 2. Cost of transportation to the health facility is 176 163 44 57 220 too high and this discouraged me going there. 3. Lack of transport facilities prevents me from 132 163 88 57 220 going to the clinic. Total 490 170

Average 163 57 220

Percentage 74.1% 25.9%

Cal. x2 = 34.31; table value = 5.991; df = 2; P < 0.05

Table 2 showed that out of 220 respondents 163(74.1%) agreed that inaccessibility to health facilities is a determinant of their non-utilization of antenatal clinics while 57(25.9%) disagreed that inaccessibility to health facilities being a determinant of their non-utilization of antenatal clinics by mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria.

The table also revealed that, the calculated x2 value of 34.31 is greater than the table value of 5.991, 2 degree of freedom at 0.05 level of significance. This therefore gave the researchers the basis to rejects the null hypothesis which stated that inaccessibility to health facilities will not be significantly perceived as a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. This confirmed that inaccessibility is a perceived determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria.

Hypothesis 3: Long time spent in health facilities would not be significantly perceived as a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State.

Table 3: Chi-square table showing the summary of long time spent in health facilities as a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers. S/N Time spent in health facilities Agree Disagree Total O E O E 1. Long time spent in the clinic discourage one 196 118 24 39 from going there. 2. Services are not open at hours that are 162 118 58 39 convenient to mothers. 3. Long time spent in the clinic prevents one from 186 118 34 39 doing other things, so I do not like attending clinic as I should. Total 544 116

Average 181 39

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Percentage 82.3% 17.7%

Cal. x2 = 123.5, table value = 5.991; df = 2; P<0.05

Table 3 showed that out of the total respondents of 220, 181 (82.3%) agreed that long time spent in health facilities is a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinics while 39(17.7%) disagreed that long time spent in health care facilities is a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinics. The table also showed that the calculated x2 value of 123.5 is greater than the table value of 5.991, 2 degree of freedom at 0.05 level of significance. This therefore gave the researchers the basis to reject the null hypothesis which stated that long time spent in health care facilities would not be significantly perceived as a determinant of non utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. This confirms that long time spent in health care facility is a determinant of non- utilization of antenatal clinic among mothers in Ezinihitte Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS Data analysis on table 1 showed that the calculated Chi-square of 6.34 is greater than the table value of 5.991 at 2 degrees of and freedom 0.05 level of significance. This gave the researchers the basis to reject the null hypothesis which stated that cost of health care will not be significantly perceived as a determinant of non- utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. This showed that cost of health care is a perceived determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte-Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. This finding is in line with the view of Kelner and Wellman (1997) who identified high cost of care as a factor in non-utilization of health care services. The findings are not surprising because Ezinihitte is a semi-urban area with most of the occupants being average and low class people who more or less should be encourage to use services if they are free or subsidizes have free medical services.

Data Analysis on table 2 showed that the calculated Chi-square value of 34.31 is greater than the table value of 5.991 at 2 degree of freedoms and 0.05 level of significance. This therefore gave the researchers the basis to reject the null hypothesis which stated that location of health care facilities will not be significantly perceived as a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinics among mother in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. This showed that location to health facilities is a determinant of non- utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. This result agrees with the findings of Moronkola, Ajao and Bello (2000) who found out that lack of access in terms of location and cost to health institutions is a factor responsible for delay in calling at hospitals by pregnant women. Also in line with this result is the view of Russel (1993) who stated that distance and bad roads are responsible for non-utilization of health facilities by rural women. This may be as a result of some of the health facilities not being functional.

Data analysis on table 3 showed that the calculated Chi-square value of 123.5 is greater than the table value of 5.991 at 2 degree of freedom and 0.05 level of significance. This gave the researchers the basis to reject the null hypothesis which stated that long time spent in health facilities will not be significantly perceived as a determinant of non-utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. This showed that long time spent in health facilities is a determinant of non- utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria.

CONCLUSION A number of factors are responsible for non utilization of antenatal clinics by rural mothers. It is obvious that to make motherhood safer a number of hindrances have to be overcome. By reason of this research, it has been confirmed that, cost of healthcare, location vis-à-vis cost of transportation to health facilities and long time spent in health facilities are responsible for non-utilization of antenatal clinics among mothers in Ezinihitte Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria.

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RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made: The Federal, State, Local Governments as well as Non-Governmental Organizations should ensure that drugs are available in the clinics and such drugs should be highly subsidized to encourage rural women to utilize and purchase drugs from the clinics. Also, the fees paid by the mothers in clinics should also be reviewed downward to serve as encouragement to them.

The three tiers of government and the community should work together to ensure that more antenatal clinics are established and made viable or functional in the rural areas for easy accessibility by mother. This will not only eliminate the long distance usually covered by mothers to the clinics but also eliminate lack and high cost of transportation faced by mothers.

More qualified medical personnel should be posted by the government to various antenatal clinics to attend to mothers. This will help to reduce the long time spent in the clinics by mothers. Such personnel should also be tutored through seminars and workshops on the impact of their personality and relationship skills on the patients whom they should attend to.

REFERENCES Association for Reproductive and Family Health (2001). 2001 Annual Report. Ibadan Corporate Graphics Limited.

Celiska, V. (2002). Antenatal care effective in reducing maternal morbidity and mortality. Public Health Nursing 9,15-21.

Colman, A.O. & Colman, L.L (1991). Pregnancy: The psycho-social experience, New York Neonday Press.

Godman, A & Guttendge, A. (2000). A new health science. Horlow: Longman Publishers

Kelner, M. & Wellman, B. (1999). Health care and consumer choose: Medical and alternative therapies. Social science Medicine. 45;2: 203-212.

Kusum, P.S. (2004). Maternal and child health care services in Jellifee, O.B. (Ed). Child health care Tropics (5th ed.) Edward Arnold.

Moronkola, O.A. Ajao, O.A & Bello, J.D (2000). Health workers’ opinions about correlates of maternal mortality in two health institutions in Ibadan, Nigeria. Journal of Research in Health and Sport Science. 2, 1&2: 7-11.

Okafor, C.B. & Rizzuto, R.R. (1994). Women’s and health-care providers’ view of maternal practices and services in rural Nigeria. Studies in Family Planning. 25. 6:353-361.

Russell, A. (1993). Making pregnancy and childbearing safer for women in West Africa. Carnegie Quarterly. 38.1:1-20.

Thadeaus, S. & Maine, D. (1990). Too far to walk: Material mortality in contex. Columbia University Centre for Population and Family Health. Social Science Medicine. 42,10:138-150.

Timyan, J. Brechin, S., Measham, D., & Ogunteye, B. (1993). Access to care: more than a problem of distance. In the health of women: A global perspective (in M. Koblinsky, J. Timyan, & J. Gay) (Eds) 217-234. Westview, Boulder.

Yangye, T. (2008). A study on utilization and quality of coverage of antenatal care services at the sub-centre level. Indian Journal of Public Health 50, 1:49-52.

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The Relationship Between Malaria Infected Mothers and Their New Born Babies Anyaegbunam, Lucy C Nworah, Onyeka H. Department of Biological Sciences, Chukwuemeka Department of Biological Sciences, Odumegwu Ojukwu Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Anambra State, Nigeria University, Anambra State, Nigeria [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract The relationship between malaria infected pregnant mothers and the health status of their babies born alive was investigated. This was carried out between April – July 2013. The sampled population was drawn from two hospitals in Nnewi, Nnewi North Local Government Area of Anambra State. Two hundred consented pregnant mothers were sampled during antenatal and post-antenatal visits in the selected hospitals. A predesigned questionnaire, oral interview and hospital records were used for effective data collection. 152(60%) of the sampled pregnant mothers were infected by malaria. The malaria infection during pregnancy affected their babies as follows; 20(10%) of the infected mothers had preterm delivery, 26(13%) had low birth weight babies and 80(40%) had jaundiced babies. In the preventive measures, the use of insecticide treated nets (ITNs) was predominant (60%), followed by use of windows and door nets (18%), indoor residual spray (17%), and use of drugs (5%). Considering the risks associated with malaria infection in pregnancy, pregnant women should be encouraged to adhere strictly to the preventive measures such as sleeping under insecticide treated nets and intermittently use of anti-malaria drugs especially at the first trimester. These are so much publicized by the health personnel to avoid the unhealthy consequences with malaria infection.

Key words: Malaria, Pregnancy, mothers, Babies, infection

INTRODUCTION Malaria as a vector disease is prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions because of rainfall, consistent high temperatures, high humidity and stagnant waters in which mosquito (vector) larvae readily thrive. These provide common environment needed for their continuous breeding (Jemieson, Toovey, & Maurel, 2006). Malaria was found to be common in rural areas than in the cities. This was confirmed in several cities in Greater Mekong, sub region of South East Asia which is essentially malaria free, but is prevalent in rural regions including intercontinental boards and forest fringes (Cui Yan, Sattabongkot, Cao, Chen, & Fan, 2012). In contrast to this, malaria in Africa is both rural and urban, though the risk is lower in the big cities (Machault, Vignolles, Borchi, Vounatsou, Pages, Briolant, Lacaux & Rogier, 2011).

Malaria in pregnancy is an important public health problem and is found to have adverse effects on the babies of the affected mothers when born. Pregnant mothers are at the risk of being infected by malaria due to depression of cell-mediated immunity (Fievet, Cot, Chouguet, Maubert, Bickii & Dubois, 1995). This has been recorded to account for deaths of mothers, abortion of foetus or still birth and low birth weight (LBW) (Greenwood and Mutabingwa, 2002). In sub-saharan Africa, maternal malaria is associated with up to 200,000 estimated infant deaths yearly. There is preterm delivery (PTD) which is common in low- transmission areas where acquired premonition is poor.

This study however, tends to access the relationship between malaria infected pregnant mothers and their new born babies in Nnewi North L.G.A. Different preventive methods have been adopted in the control of this deadly disease; these include sleeping under insecticide treated nets (ITN), indoor residual spray (IRS) which is efficient in preventing malaria morbidity and mortality among children (Lengeler, 2004 and Tenser, Lengeler, & Sharp, 2010). The intermittent preventive therapy has successful control of malaria in pregnant mothers, infants and pre-school children where transmission is seasonal (Meremikwu, et al 2012).

MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was carried out in Nnewi, a town in Nnewi North Local Government Area of Anambra State. Nnewi is the second largest city in Anambra State with a population of about 204,252. It is located at 6.92o East and 6.03o North. It has tropical climate and vegetation characteristics of predominantly rainforest with 80% relative humidity, 30oC mean daily temperature and mean annual rainfall of 200cm.

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The sampled population was drawn from 2 hospitals; Obioma specialist and Divine care specialist all in Nnewi North Local Government Area. 200 consented mothers were randomly selected from these hospitals during antenatal visit for pregnant mothers and post antenatal for those who put to bed within the study period. This study was carried out from April to July 2013.

Data collection. This was based on oral interview, structured questionnaire and hospital records with the consent of the medical director. Analysis of data was by Chi-square.

RESULTS In the investigations of the relationship between malaria infected pregnant mothers and their babies after delivery, the following results were obtained; among 200 pregnant mothers examined, 152(76.0%) had malaria infection and in the age related infection, 26 – 35 years’ pregnant mothers were mostly affected (68.4%), while the least was 10.5% among 36 – 45 aged pregnant mothers, (T able 1). The preterm delivery among malaria infected mothers was 20(10%) as shown in Table 2. Low birth weight babies were 13% in malaria infected mothers as against 3% in uninfected pregnant mothers (Table 3). Jaundice was also a common effect (Table 4) with 80(40%) jaundiced babies in malaria infected pregnant mothers and 14(7%) in uninfected pregnant mothers. The preventive measures adopted by the mothers examined were, use of insecticide treated nets (ITN) (60%), indoor residual spray(IRS) (17%) and others (18%), Table 5.

Table 1: Age Distribution of the Consented Pregnant Mothers and their Malaria Infection Status ______Age(years) Number examined No infected %Infection ______16 – 25 (A) 38 32 21.1 26 – 35(B) 140 104 68.4 36 – 45(C) 22 16 10.5 ______Total 200 152(76%) 76.0 ______

Table 2: The Distribution of Preterm Delivery Among the Malaria Infected Pregnant Mothers ______Age range of mothers No. examined No infected PT Uninfected PTD ______16 - 25 38 32 6 6 - 26 – 35 140 104 12 36 - 36 – 45 22 16 2 6 - ______Total 200 152(76%) 20(10%) 48(24%) -(0.00%) ______

Table 3: Low Birth Weight Babies Among Malaria Infected Pregnant Mothers ______Group range No infected No. of LBW No Uninfected No of LBW ______A 32 8 6 1 B 104 12 36 4 C 22 6 6 1 ______Total 152(76%) 26(13%) 48(24%) 6(3%) ______NB: LBW- Low birth weight

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Table 4: The Number of Jaundiced Babies by Malaria Infected Pregnant Mothers ______Age group No infected No of jaundiced Uninfected No of jaundiced Babies babies ______A 32 10 6 2 B 104 54 36 10 C 16 16 6 2 ______Total 152(76%) 80(40%) 48(24%) 14(7%) ______

Table 5: Malaria Preventive Measures Adopted by the Respondents ______Population group No of respondents ITN IRS Medication Others ______A 38 18 2 - 18 B 140 88 28 8 16 C 22 14 4 2 2 ______Total 200 120(60%) 34(17%) 10(5%) 36(18%) ______

ITN – Insecticide Treated Net IRS – Indoor Residual Spray

DISCUSSION Among 200 mothers sampled for the study within the research period, 152(76%) were infected with malaria. The age-related infection was more among 26-35 age group (70%) and the least among 36-45years (8%). It was observed that among the infected pregnant mothers, (10%) had preterm delivery. This was observed in similar study in Malawi (Sullivan et al, 1999). There were low birth weight babies born by 13% of the malaria infected pregnant mothers. This confirmed the findings of Matteelli et al (1996) and Singh et al (1999) that malaria in pregnancy goes with low birth weight babies. There were cases of jaundice which was highly significant among neonates born by 40% infected mothers and 7% uninfected mothers. The risks so far observed in the study among infected pregnant mothers and their babies confirm that exposure to malaria infection have adverse effect on the mother and the baby (Greenwood and Mutabingwa, 2002).

Different levels of prevention were recorded among the sampled population. These include; use of insecticide treated nets (ITNs) (60%), indoor residual spray(IRS) (17%), anti malarial drugs and others (5-18%). Despite all these measures, a considerable number of respondents were among the infected mothers in the sampled population.

In conclusion, since malaria infection in pregnancy has associated risks, ranging from poor maternal health condition to preterm delivery, jaundice and low birth weight in babies, good public health education on health management should be enforced among pregnant mothers during antenatal visits. A more stringent measures need to be introduced in the study area.

REFERENCES Cui, L., Yan G., Sattabongkot. J., Cao, Y., Chen, X and Fan, O (2012). Malaria in the Greater Mekong subregion: Heterogeneity and complexity. Acta Tropica 121(3): 227 – 239.

Fievet, N., Cot, M., Chouguet, C., Maubert, B., Bickii, J and Dubois, B. (1995). Malaria and pregnancy in Cameroonia primigravidae. Humoral and cellular.

Greenwood, B and Mutabingwa, T. (2002). Malaria, Nature 415: - 670 – 672.

Jemieson, A., Toovey, S and Maurel M. (2006). Malaria. A traveler’s Guide struik.,30pp African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 121

Lengeler, C. (2004). Insecticide treated bed nets and curtains for preventing malaria. Database of systematic reviews (online) 2:CD 00363.

Machault, V., Vignolles, C., Borchi, F., Vounatsou, P., Pages, F., Briolant, S., Lacaux, J.P and Rogier, C (2011). The use of remotely sensed environmental data in the study of malaria. Geospatial Health 5(2): 151 – 168.

Meremikwu, M.M., Donegan, S., Sinclair, D., Esu, E. and Oringanye, C. (20102). Intermittent prevention treatment for malaria in children living in araeas with seasonal transmission. Cochrane Database of systematic review 2(2):CD 00375

Matteelli, A., Donato, F., Shun, A., Muchi, J.A., Abass, A.K and Muriam, M. (1996). Malaria infection and birth weight in Urban Zanibar. Tanzanian Ann. Trop. Med..Parasitol. Pp 125 – 134.

Tenser, F.C., Lengeler, C. and Sharp, B.I. (2010). Indoor residual spraying for preventing malaria. Cochrane Database of systematic Reviews (Online) 4: CD 006657.

Singh, N., Shukla, M.M and Sharma, V. P. (1999). Epidemiology of malaria in pregnancy in Central India.Bull. World Health Organ. 77: 567 – 572.

Sullivan, A.D., Nyiunda, T., Cullinan, T., Taylor, T. and Harlow (1999). Malaria infection during pregnancy: Intrauterine growth retardation and preterm delivery in Malawi.179: 1580 – 1583.s

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Efficacy of Herbal Treatment on Eczema among Secondary School Students in Uli, Anambra State, Nigeria.

Nwosu, Chimezie Maria.G. Emmy - Egbe, I.O. Department of Biological Sciences, Department of Biological Sciences Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University P.M.B. 02 Uli, Anambra State, Nigeria P.M.B. 02 Uli, Anambra State, Nigeria [email protected]. Abstract Studies to determine the efficacies of Herbal treatment (Aloe vera, walnut and unripe pawpaw) in the treatment of eczema among secondary school students in Uli, Anambra state, Nigeria were conducted from January-July, 2015. Consent was obtained from the head of the various schools. Direct culture of skin organisms, using spread plating techniques and invitro method of inoculation were used to examine the skin samples for skin related pathogens. Of the 200 subjects examined, the percentage mean occurrence for infection in students of the various schools in order of prevalence showed that Trichophyton had the highest prevalence in all schools (93.5%) Microsporum (83.5%) Staphyloccocus (70%) Streptoccocus (41%) and Candida (39%). The plant extract used in these study was found to be effective against eczema related pathogens. The promotion of better environmental conditions, placing greater emphasis on health education with respect to personal hygiene and controlling of immune response triggers in Uli / Nigeria at large can help reduce the prevalence rate of eczema.

Keywords: Eczema, Efficacy, Herbal treatments (Aloe vera, Walnut, Unripe Pawpaw).

INTRODUCTION The term herbal medicine is a sum total of knowledge, skills and practices based on the theories, beliefs and personal experiences indigenous to different cultures that are used to maintain health, prevent diseases or treat it completely both physical and mental wellness (Acharya and Shrivastava, 2008). According to WHO reports, more than 80% people in Asia rely on traditional medicines for treatment of diseases. Not only in developed countries but also in underdeveloped countries, a large proportion of population depend on herbal remedies more especially Asian and African continents.

Eczema is an inflammatory disease characterized by severe intense itching, edema, lichenification and scaling among other symptoms, both endogenous and exogenous factors can both give rise to this inflammatory response (Ronald, 1992). Around 5% cases develop chronic eczema and incidentally no cure is available. Mostly topical steroids are used which have plenty of adverse effect. Therefore, this research work is to determine the efficacy of herbal treatment (Aloe Vera, Walnut, Unripe Pawpaw) on eczema among secondary school students in Uli, Anambra State.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Area The selected area for the study is Uli town in Ihiala local government area of Anambra state Nigeria. The town lies between latitude 50 58 - 50 60N and longitude 60 47 - 60 57E. The town lies in the moist wood-land savannah while the humidity and temperature of this area is relatively high and the climate is tropical. There is a marked dry and rainy season from November - March and April - October respectively. Rainfall from November - April is about 250 - 500mm while from May to October it is over 2000mm with peak periods in July and September. The area is transverse by a number of streams and rivers which serve as main source of water supply for the inhabitants of the town. The residents of this town are engaged in rearing of cattle, sheep, pig, goats, trading, farming and other small scale business. some of the villages in Uli are Umuoma, Umuchima, Ndianyanaji, Ndialora, Amamputu, Ubahudara, etc.

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Sample Collection For Ethical Consideration, prior to the commencement of this study, the heads of the schools were contacted for enlightenment and permission and through the assistance of the teachers, students were mobilized and encouraged to participate in the study. For each participating individual a Questionnaire was given and Basic information about the student was obtained. It was ensured that patient anonymity was maintained with utmost confidentiality for the purpose of this research only. Skin samples were selected randomly from 20 students in 10 different secondary schools in Uli, Ihiala local government area of Nigeria containing male and female gender in ratio 2:2 i.e equal gender selection. The unripe pawpaw pulp and the walnut were gotten from Umudike Research Institute, Umuahia and the aloe vera was gotten from my house at Nibo, Awka Nigeria and taken to the Biological science lab of Micheal Okpara University for identification and authentication.

Sample Preparation Techniques The samples used in the isolation of eczema related microorganisms were collected from volunteers present and consulted school children who had visible infection of eczema on any part of their skin. To collect the test samples, the surface of the infected skin was first cleaned by swabbing with cotton wool dashed in methylated Spirit. Then carefully, the surface was scrapped gently with a near blunt lancet/razor and a sterile swab stick was dipped in sterile normal saline and washed to collect a swab sample of the eczema infected skin. The swab was covered and taken to the lab for analysis.

The media used in the tests to Isolate and identify the organisms from the skin samples and for the antimicrobial activity were prepared in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. The appropriate weight (as directed by manufacturers) 28g of nutrient Agar was mixed with distilled water to form a total of 1 litre. The mixture was heated in a sterile water bath until the agar melted. It was then sterilized in the oven at 1210C for 15mins. The resulting sterile medium was allowed to cool to about 450C in between, it was poured in 15ml portions into sterile petri dishes where they cooled and solidified and were used for the culture of microbes. Also SDA was also prepared based on manufacturer’s instructions, these was also used for the culture of fungal organisms.

It was done by direct culture of skin organisms. The collected skin Swab samples were cultured directly by swabbing the plate surface with the swab stick containing the eczema skin sample. The swab was streaked severally over the medium surface. Plates were sealed and incubated separately for each sample at temperature of 370C for bacteria on Nutrient agar and at room temperature for 2-5 days for fungi on Sabore Dextrose agar (SDA). The plates were observed daily for growth. This technique is called the spread plating technique (Cheesebrough, 2000). On establishment of growth, the culture plate was examined for distinct colonies from which sub-culture was done by aseptically transferring a loopful Inoculation from the distinct colonies to a fresh sterile solid agar plate. The Inoculum in each case was streaked as described earlier, on establishment of growth; the Colonies in the plate were examined for uniformity as a mark of purity. The pure cultures were used for the characterization and subsequent Identification of isolates using Bergy’s manual at determinative bacteriology (Buchanan and Gibbons, 1974) and manual for the identification of medical bacteria (Cowon and Steel, 1993).

Production of Extracts The three plant samples, Aloe vera, walnut and unripe pawpaw fruit were prepared prior to extraction. For the Aloe vera, the plant leaves were extracted for defects, after which it was washed. The gel was extracted normally and used for the production of extract for antimicrobial tests. The walnut seed were washed and crackedopen normally. The cotyledons were opened up and dried in the sun for two days making sure to check the weight at intervals until it is completely dry. Similarly, the unripe pawpaw fruit was washed and peeled to remove the back and then cut into thin slices which were spread on a laboratory tray and dried in the sun for 2-3 days. The dried samples both pawpaw and walnut were separately ground into powder in a Laboratory mill. The powdered samples were used for the extraction.

The cold extraction method was used (Harborne, 1996). A measured weight of the sample (20g) was mixed with the appropriate solvent (ethanol or water (200mls) to form a 1.10 weight/volume ratio. The mixture was

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agitated well and then filtered through a white cloth, after which filtrate was refiltered through Whitman No- 1 filter paper. The filtrate (the extract) was evaporated to dryness over a steam bath to obtain the crude extract used in the project.

Statistical Analysis Data collected from the study were statistically analysed using arithmetic means, percentages, standard deviation and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).

TABLES AND RESULTS

Table 1: Qualitative Phytochemical screening of plant extracts Samples Alkaloid Saponin Flavonoid Tannin Phenolics Steroids Cyanogens Aloe vera

H20 + ++ ++ ++ + - + Ethanol ++ + ++ + ++ ++ - Unripepawpaw

H20 Ethanol + ++ ++ ++ + - + +++ + + + ++ + - Walnut

H20 ++ ++ ++ ++ + - + Ethanol +++ + + + ++ ++ -

KEY: Absent in test sample + = present in small quantity ++ = present in moderate quantity +++ = present in high quantity

RESULTS Table 1 show that Alkaloid, Saponin, Flavonoid, Tannins, Steroids, Phenolics and Cyanogenic glycosides are present in the test samples of various concentrations by visual rating. Ethanol extracts of the samples had more alkaloid (++) to (+++) than the water extract which has from (+) to (++) Saponin and Tannin were more in the water extract (++) than in the ethanol extract (+). Phenols on the other hand, was higher (++) in ethanol extract than in the water extracts (+). Cyanogenic glycosides were absent in the ethanol extract but present at low concentrations (+) in the water extract of all the samples. Also, steroid was absent in the water extract (-) but present (+) at low concentration in the ethanol extract.

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Table 2: % occurrence of Isolates in sample of Secondary School Students with Eczema in Uli, Ihiala Local Government Area. Schools Microsporum (%) Staphylococcus (%) Streptococcus (%) Trichophyton (%) Candida (%) Gods Glory 80 65 45 85 35 academy

City 80 65 40 90 40 Comprehensive Divinity 85 70 45 95 35 secondary Higher achiever 80 75 40 90 40 Spencer 80 70 45 100 35 secondary Girls secondary 85 65 40 95 45 school Community high 90 70 45 100 40 school Popular 80 75 40 90 45 St. Vincent 90 75 35 90 40 Madonna 85 70 35 90 40

Results Table 2 shows that Microsporum had the highest occurrence ranging from (80%-90%). For Staphyloccocus we have a range occurrence of (65-75%), for Streptoccoccus, we have a range occurrence of (35-45%). For Trichophyton, we have a range occurrence of (85-100%). For Candida, we have a range occurrence of (35- 45%) as recorded for the ten secondary schools.

Table 3: Antimicrobial activity of extract against Eczema pathogens. Samples Microsporum Staphylococcus Streptococcus Candida Trichophyton Aloevera

H2O 7.67±0.58 12.00±1.00 14.33±1.16 9.67±1.16 11.33±1.53 Ethanol 11.67±1.16 14.67±0.58 10.67±0.58 14.67±1.53 15.33± 1.16

Walnut

H2O 0.00±0.00 9.33±0.58 13.67±0.58 9.67±0.58 12.33±1.16 Ethanol 12.67±1.00 12.00±1.00 11.33±0.58 13.00±1.00 13.33±1.53 Unripepawpaw

H20

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Ethanol 10.00±1.00 10.33±0.58 8.67±0.58 12.33±1.16 9.67±0.58 12.33±1.16 11.67±0.58 18.33±1.16 14.67±1.16 15.00±1.00 Standard antibiotic used 20.33±2.08 24.67±1.16 22.33±1.16 23.33±1.16 19.67±1.53

Values show mean values of triplicate analysis of plant extracts± standard deviation Results Table 3 shows that Aloe vera water extract inhibited the isolated organisms in the following manner. Microsporum(7.67mm±0.58), Staphylococcus(12.00mm±1.00), Streptococcus(14.33mm ±1.16), Candida(9.67mm±1.16) and Trichophyton (11.33mm±1.53). The diameter of inhibition zone of the same organisms by the ethanol extract was (11.67mm±1.16), (14.67mm±0.58), (10.67mm±0.58), (14.67mm±1.53) and (15.33mm ±1.16). Walnut water extracts showed inhibition zones with diameter of (0.00mm±0.00), (9.33mm±0.58), (13.67mm± 0.58), (9.67mm±0.58) and (12.33mm±1.16) and ethanol extract had inhibition zones of diameters (12.67mm±1.00), (12.00mm±1.00), (11.30mm±0.58), (13.00mm±1.00), and (13.33mm±1.53) for the same organisms respectively. The diameter of the inhibition zones recorded for the same organisms with unripe pawpaw extracts were as follows, for water and ethanol extracts; Microsporum (10.00mm±1.00) and (12.33mm±1.16), Staphylococcus (10.33±0.58) and (11.33±0.58), Staphyloccocus (8.67mm±0.08) and (15.33mm±1.16), Candida (12.33mm±1.16) and (14.67mm ± 1.16) and Trichophyton (9.67mm±0.58) and (15.00mm±1.00). The standard antibiotic recorded inhibition zones of Microsporum (20.33mm±2.08), Staphyloccocus (24.67mm±1.16), Streptoccocus (22.33mm±1.16), Candida (23.33mm±1.16) and Trichophyton (19.67mm±1.53). There is mean Significant variations (p<0.05) between the activity of the different plant extract.

Table 4: Mean values of plant extracts against organisms associated with Eczema in Secondary School children (% potency). Samples Microsporum Staphyloccocus Streptoccocus Candida Trichophyton

Aloe vera

H2O Ethanol 37.72 48.64 64.17 41.45 57.62 57.40 59.46 47.77 62.89 77.95

Walnut H2O Ethanol 0.00 37.81 61.20 52.85 62.70 63.32 48.64 50.75 62.88 67.79 Unripe pawpaw

H2O ethanol 49.19 41.87 38.81 41.44 49.14 60.65 47.26 68.67 55.72 76.26

Results Table 4 shows that for Microsporum, the efficacy was highest (63.32%) in ethanol extract of walnut and least in the water extract of walnut (0.00%). The relative efficacy of the extracts against Staphylococcus spp was lowest 37.81% (walnut water extract) but highest 59.46% (Aloe vera ethanol extract). Unripe pawpaw extract

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 127 had the highest efficacy of 68.67% against Streptococcus while unripe pawpaw water extract had the least (38.81%) efficacy against Streptoccocus. For Candida, the relative efficacy of the extracts was highest at Aloe vera (62.89%) followed by walnut (62.88) both of ethanol extracts. While the one with the least efficacy is that of unripe pawpaw (H20 extract with 41.44%. For Trichophyton, Aloe vera in ethanol extract had the highest efficacy (77.95%) followed by unripe pawpaw ethanol extract (76.26%) the lowest efficacy on eczema will seem to be unripe pawpaw in water extract (49.14%).

DISCUSSION The results as shown in table 1 may be due to the fact that Alkaloids, as discussed in 2.7 are numerous in plant to ensure plant survival and in man can be said to have an antianalgesic effect. The H20 extracts of all three plant samples were lower than ethanol extracts. These shows that the ethanol extracts of the three samples will have more effect than that of H20 extracts. Saponins are present in small quantity and are soluble in water; they have little effect on eczema, inhibit mould (antifungal) and protect plants from insect attack. Flavonoid and Saponin have same number in screening, these means that they have a natural ocurrence in fruits and vegetables and so will be said to have such pharmacological effects as anti-inflammatory against eczema. Tannins also occurred as Saponin and Flavonoids, they are naturally found in fruits and also have pharmacological effects as inflammatory and treatment of chronic disease. Phenolics is higher in the ethanol extract of all three samples (++) moderate quantity and lower in water extracts of sample (+). Reason may be that Phenolics are in moderate quantity and not toxic to health and have such antimicrobial effects against strains of bacteria as staphylococcus aureus and that can be the reason it is so used as an antiseptic. Steroids was little to moderate quantity in ethanol extracts of all three samples (++,+and ++) respectively and in water extract it was absent. It may mean that steroids are active against eczema in ethanol extracts but in water extracts was not present meaning its activity is limited. Steroids are of importance in pharmacy due to relationship with such compounds as sex hormones.

HCN have also been implicated in ethanol extracts of all three sample but in small quantity meaning their effect is minimal and because on hydrolysis they yield Hydrocyanic acid, a known toxic substance to man and animal which may be reason enough for it to be little in water extract of three samples.

As shown in table 2, Microsporum and Trichophyton have high prevalence related to the schools, this can be said to be because of incident sport activities that bring about sweat and because student always play together, eat together and do so many things together. The prevalent cause of transmission becomes inevitable since fungi dwells more in moist environment, Staphylococcusspp can be termed as a normal flora bacteria of skin and so is reason enough for prevalence in various schools, Streptococcus was lower than Staphylococcus, this can be associated with hay fever or asthma which have various interactions with eczema as recorded in my review. Candida seemed to be the lowest in terms of occurrence showing that most of the students were less infected with it.

There is mean Significant variations (p<0.05) between the activity of the different plant extracts in table 3, we see the antimicrobial activity of extract against eczema pathogens, with respect to the standard antibiotic used (i.e. nixoderm) I noticed that the curate against eczema pathogens were higher than the plant extract. This may be reason enough that conventional drugs are effective but have adverse effects. In plant extract especially unripe pawpaw in ethanol, there was high activity against the microbes almost close to effect of Nixoderm. These would seem better because plants have been indicated to be effective against eczema with fewer side effects. These was followed by Aloe vera ethanol extracts on eczema which are also implicated to have effects on eczema, walnut had the lowest but these generally means that plant extract may be slower to function but have better options of survival and lesser rates of adverse effects and so may be said to prove efficient in treatment of eczema.

In table 4, we see that in Aloe vera water extract of Microsporum, it was lower than the ethanol extract and same goes for all the skin pathogens except streptococcus which had higher water extract than ethanol extract, these shows that Aloe vera ethanol extract have efficiency on eczema than waterextract of aloe vera. In walnut, the relative efficiency of walnut waterextract against Staphylococcus was low and not active in Microsporum but the ethanol extract seemed to be higher with ++ and so may be said to have moderate effect

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 128 on skin eczema. In unripe pawpaw, the relative efficiency against Trichophyton in ethanol extract was higher and lowest in water extract of Streptococcus.

In general view, it can be said that these plant extract may be efficient in treating eczema with ethanol extract of aloe vera being more effective and with a close range for ethanol extracts of unripe pawpaw and finally walnut ethanol extracts. Their water extracts may be said to have mild effect or take slower time to have effect with long term benefits.

CONCLUSION In conclusion, Aloe vera in ethanol had the highest efficacy against Trichophyton followed by Unripe Pawpaw in ethanol against Trichophyton and finally Walnut in ethanol but as with any alternative method of treating skin diseases, it is important for patients to carefully discuss their options with a medical professional or with a licensed and experienced herbalist. Some herbs have high level of toxicity and while effective may still lead to health complications if not used properly. It is also very important that people do not self-diagnose any health conditions.

REFERENCES Acharya, D. and Shrivastava A. editors (2008). Indigenous Herbal medicines: Tribal formulations and traditional Herbal Practices Delhi: Aavishkar Publishers. 444Pp.

Buchanan, R.E. and Gibbons, N.E. (1974). Bergy’s Manual of determinative Bacteriology. 8th ed. Williams and Wilkins Co., Baltimore. Md. 21202 12: 1246 Pp.

Cheesebrough, M. (2000). District laboratory practice in tropical. District laboratory practice in tropical countries and part 2. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 434pp. Danbara, H., Komase, Klyli, Y. Shinohowa… WWW.American science. Org/Journal am-sci /0254/11-0207-Umuluidia-am.Doc.June 6, 2015.

Cowon, S.T., Steel, K.J. (1993). Cowon and Steel’s manual for Identification of medical bacteria. Cambridge University press, Cambridge, New York.331 Pp.

Harborne, J. B. (1993). Phytochemical methods and modern techniques of plant analysis. Chapman and Hall. New York. 4: 241 Pp.

Ronald M. (1992) Eczema. Philadelphia; Springer-verlag.109: 69-75.3 Pp

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 129

Analysis of Abrasive Wear Rate in Hot Forging Process. Using Finite Element Method.

C.I. Oviawe S.O. Omoruyi Department of Mechanical Engineering, Edo Department of Electrical/Electronic Engineering, State Polytechnic Usen, P.M.B. 1104, Benin City, Edo State Polytechnic Usen, P.M.B. 1104, Benin Edo State. City, Edo State. [email protected] [email protected]

A.L. Uwuidia Department of Mechanical Engineering, Edo State Polytechnic Usen, P.M.B. 1104, BeninCity, Edo State [email protected]

Abstract The analysis of one-dimensional abrasive wear rate in hot-forging process was computed using the Bubnov- Galerkin Finite Element Method in the present study. The weak form of the governing differential equation was obtained and nodal contact pressures for linear interpolation functions for different elements are calculated for Neumann boundary conditions. Time approximation was done with the aid of the Crank- Nicholson Finite difference scheme and time step t  0.5 was used to obtain equation for the solution. Using a numerical example, the results showed a maximum error of 0.5 percent for a number of linear elements. It is concluded that as the mesh is refined further progressively, the finite element solution approaches the exact solution which is an indication that the solutions are accurate and the method very robust.

Keywords: Finite element method, Crank-Nicholson, Finite difference scheme, Bubnov-Galerkin, Time approximate.

INTRODUCTION Wear is a damage to solid surface, generally involving progressive loss of material, due to relative motion between that surface and contacting substance or surface (Gurrumoorthy, Kamaraj, Prasad Rao, & Venugopal, 2007). Wear is generally described as abrasive, adhesive or erosive (Allen and Ball,2012). Among these types, abrasive wear is the most important due to its destructive character (Chattopadyay,2001). Abrasive wear is the detachment of the material from surfaces in relative motion, caused by sliding of hard particles between the opposing surfaces, the hard particles normally slide on a softer surface and detach material from the latter (Harris, Broussard, & Keska, 2002). The direct cost of wear failures increased work and time, loss of productivity as well as direct losses of energy and increased environmental burden are real problems in every day work.

A large number of researches on wear prediction exist in literature. Daushyan et al (2011) developed a mathematical model for the prediction of abrasive wear behavior is agricultural grade medium carbon steel. Bin (2012) carried out a review of tool wear estimation using theoretical analysis and numerical stimulation technologies. Xie and Williams (1996) developed a mathematical model for prediction of friction and wear when a soft surface slide against a harder rough surface. Eriksen and William (1997) discussed the prevention of abrasive tool wear by optimizing the geometry of tool. Hokkirigawa and Kato (1988) carried out an experimental and theoretical investigation of ploughing, cutting and wedge. Masen, deRooij & Schipper (2003) carried out a development of microcontact based modeling of abrasive.

Furthermore, Rahaman and Liongchi (2014) carried out an analysis that is baseed on the estimation of interface temperature during contact sliding of bulk metallic glass. While Velten, Reinicke & Fredrick (2002) developed an analysics that is based on wear volume prediction with artificial neural networks. The analytical asperity deformation models for explaining metal sliding friction and wear was developed by Black, Kopalinsky, & Oxley (1993). Hokkirigawa and Kato, (1989) carried out theoretical estimation of abrasive wear resistance based on microscopic wear mechanism. In this paper, we present the finite element analysis

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 130 to solve the differential equation which governs the abrasive wear behaviour in hot forging process and compare the solution obtained with that of exact solution.

Governing differential equation The governing differential equation for the abrasive wear behavior is given by: Sd2 p KVdp 1 dp   kp  (1) dv2 dv v dt 0  v  h Where, (Oviawe, 2014) S: sliding distance. K: dimensionless wear co-efficient. V: wear volume. P: contact pressure. v: sliding velocity. The associated boundary conditions are given by: dp po,t  1 and o,t  0 dv Initial condition pv,o  1 MATERIALS AND METHODS The spatial domain of abrasive wear was divided into a number of uniform linear element with length V . Stiffness matrix, mass matrix and flux vector were generated for each element using Bubnov-Galerkin finite element method to get the contact pressure at nodal points. The stiffness matrix and mass matrix were assembled by enforcing continuity for the nodal degree of freedom to obtain the global system equations. The lagrange linear interpolation functions were used to obtain a solution.

A finite difference modeling was developed using the  - family of approximation in which a weighted average of time derived of the dependent variable p is approximated at two consecutive time steps by linear interpolation of the values of the variable at two steps. We then apply the Crank-Nicholson finite difference scheme by taking =0.5 and a time step t  0.5 to obtain equation for the solution. A numerical analysis was done to compare the finite element results with the exact solution.

Weak Formulation The weak form of equation (2.1) is obtained by multiplying the equation by a weight function W=w(t) and integrating it over the domain of the element and since it is time dependent and this becomes: 2 h Sd pdvt h dpdv h h 1 dp wt wtKV  wtkpdv wt dv  0 (2) o dv2 o dv o o V dt

That is,

2 h Sd p dp h h 1 dp wt  wtKV dv  wtKpdv  wt dv  0 (3) o  2 o o   dv dv V dt 

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Sd2 p dp The term was put in the weaker order . Using integration by part principles dv2 dv

h h  d  sdp  sdp hsdw dp wt   dv  wt  dv (4) o     o dv dv   dv o dv dv Substitute the weak form equation (2.4) into equation (2.3)

sdp h hdp dw h dp h h 1 dp wt  S dv  KV wt dv  K wtPdv  wt dv  0 (5) dv o o dv dv o dv o o V dv Equation (2.5) becomes

h hdp dw h dpdv h h 1 dpdv  dp S dv  KV wt  k wtpdv  wt  S wt  0 (.6) o o o o   dv dv dv V dt  dvo Equation (2.6) is the weak form of equation (2.1)

Finite element modeling Let equation (2.6) be separable variable form n e e (7) pv,t  p V,t   p j t j V  j1 In finite element form, equation (2.7) becomes:

n n e e s e (.8) pv,t   p j t j v  p j  j v j1 j1

e e Where  j is lagrange interpolation function at the jth node and p j the pressure at jth node of the element. Since Bubnov-Galerkin finite element is to be applied in the study, we assume that the weight function is equal to interpolation functions. That is:

wt   j v (9) Substituting equation (2.8) and (2.9) into equation (2.6) we obtain:

e e e h h dp j t e d j e dp j t e S  j v vdv  KV  j v  j v o dv dv o dv

e e h h h e e e 1 e dp j e  e dp j   k  j v p j t j vdv   j v t j v S j   0 (10) o  V o dv dv  o Let

e e e h h dp j e d j e dp j e Kij  S t j v vdv  KV  j v t j vdv o o dv dv dv h e e e  K  j v p j t j vdv o 

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e h 1 e dp j e M ij   j v t j v V o dv e e e e Qi  S i h1 Q1  S i ho Qo That is,

n e e e (11) Kij p j  M ijPj  Qi  0 j1 In matrix form, equation (2.11) becomes:

e e e Kp j  M p j  Qi  or

e e e M p j  Kp j  Qi  (12) Where [M] = mass matrix [K] = stiffness matrix {Q} = Flux vector

Equation (2.12) is the finite element mode (FEM) for the analysis The one-dimensional lagrange linear interpolation functions are:

e V2 V 1 v  V2 V1

2 V V1  2 v  V2 V1

The Lagrange linear interpolation can be written compactly as  j v   ji , where  ji is called kronecker delta and has the property. 1 if j  l  ji    0 if j  l  Numerical example Use the finite element analysis to predict the abrasive wear rate in hot forging process. the governing differential equation is given: Sd2 p Kvdp 1 dp   KP  dv2 dv v dt lm  V 2m Boundary condition dp po,t  1 and o,t  0 dv Initial condition pv,o  1 Solution

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In solving the problem, we shall use linear interpolation functions for the solution. First, we will discretize the domain into eight linear elements which exposes nine nodes and observe the behaviour of the solution. First we will need to calculate the element mass matrix, stiffness matrix, noting that

e e Mij p j  kp j  Qi  (13)

e e 1 d v d j v M e   e i (14) ij V dv dv

e e e  e e e  e  d j d u e d i e e  Kij   S  KV  i  k  i i dv (15) o o o  dv dv dv 

Where

e  Vi1 = coordinate of the right end of element

o  Vi = coordinate of the left end of element. For a choice of linear interpolation lagrange functions, the element mass matrix and stiffness matrix will be in the form

m11 m12 p1  k11 k12 p1  Q1            (16) m21 m22 p 2  k21 k22 p2  Q2  Where

p1, p2, p1, p2 = nodal degree of freedom Q1,Q2 = flux vector.

For a uniform increment, Vi1 Vi for N elements That is, 2 1 V V   0.125 i1 i 8

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Thus,

V 1 i 1 d1v d1 M11   vdV  68 V V i dv dv V 1 i 1 d1v d 2 M12   vdV  68 V V i dv dv

V 1 i 1 d 2 v d1v M 21    68 V V i dv dv V 1 i 1 d 2 d 2 v M 22  v  68 V V i dv dv In matrix form Element 1 The element mass matrix is given as: 1  68  68p1  Q1       (17)  68 68  p 1   2  Q2  Element 2 The element mass matrix is given as: 2  76  76p 2  Q2       (18)  76 76  p 2   3  Q3  Element 3 The element mass matrix is given as 3  84  84p3  Q3       (19)  84 84  p 3   4  Q4  Element 4 The element mass matrix is given as

4  92  92p 4  Q4       (20)  92 92  p 4   5  Q5 

Element 5 The element mass matrix is given as: 5  100 100p5  Q5       (21) 100 100  p 5   6  Q6  Element 6 The element mass matrix is given as: 6  108 108p6  Q6       (22) 108 108  p 6   7  Q7 

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Element 7 The element mass matrix is given as: 7  116 116p7  Q7       (23) 116 116  p 7   8  Q8 

For the 8th elements, we have nodes 8 and 9. Superimposing element 8 on element 1, we have node 8 becomes node 1 and node 9 becomes node 2. Vi  1.875 and Vi1  2.0 . In matrix form, element (8) mass matrix becomes: 8  124 124p8  Q8       (24) 124 124  p 8   9  Q9 

The next step is to assemble the element mass matrices for all the eight elements. We obtain the system mass matrix below: Q1   1  p1     68  68 0 0 0 0 0 0 0    1 2 p Q2  Q2     2   68 144  76 0 0 0 0 0 0   2 3   p  Q3  Q3   3   0  76 160  84 0 0 0 0 0   3 4 Q  Q   0 0  84 176  92 0 0 0 0   p 4  4 4        4 5  0 0 0  92 192 100 0 0 0   p5   Q5  Q5       5 6  0 0 0 0 100 208 108 0 0 p 6 Q  Q  0 0 0 0 0 108 224 166 0     6 6  6 7    p 7  Q  Q  0 0 0 0 0 0 116 240 124    7 7    7 8 p8     Q8  Q8   0 0 0 0 0 0 0 124 124   p   8   9  Q   9  (25) Similarly, we evaluated for stiffness matrix to obtain

2 2  6s  khe  6s  khe    1 e 6h 6h p1  Q1  k    e e       6s  kh2 6s  5kh2  p 1 e e  2  Q2    (26)  6he 6he  Where K= the dimensionless wear coefficient (10-2) S = sliding distance he = wear depth

Element 1 The element stiffness matrix is given as 1  1.002 1.002p1  Q1        1.002 0.999 p Q1    2   2  (27) African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 136

Element 2 The element stiffness matrix is given as: 2  2.002  2.002p2  Q2         2.002 1.999 p Q2    3   3  (28) Element 3 The element stiffness matrix is given as: 3  3.002  3.002p3  Q3         3.002 2.999 p Q3    4   4  (29) Element 4 The element stiffness matrix is given as: 4  4.002  4.002p4  Q4         4.002 3.999 p Q4    5   5  (30) Element 5 The element stiffness matrix is given as: 5  5.002  5.002p5  Q5         5.002 4.999 p Q5    6   6  (31) Element 6 The element stiffness matrix is given as: 6  6.002  6.002p6  Q6         6.002 5.999 p Q6    7   7  (32)

Element 7 The element stiffness matrix is given as: 7  7.002  7.002p7  Q7         7.002 6.999 p Q7    8   8  (33) Element 8 2 For element 8, we have nodes 8 and 9, p8, p9 ,S  20 and k  10 . We then used superimposition of element 8 on element 1, node 8 becomes node 1 and node 9 becomes node 2.

The element stiffness matrix obtained is: 8  16.002 16.002p8  Q8        16.002 15.999 p Q8    9   9  (34) African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 137

Using continuity for node 8, which is common to element 7 and element 8. The matrix for all the element (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 9) assembled to becomes 1 Q1   p1     1.002 1.002 0 0 0 0 0 0 0    1 2 p Q2  Q2     2  1.002 3.002  2.002 0 0 0 0 0 0   2 3   p  Q3  Q3   3   0  2.002 5.001  3.002 0 0 0 0 0   3 4   3.002 7.001  4.002 0 0 0 0  p Q  Q  0 0  4   4 4       4 5   0 0 0  4.002 9.001  5.002 0 0 0   p5   Q5  Q5   0 0     5 6  0 0  5.002 11.001  6.002 0 0 p6 Q  Q  0 0 0  6.002 13.001  7.002 0     6 6  0 0 6 7    p7  Q  Q  0 0 0 0 0 0  7.002 23.001 16.002    7 7    7 8 p8     Q8  Q8   0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16.002 15.999   p   8   9  Q  9  (35)

The global assembled equation for mass matrix M e , stiffness matrix K e  and flux vector Qe  becomes:

p1   68  68 0 0 0 0 0 0 0    p  68 144  76 0 0 0 0 0 0   2    p   0  76 160  84 0 0 0 0 0   3   0 0  84 176  92 0 0 0 0  p4       0 0 0  92 192 100 0 0 0  p5    0 0 0 0 100 208 108 0 0  p   6   0 0 0 0 0 108 224 116 0    p7   0 0 0 0 0 0 116 240 124   p8  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 124 124      p   9 

p1  Q1   1.002 1.002 0 0 0 0 0 0 0    p      2  0  1.002 3.002  2.002 0 0 0 0 0 0  p3  0   0  2.002 5.001  3.002 0 0 0 0 0       0 0  3.002 7.001  4.002 0 0 0 0  p4  0         0 0 0  4.002 9.001  5.002 0 0 0  p5   0   0 0 0 0  5.002 11.001  6.002 0 0  p  0   6     0 0 0 0 0  6.002 13.001  7.002 0    p7  0   0 0 0 0 0 0  7.002 23.001 16.002     p8 0  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16.002 15.999        p  Q   9   9  (36) 2 3 4 5 6 7 Due to balance of internal fluxes, it follows that Q3  Q3  Q5  Q5  Q7  Q7  0 and

Q2  Q4  Q6  Q8  0 2 4 6 8

Equation (36) becomes:

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p 1   68  68 0 0 0 0 0 0 0    p  68 144  76 0 0 0 0 0 0   2    p   0  76 160  84 0 0 0 0 0   3   0 0  84 176  92 0 0 0 0  p 4        0 0 0  92 192 100 0 0 0  p5    0 0 0 0 100 208 108 0 0  p   6   0 0 0 0 0 108 224 116 0    p 7   0 0 0 0 0 0 116 240 124   p 8  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 124 124      p   9 

p1  Q1   1.002 1.002 0 0 0 0 0 0 0    p      2  0  1.002 3.002  2.002 0 0 0 0 0 0  p3  0   0  2.002 5.001  3.002 0 0 0 0 0       0 0  3.002 7.001  4.002 0 0 0 0  p4  0         0 0 0  4.002 9.001  5.002 0 0 0  p5   0   0 0 0 0  5.002 11.001  6.002 0 0  p  0   6     0 0 0 0 0  6.002 13.001  7.002 0    p7  0   0 0 0 0 0 0  7.002 23.001 16.002     p8 0  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16.002 15.999        p  Q   9   9  (37) dp We consider the boundary condition po,t 0 which implies that 1,t  0 initial condition dv

pv,o1.0  p1 which implies that Q1  0

0   68  68 0 0 0 0 0 0 0    p  68 144  76 0 0 0 0 0 0   2    p   0  76 160  84 0 0 0 0 0   3   0 0  84 176  92 0 0 0 0  p 4        0 0 0  92 192 100 0 0 0  p5    0 0 0 0 100 208 108 0 0  p   6   0 0 0 0 0 108 224 116 0    p 7   0 0 0 0 0 0 116 240 124   p 8  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 124 124      p   9  0  0   1.002 1.002 0 0 0 0 0 0 0    p 0     2    1.002 3.002  2.002 0 0 0 0 0 0  p3  0   0  2.002 5.001  3.002 0 0 0 0 0       0 0  3.002 7.001  4.002 0 0 0 0  p4  0         0 0 0  4.002 9.001  5.002 0 0 0  p5   0   0 0 0 0  5.002 11.001  6.002 0 0  p  0   6     0 0 0 0 0  6.002 13.001  7.002 0    p7  0   0 0 0 0 0 0  7.002 23.001 16.002     p8 0  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16.002 15.999        p  Q   9   9  (38)

The condensed equations are:

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p  144  76 0 0 0 0 0 0  2 p   76 160  84 0 0 0 0 0   3    p   0  84 176  92 0 0 0 0   4   0 0  92 192  100 0 0 0  p 5         0 0 0  100 208  108 0 0  p6      0 0 0 0  108 224  116 0 p 7  0 0 0 0 0 116 240  124     p8   0 0 0 0 0 0  124 124    p 9 

p  1.002  3.002  2.002 0 0 0 0 0 0  2 p       3  1.002   2.002 5.001 3.002 0 0 0 0 0  p4  0   0  3.002 7.001  4.002 0 0 0 0       0 0  4.002 9.001  5.002 0 0 0  p5  0          0 0 0  5.002 11.001  6.002 0 0  p6  0        0 0 0 0  6.002 13.001  7.002 0 p7 0  0 0 0 0 0  7.002 23.001 16.002       p8  0  0 0 0 0 0 0 16.002 15.999   p  0   9    (38)

Recall equation (12) that the finite element model (FEM) was the form:

Thus,

144  76 0 0 0 0 0 0     76 160  84 0 0 0 0 0   0  84 176  92 0 0 0 0   0 0  92 192 100 0 0 0  M     0 0 0 100 208 108 0 0   0 0 0 0 108 224 116 0   0 0 0 0 0 116 240 124   0 0 0 0 0 0 124 124   (39)

 3.002  2.002 0 0 0 0 0 0     2.002 5.001 3.002 0 0 0 0 0   0  3.002 7.001  4.002 0 0 0 0   0 0  4.002 9.001  5.002 0 0 0  K    0 0 0  5.002 11.001  6.002 0 0   0 0 0 0  6.002 13.001  7.002 0   0 0 0 0 0  7.002 23.001 16.002   0 0 0 0 0 0 16.002 15.999   (40)

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1.002   1.002  0    0  Q   0  0    0    0  (41)

Finite Difference Modeling In this study, we used the  -family of approximation in which weighted average of time derived of dependent variable P is approximated at two consecutive time steps by linear interpolation of the values of the variable at two steps.

ps1  ps 1 ps  ps1  for 0   1 (42) ts1



Where  s refers to the value of the enclosed quantity at time t  ts  t1 since the finite element i1 model in valid for any t>0, it is valid for t=ts and t=ts+1

M ps  Kps  Qs (43)

M ps1  K s1  Qs1 (44)

We multiply both sides of equation (4.1) by ts1M  to get:

t  M p  t 1 M p  M p  p s1   s1 s1   s   s1  s  (45)

We substitute for M ps1 and M ps from equations (4.2) and (4.3) respectively.

ts1Qs1  ps  Rearranging the terms into known and unknown, we get

M  ts1kps1  M  ts11 Kps  ts1Qs1  1 Qs 

But

Qs1  Qs  Q Therefore, writing

ts1  t

M  t K p  M  t 1 K p  t Q     s1      s   (46) We apply the crank-Nicholson finite difference scheme i.e. we take =0.5 equation (46) becomes:  tk  tK  M  ps1  M  ps  tQ  2   2 

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1 1  tK  tK  tK

ps1  M   M  ps  M   tQ  2   2   2    (47) For one-element mesh, we have:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M11 tk11 M12 tk12 p1  M11  1 tk11 M12  1 tk12 p1  Q1         t  1 1 1 1 p 1 1 1 1 p 1 M 21 tk21 M 22 tk22  2 s1 M 21  1 tk21 M 22  1 tk22  2 s Q2  (48) Using the boundary conditions, we recast for the one-element model as: M 1  1 tk1   tQ1  22 22 2 (49) p2s1   1 1 p2s   1 1 p2s  M 22  tk22  M 22  tk22 

1 1 The solutions are then obtained by substituting into equation (4.7) value of M 22 , K22 and taking a time step

t  0.5. We then solved repeatedly for P2 at difference times, S=0,1,2,3,…30.

Exact solution Sd3 p dp 1 dp  KV  Kp   0 dv2 dv V dt

We assume that p  VvTt

 sd 2 p dp   dp V  KV  Kp    dv2 dv  dt   (50) We solved equation (5.1) by separation of variables using pv,t  VvTt Thus, equation (50) becomes s d 2V dV 1 dT 1

2  1   2 KV dv dV KT dt  (51) 1 Where (Constant of separation ) 2 We assumed the L.H.S. of equation (51) is independent of (t) and R.H.S. independent of (V), then each side of equation (51) can be equated to the constant of separation. We solve for both L.H.S and R.H.S. to obtain a generally solution for any n. 2  n    nv  k  t  h  (52) pn V,t  nSin  n1  h  We apply the initial condition   nV  pV ,o   nSin  (53) n1  h  African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 142

 mv  We multiply both sides of equation (5.4) by Sin  and integrating from 0 to h gives  h 

h  mv  h   mv   nv  Sin  pV ,odv  nSin Sin dV o o   h  n1  h   h  (54) Using the orthogonality of Sinmv and Sinnv we get

h  nv  h Sin  pv,odv  n o  h  2 (55) Where

2 h  nv  n  Sin  pv,odv (56) h o  h  n  1,2,3,4, . . Applying the initial condition pv,o  pv at t=0, we have   nv  pv   nSin  for 0

So that

2 h nV n  pvSin dv h o h

2 h nv  V Sin (57) h o h RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The abrasive wear rates at the nodes for different meshes using linear interpolation functions are shown in Table 6.1. The abrasive wear rates at points between nodes are also shown in Table 6.1. The numerical value of the calculated nodal degree of freedom shows progressive improvement of abrasive wear rates with convergence characteristic. The absolute point wise error is not greater than 0.5 percent for all points considered along the domain showing an admirable rate of convergence to the exact solution. Successive decrease in the length of the elements produces solutions which approach the exact solution which is an indication that the solutions are accurate and the method very robust. Table 6.1: A comparison of the finite element solutions obtained for linear element using time approximate scheme ( t  0.5 with exact solution.

t ( s ) 1 L 2 L 4 L 5 L E x a c t 0.0 1 . 0 0 0 0 1 . 0 0 0 0 1 . 0 0 0 0 1 . 0 0 0 0 1 . 0 0 0 0 0.5 0 . 9 9 2 6 0 . 9 8 6 9 0 . 9 7 8 5 0 . 9 7 5 3 0 . 9 7 7 2 1.0 0 . 9 8 5 4 0 . 9 7 4 0 0 . 9 5 7 4 0 . 9 5 1 2 0 . 9 5 0 2 1.5 0 . 9 7 8 2 0 . 9 6 1 3 0 . 9 3 6 8 0 . 9 2 7 7 0 . 9 2 4 0 2.0 0 . 9 7 1 0 0 . 9 4 8 7 0 . 9 1 6 7 0 . 9 0 4 8 0 . 9 1 4 6 2.5 0 . 9 6 3 9 0 . 9 3 6 3 0 . 8 9 7 0 0 . 8 8 2 5 0 . 8 7 3 9 3.0 0 . 9 5 6 8 0 . 9 2 4 1 0 . 8 7 7 7 0 . 8 6 0 7 0 . 8 6 1 3

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3.5 0 . 9 4 9 8 0 . 9 1 2 0 0 . 8 5 8 8 0 . 8 3 9 4 0 . 8 3 0 0 4.0 0 . 9 4 2 9 0 . 9 0 0 1 0 . 8 4 0 4 0 . 8 1 8 7 0 . 8 1 7 2 4.5 0 . 9 3 6 0 0 . 8 8 8 3 0 . 8 2 2 3 0 . 8 1 8 5 0 . 8 0 1 3 5.0 0 . 9 2 9 1 0 . 8 7 6 7 0 . 8 2 2 3 0 . 7 9 8 5 0 . 7 9 5 2 5.5 0 . 9 2 2 3 0 . 8 6 5 3 0 . 8 0 4 6 0 . 7 7 8 8 0 . 7 6 2 9 6.0 0 . 9 1 5 6 0 . 8 5 4 0 0 . 7 8 7 3 0 . 7 5 9 6 0 . 7 4 7 8 6.5 0 . 9 0 8 9 0 . 8 4 2 8 0 . 7 7 0 4 0 . 7 4 0 8 0 . 7 2 1 8 7.0 0 . 9 0 2 2 0 . 8 3 1 8 0 . 7 5 3 8 0 . 7 2 2 5 0 . 7 0 5 4 7.5 0 . 8 9 5 6 0 . 8 2 0 9 0 . 7 3 7 6 0 . 7 0 4 7 0 . 6 8 8 4 8.0 0 . 8 8 9 1 0 . 8 1 0 2 0 . 7 2 1 7 0 . 6 8 7 3 0 . 6 6 1 2 8.5 0 . 8 8 2 6 0 . 7 9 9 6 0 . 7 0 6 2 0 . 6 7 0 3 0 . 6 4 0 8 9.0 0 . 8 7 6 1 0 . 7 8 9 2 0 . 6 9 1 0 0 . 6 5 3 8 0 . 6 2 0 4 9.5 0 . 8 6 9 7 0 . 7 7 8 9 0 . 6 7 6 2 0 . 6 3 7 6 0 . 6 1 5 1 10.0 0 . 8 6 3 3 0 . 7 6 8 7 0 . 6 6 1 6 0 . 6 2 1 9 0 . 5 9 0 3 10.5 0 . 8 5 7 0 0 . 7 5 8 6 0 . 6 3 3 5 0 . 5 9 1 8 0 . 5 8 0 0 11.0 0 . 8 5 0 7 0 . 7 4 8 7 0 . 6 1 9 9 0 . 5 7 7 2 0 . 5 6 0 1 11.5 0 . 8 4 4 5 0 . 7 3 8 9 0 . 6 0 6 5 0 . 5 6 2 9 0 . 5 5 0 3 12.0 0 . 8 3 2 2 0 . 7 2 9 3 0 . 5 9 3 5 0 . 5 4 9 1 0 . 5 3 5 3 12.5 0 . 8 2 6 1 0 . 7 1 9 8 0 . 5 8 0 7 0 . 5 3 5 5 0 . 5 2 0 6 13.0 0 . 8 2 0 0 0 . 7 1 0 3 0 . 5 6 8 2 0 . 5 2 2 3 0 . 5 0 1 1 13.5 0 . 8 1 4 0 0 . 7 0 1 1 0 . 5 5 6 0 0 . 5 0 9 4 0 . 4 9 1 2 14.0 0 . 8 0 8 1 0 . 6 9 1 9 0 . 5 4 4 1 0 . 4 9 6 8 0 . 4 8 0 0 14.5 0 . 8 0 2 2 0 . 6 8 2 9 0 . 5 3 2 4 0 . 4 8 4 5 0 . 4 6 2 4 15.0 0 . 7 9 6 3 0 . 6 7 3 9 0 . 5 2 0 9 0 . 4 7 2 6 1 0 . 4 5 9 4

CONCLUSION Finite element analysis of abrasive wear rate in hot forging process has been presented. It has been shown that the present method can be used to predict the abrasive wear rate behavior accurately with successive mesh refinement. The potential of the finite element method has been successfully demonstrated.

REFERENCES Allen, C. and Ball, A. (1996). A review of the performance of engineering materials under prevalent tribological and wear situations in south African Industries. Tribology International, 29:105-116.

Black, A. J, Kopalinsky, E.M. and Oxley, P. B. (1993). Analytical asperity deformation models for explaining meta friction and wear, proc. Inst. Mechanical Engineers, part C,27: 335-353.l

Bin Li (2012). A review of tool wear estimation using theoretical analysis and numerical simulation technologies int. Journal of refractory metal and hard metal materials 35:143-151.

Chattopadyay, R. (2011). Surface wear: Analysis, treatment and prevention, ASM International Material Park, Ohio.

Dushyan singh, Saha, K.P and Mondal, D.P. (2011). Development of mathematical model for prediction of abrasive wear behavior in agricultural grade medium carbon steel. Indian Journal of Engineering and Material Science, 18, pp.125-136.

Eriksen, M and William, T. (1997). Wear optimization in deep drawing. Proceedings of the 1st international conferences on tribology in manufacturing process 97 ciifu, Japan, pp.128-133.

Gurrumoorthy, K., Kamaraj, M, Prasad Rao, K and Venugopal, S. (2007). Development and use of combined wear testing equipment for evaluating galling and high stress sliding wear behavior. Journal of material and design, 28:98.

Harris, C.K. Broussard, J.P and Keska, J.K. (2002). Determination of war in Tribo-system. Proceedings of the 2002 ASEE Gulf- southwest Annual Conference. The University of Louisiana at Lafayette. March 20-22, 2002. Copyright 2002. American Society of Engineering Education.

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Hokkirigawa, K. and Kato, K. (1989). Theoretical estimation of abrasive wear resistance based on microscopic mechanism, in proc. Int. conf. on wear materials, ASME, pp.1-8

Hokkirigawa, K. and Kato, K. (1988). An experimental and theoretical investigation of ploughing cutting and edge formation during abrasive wear. Tribology Int. 21(1), 51-57.

Masen, M.A., deRooij, M.B. and Schipper, D.J. (2003). Micro-contact based modeling of abrasive wear, proceedings internationall conference on erosive and abrasive wear. ICEAW II, Cambridge, United Kingdon

Oviawe, C.I. (2014). Developed a mathematical model based on finite element analysics for prediction of abrasive wear rate of die in hot forging process. A Ph. D thesis presented to the department of production Engineering, University of Benin, Benin city.

Rahaman, M.L. and Liongchi Zhang (2014). On the estimation of interface temperature during contact sliding of bulk metallic glass. Journal of wear. 10: 1016

Velten, K., Reinicke, R. and Fredrick, K. (2002). Wear volume prediction with artificial neural networks. Ttibol. Int. 33: 731-736.

Xie, Y. and Williams, J.A. (1996). The prediction of friction and wear when a soft surface slides against a hard rough surface. Wear. 196:21-24

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 145

Psychological Readiness and Enterpreneurial Intentions of Unemployed Graduates: What Difference Can Vocational Psychologists Make?

Obi, Ifeoma Eucharia Okeke, Therese Department of Educational Foundations Department of Educational Foundations Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli. Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli

Abstract The aim of this study is to ascertain the psychological readiness, entrepreneurial intentions of unemployed graduates and the possible contributions of vocational psychologists in this context. Three research questions and three hypotheses guided the study. Three hundred and twenty-seven unemployed graduates constituted the sample. Questionnaire was used to collect data for the study. Mean, standard deviation, one sample t- test and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient were used to analyze the data. The researchers found that unemployed graduates had low levels of psychological readiness for entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intentions. Further, the study revealed a positive correlation between psychological readiness and entrepreneurial intention of unemployed graduates. The contributions of vocational psychologists and limitations for the study were put forward.

Keywords: Psychological readiness, entrepreneurial intentions, unemployed graduates, vocational psychologists.

INTRODUCTION Unemployment is a global problem but more prevalent in developing countries of the world. The ILO (2007) report showed that the global youth’s unemployment rate was projected at 12.7 percent in 2012. The problems of unemployment permeate social, political and psychological realms. Thus, massive youth unemployment in any country is an indication of far more complex problem (Okafor, 2011).

In Nigeria, the situation is even gloomier. According to the National Bureau of Statistics, the average youth unemployed rate in Nigeria was 23.90 percent as opposed to 21.10 percent in 2010. Drawing from Manpower and National Bureau of Statistics records, Awogbenle and Iwuamadi (2010) and Okafor (2011), showed that Nigeria has a youth population of 80 million, representing over 60 percent of the population of the country. Of this number, 64 million are unemployed while 1.6 million are underemployed.

Graduate unemployment has become a national issue in Nigeria as the number of graduates from public and private universities that join the labour market increase every year. In 2012, for example, as much as 5,000 graduates including master’s degree holders applied for the post of a driver in one of Nigeria’s manufacturing companies. In May, 2014 about seven people were killed in desperate stampedes in National Abuja Stadium where close to 400,000 candidates were scrambling for 3000 job slots in Nigeria Immigration Service (NIS).

The concern over youth employment in Nigeria has triggered off policy initiatives which gave priority to entrepreneurship education and programmes. It is widely believed that entrepreneurship and self-employment are ways of solving the problem of unemployment in Nigeria (Ajufo, 2013) as graduates in Nigeria lack entrepreneurial skills to facilitate self-employment (Oladele, Akeke & Oladunjoye, 2011). Therefore, more and more youths are required to have positive disposition towards setting up their own enterprises. However, despite numerous entrepreneurship programmes and training and the many entrepreneurial options available to graduates, many still seek government and salaried jobs. It is possible that unemployed graduates are not psychologically ready for entrepreneurship and may not have strong entrepreneurial intentions.

Psychological readiness in relation to entrepreneurship has received little or no conceptual clarification. However, Plattner, Lechaena, Mmolawa and Nzingwane (2009) conceived psychological readiness as positive self-concept while Glazer (2009) operationalized it as one’s sense of confidence to embark on a task. African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 146

On the other hand, entrepreneurial intention has been defined as intent to own one’s business (Igba, Melhem & Kokash, n.d). Early researcher in the area of entrepreneurial intent such as Ajzen (1991) posits that one’s intention towards entrepreneurship can be considered as the predictor to becoming an entrepreneur. It is therefore very relevant that graduates’ show high level of entrepreneurial intention.

Level of entrepreneurial intentions of undergraduate students has been examined in many international studies (Achuchuthan & Nimalathasan, 2012, Olufunso 2010, Wang & Wong 2004, Zain, Akram & Ghani, 2010) with contradictory evidence. In Nigeria recent empirical studies on entrepreneurial intentions (Mohammed & Aparans 2011; Yeboah, Kumi & Jacob 2013) used sample of undergraduates. There is need to ascertain the psychological readiness and entrepreneurial intention of unemployed graduates and the relationship between the two variables.

Literature Review Literature in psychological readiness in relation to entrepreneurship has received a little attention from researchers. However, Chan (n.d) conceptualize psychological readiness as state of mental and emotional preparedness. In another study by Clement (2005), psychological readiness was conceived as individual readiness to embark on new behaviour measured by Transthematical model of behaviour change. In this study, entrepreneurial psychological readiness will be viewed as one’s expression of confidence in his/her ability to start a new venture.

No empirical research is known to the researchers to have specifically dealt with psychological readiness but similar concepts such as self-efficacy and self-concepts have been used in relation to psychological readiness. Self-efficacy is a person’s cognitive estimate of his/her capabilities to mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources and courses of action needed to exercise control over events in his/her life (Bandura, 1989). Self- efficacy or self-confidence in a given domain, is based on an individual innermost thought on whether they have the abilities perceived as important to task performance, as well as the belief that they will be able to effectively convert those skills into a chosen outcome (Bandura, 1997). Entrepreneurial self-efficacy has to do with the self-belief, willingness and persistence to overcome the initial anxiety that a new start-up process delivers (Alvarez, 2008). The stronger a person’s self-efficacy in relation to a specific task, such as those involved in starting a new venture, the greater the probability that the individual will subsequently engage in that specific behaviour (Crick, Greene & Chan, 1998).

A body of research in the field of entrepreneurship has explicitly investigated the relationship between entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions. Noel (2001) found a positive relationship between entrepreneurial intentions and perceived self-efficacy. Research studies also found that individuals with higher self-efficacy have higher entrepreneurial intentions (Fayolle, 2005; Wang, Wong & Lu, 2002). Respondents with high entrepreneurial self-efficacy also have higher degree of belief that they possess a viable idea for a new business, in short, those with high entrepreneurial self-efficacy are more likely to believe they also have an actionable idea.

Entrepreneurial intentions have been defined as an intent to own one’s business (Igba, Melhem & Kokash, n.d); while in some studies, entrepreneurial intention is defined as an intent to create a venture. Zhengxia, Genshu and Hui (2012) conceptualize entrepreneurial intention as a mental orientation such as desire, wish and hope influencing their choice of entrepreneurship. In another study, Krueger (1993) define entrepreneurial intention as a commitment to starting a new business. This is accepted as a more encompassing concept than merely owing a business, since intentions have been found to be immediate antecedents of actual behaviour. Entrepreneurial intentions are the first step in an intensive process of starting a venture which is the necessary precursor to entrepreneurial behaviour (Mclaughlin 2009). Individuals can intend to become an entrepreneur when the expectation of the entrepreneurship is pleasurable, gaining freedom and the income is high (Venesaar, Kolbre & Piliste, 2006). African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 147

Several studies in literature have explored the entrepreneurial intentions of university students. A number of research evidence suggests that university students have low level of entrepreneurial intentions (Achuchuthan & Nimalathasan, 2012; Mohammed &Aparans, 2011; Olufunso, 2010). Others found high level of entrepreneurial intentions among the university students (Solesvik, 2007; Teixeira, 2010; Wang & Wong, 2004; Yeboah, Kumi & Jacob 2013; Zain et al, 2010). However, these studies did not deal with the entrepreneurial intentions of unemployed graduates and most within international context. Considering the rate of unemployment among graduates and negative consequences thereof, the study examines the level of psychological readiness and entrepreneurial intentions among unemployed graduates as well as the relationship between the two variables.

Hypotheses: 1. Unemployed graduates’ psychological readiness for entrepreneurship will be significantly below average 2. Unemployed graduates’ entrepreneurship intentions will be significantly below average 3. There is a significant relationship between psychological readiness for entrepreneur and entrepreneurial intentions among unemployed graduates.

METHODOLOGY Participants The participants were 327 unemployed graduates from Anambra State of Nigeria. The sample for the study consisted of 159 males and 168 females. 192 had prior entrepreneurship training while 135 had not received any. Convenient sampling technique was used to drawn the size.

Instrument The researchers used questionnaire to obtain information from the sample of the study concerning their psychological readiness and entrepreneurial intention. The questionnaire has three sections. Section A contained information on the demographic data of the respondents such as gender, courses studied in the university, year of graduation, whether they had prior entrepreneurial training and whether they had also received formal career counselling. Section B had nine items measured psychological readiness for Entrepreneurship. The response pattern was based on 5-point likert scale ranging from “Strongly Disagree” (1) to “Strongly Agree” (5). Section C measured entrepreneurial intentions of the participants. Entrepreneurial intention scale was 9-item scale adapted from previously used scale developed by Yeboah, Kumi and Jacob (2013). Its response format was modified from six to a five-point likert. Considering the cultural differences, the two scales were pilot tested before use for the main study. This was done using a sample of 30 unemployed graduates from Enugu State of Nigeria. The alpha coefficients recorded were .82 for psychological readiness for entrepreneurship scale (PRES) and .74 for Entrepreneurial Intentions Scale (EIS).

Data Collection Procedure The data were collected by the researchers with the help of two research assistants. The procedures for data collection were made clear for the research assistants. The questionnaire was distributed during the youth empowerment programme organized by Anambra State Government for unemployed graduates in Atani and Neni towns in Anambra State in November, 2013. To assure the participants of confidentiality, no names were used. The exercise lasted for 25 minutes. After the exercise, the researcher collected the questionnaire with the help of research assistants before the programme commences. A total of 350 questionnaires were distributed to the participants and 340 were recovered, 13 discarded for improper completion and the final 327 copies were used for final analysis.

Method of Data Analysis African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 148

Mean, standard deviation, t-test and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficent were used for data analysis. The following mean scores guided the decision on level of psychological readiness and entrepreneurial intentions: Mean scores below 31.49 = Low; 31.50 – 40.49 = Medium and 40.50 & above = High

RESULTS Respondents Characteristics Analysis of the demographic information of the sample shows that males constituted 49% of the respondents while females constituted 51% of the sample. The respondents’ year of graduates ranged from 1 year to 13 years, with a mean of 5.81 and standard deviation 3.59. One hundred and ninety-two (59%) had received entrepreneurship training while 135 (41%) had not received any. Of the number that received prior training, greater proportion, 123 (64%) received through their school programme while 36% received from external sources. Greater proportion of the sample, 201 (61.5%) had also received formal career counselling while 126 (38.5%) had not received.

Table 1. Mean and Standard Deviation Scores of Male and Female Unemployed Graduates on Psychological Readiness for Entrepreneurship & Entrepreneurial Intentions

Variables N Mean Std Dev.

Psychological Readiness 327 30.84 6.96

Entrepreneurial Intentions 327 30.18 7.89

Table 1 shows that the mean score on psychological readiness for the entire sample was 30.84. This shows a low level of psychological readiness for entrepreneurship. The mean score for entrepreneurship intentions was 30.18, an indication that unemployed graduates had low level of entrepreneurship intentions.

Hypothesis One: Unemployed graduates’ psychological readiness for entrepreneurship will be significantly below average Table 2: Summary of One Sample t-test on Level of Psychological Readiness of Unemployed Graduates N Mean Test- Std. Dev Std. Error t P-value Value Mean

Psychological 327 30.84 31.50 6.96 .38485 -1.72 .09 Readiness

Mean score on psychological readiness of unemployed graduates (30.84) was not significantly less than the test value (scale average = 31.50), t (df=326) = -1.72, P>0.05. It was concluded that unemployed graduates’ psychological readiness was not significantly below average.

Hypothesis two: Unemployed graduates’ entrepreneurship intentions will be significantly below average Table 3. Summary of one sample t-test on level of Entrepreneurial Intentions of Unemployed Graduates

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N Mean Test-value Std. Std. Error t P-value Dev Mean Entrepreneurial 327 30.18 31.50 7.89 .44 -3.02 .00 Intentions

Mean score on entrepreneurial intentions of unemployed graduates (30.18) was significantly less than the test value (scale average = 31.50), t (df=326) = -3.02, P<0.05. It was concluded that unemployed graduates’ entrepreneurial intentions were significantly less than average.

Hypothesis Three There is a significant relationship between psychological readiness for entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intentions of unemployed graduates

Table 4: Correlation between psychological readiness for entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intentions. 1 2 1. Psychological Readiness - 2. Entrepreneurship intention ∙76* -

*Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level Table 4 shows that there was a significant positive correlation between psychological readiness for entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship intentions of unemployed graduates, r (327) = ∙76, P = ∙000. This is an indication that increase in psychological readiness among unemployed graduates will likely contribute to 57% increase in their entrepreneurship intentions.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The aim of this study is to ascertain the level of psychological readiness and entrepreneurial intentions of unemployed graduates as well the relationship between the two variables. The study also reveals that unemployed graduates have low level of psychological readiness. The finding failed to support the previous research by Noel (2001), who found that university students have high level of self-confidence to start a business. The reason for this result may be that environment does not promote and nurture new business start- ups. Probably this made the graduates not to have sufficient self-confidence to start their own business. Entrepreneurship can flourish if potential entrepreneurs find opportunities in the environment, and if environmental conditions motivate and enhance entrepreneurs’ ability to start and manage a new business.

The results of this study show that unemployed graduates have low level of entrepreneurship intentions. The result of the present study is consistent with the findings by Achuchuthan and Nimalathasan (2012), Mohammed and Aparans (2011) and Olufunso (2010) who found that university students have low level of entrepreneurial intentions. One of the plausible reasons for this situation is that entrepreneurship education in universities seems to have failed to nurture and develop the desirable skills and competencies required for job creation and self-employment. Most graduates therefore are inclined to work for and with others than to become entrepreneurs. However, the result of the present study did not support the works of Solesvik (2007), Teixeira (2010) and Yeboah, Kumi and Jacob (2013) who found high level of entrepreneurial intentions among university students.

Another interesting finding reveal that psychological readiness for entrepreneurship intentions have positive relationship. The result of the present study supports the works of Noel (2001) and Zhao, Seibert and Hills (2005) who found a positive relationship between entrepreneurial intention and self-efficacy. This means an

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 150 increase in psychological readiness will likely lead to increase in entrepreneurship intentions. It is therefore a worthwhile venture to have more contribution of vocational psychologists and career counsellors in Nigeria towards enhancing psychological readiness of both undergraduates and graduates for entrepreneurship.

Implications for Vocational Psychology/Career Counselling Even in periods of unemployment, vocational psychologists have been known to initiate interventions for the well-being of the affected (Audhoe, Hoving, Sluiter & Frings-Dresen, 2010). This is yet to be in practiced in Nigeria. In this time of high rate of unemployment, graduates are expected to be more of job creators and less of job seekers, therefore vocational psychologist/career counsellors are expected to develop both school- based and community based programmes to make this happen.

It terms of community based programmes, intervention programme for different groups of graduates by vocational psychologist/career counsellors could be organized to help them acquire the necessary mindset to make this transition and adjust to the changing demands nationally and globally. Similar community-based intervention was reported in Spain by Rodríguez (2013).

The vocational psychologists/career counsellors are seen as curriculum developers and innovators. This is shown in school-based programmes which could include; initiating the development of new courses and being part of the entrepreneurship education and training. These programmes should be geared towards helping undergraduates develop assertive behaviours and self-confidence. This will help students build supportive confidence and a more positive mindset towards entrepreneurship. Once they develop positive mindset on entrepreneurship, they will have the self-confidence to start a business venture after graduation.

Furthermore, vocational psychologist/career counsellors can play the role of advocates for the youth. In the Nigerian context where the business environment is currently difficult for doing business in terms of adherence to government regulations, they could form an advocacy group. The aim of which will be to create more amenable conditions for the youth entrepreneurs. This is likely to reduce anxiety over business set up by graduates.

Limitations of the study The sample for the study was based on convenience and may not necessarily be representative of all the unemployed graduates in Anambra state. Hence, the findings may suffer from external validity. In addition, the small sample size may also affect the generalisation of the findings.

CONCLUSION The solution to the high rate of youth unemployment in Nigeria is believed by many to lie in self-employment. After many years of providing the youth with many entrepreneurship training and options, greater proportion still seek employment in government and private sectors. The reason why this is so has been explored from many angles but attention has not directed at the psychological readiness for entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intentions of the unemployed graduates. This work found that there exists low psychological readiness and entrepreneurial intentions among graduates from Anambra State of Nigeria. Furthermore, it found a high positive correlation between the two variables such that increasing graduate’s psychological readiness would likely lead to an increase in their entrepreneurial intentions. It further provided the possible contribution vocational psychologists/career counsellors can make in building self-confidence is associated with psychological readiness among the undergraduates and graduates so as to increase their entrepreneurial intentions. Although the sample size and approach limits the generalizability of study’s findings, the work has contributed to the understanding of limited youth entrepreneurial engagement in Nigeria. Further studies may examine factors such as Nigeria business environment, nature of entrepreneurship training, among

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 151 others that might be exerting some influence on graduates’ psychological readiness and entrepreneurial intentions.

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The Repositioning of the Female Within Patriarchy: A Reversal of the Malleability of the Female Gender Among the Igbos of Nigeria During Hostilities in Adaokere Agbasimalo’s the Forest Dames

Onwugbufor, Ifeoma Catherine Omagu, Steve Ushie Kwararafa University, Wukari – Taraba State Kwararafa University, Wukari – Taraba State [email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT Patriarchy in the Nigerian societyfrom the beginning, indulges the female genderin incalculable limitations, which intrinsicallyand extrinsicallyoccasionsa subtle suppression and oppression of the personality of the Nigerian woman. Historically, the Nigerian female gender has suffered unspoken denigrations in different intensities. The position of patriarchy has been intertwined with the belief in God who created man – the male gender in His own image, conveniently used as a weapon to subjugate the female gender, whois mostly regarded as the weaker vessel. The cultural position of patriarchy especially in the Igbo cosmology further fuels the fire of female subjugation. In Agbasimalo’sThe Forest Dames(TFD), these women, as she portrays a firsthand testament of the Nigerian Civil war, are either raped, buried alive, taken captive as sex slaves, tortured to death or taken as booty to be sold or married off. Despite this perplexing position, Agbasimalo struggles through determination to emerge as the genuine heroine recording huge breakthroughs in gay and troubled times. This paper concentrates on the image of the downtrodden female gender whose extreme susceptibilityenthronesbrazenness and the tenacity to flourish in the face of threats of life and hazardous conflicts, using the non-fictional work of AdaOkereAgbasimalo. This paper attempts to demonstrate therefore, that a redefinition of patriarchy should place the female gender appropriately in a society in which she thrives to survive and provide for many especially during hostilities. This work also attempts to reposition the Igbo woman as a heroine at the frontiers of both the battlefield and at home as Agbasimalo portrays diverse challenges and success stories the Igbo woman encounters during the civil war. This benign approach accentuates the undoing ofthe despondency and vulnerability of the female gender during uprisings, resulting in unprecedented alliance and verve; and in few occasions, yielding onlyfatal acquiescenceto dire circumstances.

Keywords: Female Gender, Igbos, Patriarchy, Hostilities, Repositioning

INTRODUCTION Patriarchy is loosely defined as an institution or society that is controlled by men and defined along the lines of the whims of the male gender. Patriarchal societies are defined by the standards that are appreciated, supported and facilitated by men. It is actually to be described from the eyes of the male. It is a system of social stratification and differentiation on the basis of sex, which provides material advantages to males, while simultaneously placing severe constraints on the roles and activities of females (Makama, 2013). Webster’s dictionary defines patriarchy thus (WD): “social organization marked by the supremacy of the father in the clan or family, the legal dependence of wives and children, and the reckoning of descent and inheritance in the male line; broadly: control by men of a disproportionately large share of power”.

By this, women are subject to the provisions of what is ideal according to the judgment of men, and patriarchy justifies the marginalization of women in education, economy, labour market, politics, business, family, domestic matters and inheritance (Salaam,2003). Most of the time, patriarchy is either harsh or subtle; but in whatever case, it is geared towards subjugating the female in order to favour the male. She is not expected to have a blissful life thatis devoid of the presence of the male gender; to which many women especially feminists have vehemently refuted. A patriarch is usually the head of the household and within the family; he controls productive resources, labour force, and reproductive capacities based on the notions of superiority and inferiority and legitimized by differences in gender and generation (Makama, 2013). Patriarchy is inclusive of many other factors, attitudes, demands and expectations varying according to the geographical make-ups of the societies/institutions in question (API-GBV):

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“Patriarchy is about the social relations of power between men and women, women and women, and men and men. It is a system for maintaining class, gender, racial, and heterosexual privilege and the status quo of power – relying both on crude forms of oppression, like violence; and subtle ones, like laws; to perpetuate inequality. Patriarchal beliefs of male, heterosexual dominance lie at the root of gender-based violence. Patriarchy is a structural force that influences power relations, whether they are abusive or not.”

The fate of women, where patriarchy has reigned supreme for several centuries, is determined by the brash impulses of the male gender: the assumed strong determination to the fulfilment of the female gender. A war situation heightens the plight of the patriarchal female and the Igbo woman’s plight is no different. UNICEF therefore, professes the vulnerability and despondency of the female in the following words:

“The State of the World's Children 1996 report notes that the disintegration of families in times of war leaves women and girls especially vulnerable to violence. Nearly 80 per cent of the 53 million people uprooted by wars today are women and children. When fathers, husbands, brothers and sons are drawn away to fight, they leave women, the very young and the elderly to fend for themselves.” (UNICEF)

This situation usually arises as a result of non-compliance of recognized standards of conflict dispositions, one of which is an ICRC document containing the seven fundamental rules which are the basis of the Geneva Conventions and the Additional Protocols which speculates, among other rules that,

“Parties to a conflict shall at all times distinguish between the civilian population and combatants in order to spare civilian population and property. Neither the civilian population as such nor civilian persons shall be the object of attack. Attacks shall be directed solely against military objectives.” (ICRC)

Agbasimalois at the verge of repositioning the Igbo female portray women who harden their hearts to the gore of the war and of patriarchy as an avenue to survive the harsh realities of their situations.

The Common Cause: The Nudity of Hardship The appalling status of the woman and the experience of womanhood under the yoke of patriarchy have remained the greatest issues during conflict, and sometimes outside conflicts; but an insistent detachment from patriarchy is entrenched in many circumstances even when the female gender is at the most risk. An innate strength is aroused by a collaboration of women exposed to the same hardships, be it wars/uprisings, epidemics, economic traumas and other forms of conflict. Female friendship is forged in times of difficulties like natural disasters and this creates a forum whereby the Igbo woman harnesses her innate strength. In the Nigerian Civil war experiences from which Agbasimalo draws largely, she is of the opinion that female characters are exposed to a common enemy of hunger, displacement, exploitation, death and destruction; and totaling this common currency contribute inadvertently to the complementarity of winning a war even as patriarchy hung on their necks impudently.

Agbasimalo tells the story of four young ladies in their early and mid-teens, named Lele, Sofuru, Gonma, and Deze, referred to as the ‘forest dames’ from which the title of the novel is derived. They are strongly aided by their mothers – Phoebe, Liliana and Dorati (Dora). While Phoebe is Sofuru and Lele’s mother, Liliana who later died during the same war, isGonma’s mother, and Dora isDeze’s mother. Together, these women bestriding two generations mark a goal which they are all prepared to uphold till the very end. The surviving ones successfully do. Based on a true war experience involving the Biafran-Nigerian civil unrest which begins in 1966 and ends in 1970, the harrowing occurrences associated with the war condition did not cower these women into hopelessness or sheer susceptibility.

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The settings of Agbasimalo’s non-fictional work are Nekede, Okolochi, Emeke-Obibi, Kaduna and Ogwa respectively. However, other locations of war like Alaowerre, Enugu, Umuahia etc. are mentioned briefly as references. Despite the persecutions and emotional burden that come with the hostilities, there are different classes of the female gender who are determined to lose but a little. The factors that are meant to weaken them actually strengthen their willpower and bond, and energize them to forge ahead despite the misfortunes that surround them. In The Forest Dames (TFD), Agbasimalo mirrors the strangest and most hazardous adventure by the forest dames who would rather find abode deep in the Mkporo forest with the risk of being ripped apart by wild animals than remain in the community and experience abduction and subsequent rape and/or possession by vandal soldiers who defiled both unmarried and married women with impunity. The mindsets of the maidens are captured by Agbasimalo, thus (TFD: p.20):

“The brooding darkness simmered with the sound of the wild. The dames had learnt to live with the sound. They had resigned themselves to the belief that both life and death are in the hands of their Maker. Besides, at the rate people were dying, one thanked the Almighty if one saw the next day. ‘After all,’ they asked themselves, ‘between being devoured by beasts and being shattered into pieces by mortar bombs, which is preferable? Either way the result is death’, they consoled themselves …”

The trajectory to deciphering the real sentiments behind this pledge is wavy; but a secondary reason can only be traced to a capitulation to a heroic tragedy, then a cheap one. For the young girls, dying in the hands of the beasts is more epic than falling by the ‘swords’ or ‘arms’ of the enemy. Much as their lives are at risk in the forest as it would have been still at home, the girls and their mothers are determined to preserve their cultural and individual values summed up in chastity. Each time the two mothers visit the girls with stories about other young girls who are abducted by the vandal soldiers, the forest dames feel a sense of safety and assurance that the decision to live in the forest is a cogent one. Such conversations as this reveal this mindset (TFD: p. 21): “Mama, how has it been at home since after your last visit? How is everybody?”, Deze inquired. “Daughter, we are all very well but Dennis’ daughter was captured yesterday.” “Wakego? Oh my God, she was captured? Wasn’t she hiding like we are? Oh my God!” Deze was jolted. “She was. They came when she had returned from her hiding place and took her unawares …”

The danger to which the four maidens are exposed at home is nothing compared to their stay in the bush, and is most vividly portrayed by Agbasimalo in these words (TFD: p. 26): “The girls watched the women melt into the thick forest … This time, there was no sound of water, there were no whispers, only footsteps on the path and, of course, those distant roars, squeaks, hoots and chirps that were the sounds of the thick forest.”

Apart from Agbasimalo’s account which begins with the forest scenes, the onset and the height of the pogrom that commenced in Northern Nigeria is accurately captured being this non-fictional piece. The father of Deze, Bunor who in the book, is a public servant in Kaduna in Northern Nigeria; and after relocating his family back to his native land, he is almost lynched by irateHausa northern rioters. That fateful night, he escapes death by the whiskers. He, like many others, is forced to abandon his government job to return alive and healthy to his family and his native town where relative peace exists. During his memorable train ride home, he makes an acquaintance, Bika a native of Ogwa, who helpsBunor and his family much later when eventually they are forced out of Nekedeby mortar bombs as the war raged. Sex is usually a mechanism that professes power. The soldiers as men and vandals occupy a double position of the oppressor and use this duality to further clamp on the rights of the women. These rapes and defilements take center stage in Agbasimalo’s rendition. Many of the ladies are forced to indulge in sex though

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 156 unwillingly. Many are intimidated into it; while a few, willingly gave in for fear of violence or hardship, and are regarded by the people as “greedy” or “sabo” meaning saboteur. As is obtainable in tough situations like war, one would not be surprised to find such trending behavioural patterns.

One of such women, Madam Rosa is gruesomely murdered by being buried alive, despite the fact that she provides for the same people who accuse her of allying with the enemy. The meted jungle-justice is referred to in Agbasimalo’s work as, ‘dog eats dog’. This is similar to war situations globally, which records: “In South Kivu, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), researchers told us that women in the area had been buried alive by local villagers, ostensibly because they were believed to be witches, but in reality because they were suspected of providing food and medicine to armed groups that the villagers did not support.”

Recounting her experiences as a teenager during the virulent civil war, unlike some texts of the same war, the author produces a catalogue of diverse events of man’s inhumanity to man which she and a host of fictionalized characters’ witness during the civil war. AgbasimaloisDeze in TFD, whose father is known as, Bunor (TFD: p. 48): “I am Boniface Okere but everybody calls me Buno. I work with the Ministry of Mines and Power. I thought I could wait for leave approval before travelling; but some people came to kill me two nights ago and if I hadn’t tactfully hidden in the ceiling that would have been it for me.”

Agbasimalo’s novel, The Forest Dames (2012) is a post-colonial literature that retraces the war impact on the Igbo woman during the Nigerian civil war. The novelist trumpets the great impact of the female folks from her firsthand experience; and showcases the reposition of women as strong human persons not as weak, ineffective, subservient, reliant and unproductive nonentity as captured by male and female authors while recreating the experiences of the civil war.

Female friendship and mutual collaboration of women is portrayed as the mainstay of the successful survival of that war by many women, children, the aged; and also, some of the men who either are fortunate, sickly or disguise themselves consistently to evade conscription. Women take over the welfare and provision of their children and husbands, gladly; and are ready to sacrifice even their lives in those efforts. They share any thriving instincts or ideas for survival, including discovering new markets where wares could be bought and resold at a gain.

Liliana, Gonma’s mother suffers many woes in the hands of her recalcitrant husband, Justin and is later killed by shelling as she returns from a distant market with her women friends. (TFD: p.79) The constant illness and death of children due to malnutrition that pervade that period are mirrored figuratively. Lazzie, Reuben and Oyoyo’s son sick to the point of death, becomes a child of circumstance when he eventually survives his ailment associated with malnutrition, although his parents had been advised to abandon him to die in the house while the people of the community escape to another town for safety. Orjay and Ijeoma, whose daughter Heomatake ill, are not as lucky as they lose their only child on their way to Okolochi and buries her beside the path on which they walk. The defilement of women by the vandal soldiers, the main theme of Agbasimalo’s work, is found a rampant disservice: “Sexual violation of women erodes the fabric of a community in a way that few weapons can. Rape's damage can be devastating because of the strong communal reaction to the violation and pain stamped on entire families. The harm inflicted in such cases on a woman by a rapist is an attack on her family and culture, as in many societies women are viewed as repositories of a community's cultural and spiritual values.” (UNICEF)

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It behooves the women to make conscious efforts to embrace the hardship with which they are faced in the spirit of acceptance. They all take their fates in their own hands; and never bothered to mourn extensively. In spite of the battle field violence, the woman faces violence at home as she battles the whims and caprices of the home. Liliana, for instance, makes entreaties to her disappointed husband after the birth of their first child, Gonma a girl, because he direly needs a male child rather. Conscious of the natural role of the man in determining the sex of a child, she consoles her husband all the same. Agbasimalo’s account represents the scenario thus (TFD: p. 82): “His wife felt sorry for a crime she did not commit – having a baby girl. She begged him every day to forgive her and give her another chance … it was her duty to make amends. So she pressured herself into getting pregnant again even with the first baby still not one- year-old. She ignored the raised eyebrows. It was an unwholesome practice to get pregnant ‘on an infant’. But that was a strategy to reduce her husband’s anger, which was abated when Liliana was delivered of a boy.”

Agbasimalo’s women harden their hearts as each tragedy struck and they knew when to be brave and when to weep; and mourning woes remain momentary as they appreciate the long journey – the war that lie ahead. Ezeoke’s wife, who returns from Port Harcourt as the hostilities drifted eastward recountsher experience (TFD: p. 65-66): “’ … I stopped and saw Chuka’s mutilated arm in my hand. I screamed and ran back. My son was on the ground. I picked him up and we continued running, load still on my head. The shelling was too much and we needed to move faster, to at least, a place of shelter. I dropped the dead boy and hand and we continued the race …First thing in the morning, people began to go back to their houses … We took the same way and looking through the darkness, I saw my boy still lying there … Passing by my son again, I just picked up his hand and wrapped it in a cloth. Please bury it for me. Bury my sons … ‘(She slumped, causing a stir.)”

In Agbasimalo’sThe Forest Dames, the female gender amasseslitanies of successes by uncommon collaboration from which each female draw knowledge and courage. Always, a common factor determines the stride of resistance of the female gender, but the existing cooperation ripens when a common purpose must be achieved. The women never lose focus of their collective cause at any point; they remind each other promptly where they are headed. Being able to rightly place their challenges and define their woe is the first successful attempt at ameliorating the situation of the Biafran female gender during that war period. Agbasimalo decries this situation in the ‘Lamentation’ (TFD: p.17): “They stripped us and savoured our nakedness Went in and out of our women Like needlework …”

The imagery of the rape of their values, traditions and sacred places are all vividly captured in the Lamentation, a portion of the introduction of the book which carried the weight of their anguish. With the first visit of the mothers to the forest dames at the beginning of Agbasimalo’s book, Dora leaves with these words (TFD: p.26): “Daughters, please tarry on with patience. It will soon be over. Make sure you do not quarrel and remember that you are here for the same purpose …” The women in Agbasimalo’s work encourage one another to remain steadfast till the end. The sad stories of the women who refuse to hide from the vandal soldiers are told the forest dames to validate their abode at the Mkporo forest. Efforts by the mothers to alleviate the adverse impact of the forest habitation are numerous; including constant visits with water and other provisions, a well-erected shackle, supply of books to Deze who is already in the secondary school before the outbreak of the war and loves reading and also, share laughter with the stranded maidens. Despite the substance at the verge of being lost, maybe forever, good counsel prevails as the women face the hostilities in full glare of the next tragedy to happen. Thus, when Agbasimalowrites, the inner thoughts of Dora, Deze’s mother, is mirrored (TFD: p. 38):

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“… She remembered her people’s adage that when one is faced with something bigger than the farm, one sells the barn. There and then, she handed over her sacks of food items to Bulus …”

The forest dames are in touch with reality and make the most of it, unsentimentally. That is the spirit with which they conquer the war on their own part. Agbasimalowrites (Agbasimalo: p. 27): “… They formed part of the endangered species of that period but also, felt doubly endangered in their new abode, their hideout … They were displaced but happy to live away from the harassment of fellow human, who appeared to have greater rights. The girls always remembered the saying that one running the race of life did not tire easily … although their lives could be more endangered in their temporary abode, home of the wild, they persevered.” (TFD: P.27)

As much as the hostilities rage on, women willingly step into the shoes of fatherhood as many of the fathers are either conscripted into the home army or were cut off from their work places in the cities. Such is the case of Boniface Okere. (TFD: p. 97): “Buno was not part of the fleeing group. He was at his duty post at the regional centre in Enugu, where he was reabsorbed into the Biafran civil service. But his wife did all that was necessary. The family had to flee without him ut his wife proved a pillar of strength. She did not break down and weep just because her husband was not readily available at a difficult time; rather, she took the bull by the horns …”

It did not mean anything if they had to sell their bodies sometimes to provide food for their children; a usual war consequence that few are exposed to at the height of hardship. This destroys their value as women as Agbasimalowrites (TFD: p. 83): “Most of the women took up the duty of providing for for the family so that their children would not starve. They just had to provide food. These poverty-stricken women cheapened themselves so much before Justin that he thought that, other than breeding, the female species was worthless.”

As the different families in Nekedeescape the town on many occasions when the bombings become deadly, the women remain hopeful, painstaking and enterprising in seeking the welfare of their families. Many of them disallow their refugee status to impede their struggle for economic independence in the strange lands where the erect new abodes; having defined the uprising as one that will end someday. Agbasimalosurmises (TFD: p. 99): “Inasmuch as they were refugees, Dora did not want to depend on her hosts for everything. Before long, she had found out where there was a safe market she could buy from and resell …”

Even in situations that are not directly related with the war, the female gender consoles one another and bears each other’s burden. The compassionate disposition is shared among the female gender in solidarity for the ill fate of the other. This is revealed in the emotional outburst of Cecilia, Pa Zurike’s sister at Okolochi town when Dora and her community decide to return to Nekede. Dora console this woman (TFD: p. 141): “We will all die when it is time but before then, we must try and make the best of our existence. Cee, please promise me you’ll be strong. I’ll come back here just to see you, OK?” Similarly, Dora consoles her female relative, Ulunma after they return from Okolochi to discover that everyone’s property had been vandalized and stolen. Dora responds hopefully (TFD: p. 143): “But we still have our lives. We will gather up more in due course. Don’t worry much, hmm, worry only a little, ...”

In encouraging the female gender, adages and quotes are employed. People hold on to every iota of hope or every ray of sunlight to push ahead. Therefore, Dora shares with the forest dames and Phoebe, the philosophy of Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow, as she is taught by Buno her husband. She says (TFD: p. 188):

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“He always told me that we must learn to let yesterday remain the history that it has become and look forward to the mystery that tomorrow is, while making the best of the gift that today is.”

Reconstructing Patriarchy and the Female Repositioning The female gender in Agbasimalo’s work denies patriarchy the power to limit her ambitions or dictate her level of resilience to the ongoing uprising. It learns to rise above these limitations with the doggedness that only attracts self-realization. Unfortunately, patriarchy is fostered more by the female gender against itself most of the time, and actually picks up from where the male counterparts stop. The emphasis that women are not ‘qualified’ to partake in the dog meat soup and fermented cassava served men during Pa Zuruike’s burial is championed by women, although Dora and Sabina another mourner share a different view. (TFD: p. 118- 119): “’Hmm! There goes the meal not for the fainthearted,’ Ajuka, one of the women said. ‘Yes – o, we are not qualified to part of it,’ another added.”

The brief controversy reminds Dora of a similar fruitless discussion at Nekede concerning gizzards being delicious. She remembers an elderly woman who vents (TFD: p. 120): “We have no authority to question what the forefathers have instituted, …””

Likewise, the issue of kola nuts which Dora chewed at will having resided in Northern Nigeria, prompts a warning from her female business partner and her immediate acceptance of the obvious, (TFD: p. 123): “’ … Mama Deze, perhaps next time you look for any small boy to break it for you. You have no right to break the kola nut. As you know, tradition forbids you to do so.”

Patriarchy had imprinted on the minds of many men including Justin, what to expect of the female gender. From his wife, Justin expects male children and although he frowns at the birth of his first daughter, the arrival of two sons successfully ameliorates his ‘pain’. (TFD: p. 82): “Three years later when their second son arrived, Justin was all smiles. It did not matter anymore that the fourth was a girl. Those two boys assuaged his rage … Apparently the coming of the boys had a strong cushioning effect …”

It would be right to surmise that this was the same mentality with which Justin regarded the women who pestered him for daily jobs of carrying gravels and sand. Agbasimalo pens: “As far as Justin was concerned, women had no business sharing the earth with other human beings.” (TFD: p.83)

The doctrine of patriarchy permits the gruesome killing of Madam Rosa who is buried alive in Okolochi by her own people, because she is forced by circumstances, into an alliance based on sex and gifts with the enemy soldiers. She provides them with sex and information in exchange for provisions and protection which she needs to survive the war; while her partner in crime, Ukoha being a man, is permitted to escape death. Madam Rosa’s yielding to the cordiality with the enemy soldiers could not have been a hard thing to do, as she and her child battle with the stigma of single-parenthood thatpatriarchyis akin to and remain abominable in her community, according to patriarchy which stigmatizes her to perish without any respite. Madam Rosa on her own terms, repositions the place of the woman in a frustrating society by sustaining her life and that of her child, through the employment of what she could best offer. This is totally in variance with patriarchal beliefs in the Igbo cosmology. “Madam Rosa was a single parent whose only daughter, Uwadiegwu, had just turned sixteen … Faced not only with the challenge of becoming an old maid in her father’s compound, but also of having to contend with a daughter considered a ‘bastard’ she strove diligently to sustain her daughter and herself. But war broke out and her village, Nekede, fell to the assailants. Her people relocated to a place of safety in the hinterland but Madam Rosa and her daughter stayed back. No one really knew why but speculation was rife that she had had enough of the troubles and was prepared to take whatever came her way, even

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if she was the only one left behind. … Unmarried women were hardly respected in her community, so also children whose parentage was doubtful …” (TFD p. 128)

By the judgment of patriarchy, Madam Rosa exposes these two women to all sorts of attacks. The writer recounts (TFD p. 128): “Both Madam Rosa and her daughter have gone through a series of unwarranted taunting, teasing and disrespect from different quarters. Sometimes, they had endured it, but at other times, they fought back. The fact remained however, that somehow, they had managed to pull through, getting more attached to each other as they forged along. Thus, Uwadie and her mother became best of friends …”

While they bemoan Ojiugo’s fate and that of Major, her son by the vandal soldier with whom she is abandoned, patriarchy already had decided the child’s fate as Ugboaku her friend laments, (TFD: p. 259): “… He might never be able to inherit anything Ajunwa but he could grow up and become a self-made man. Who knows, he might be rich and never require any inheritance from any source …’”

Empathy: The Oil of Triumph Agbasimalo’s women empathize immensely with one another in their struggle for survival. Even in culinary matters, patriarchy is visible. They share ideas, material possessions and sympathize with one another in times of disaster. Little wonder, Dora informsLiliana (TFD: p. 77): “Anyway, senior Phoebe hinted about another market much further out where food items could still be purchased. I think we should give it a try. We may be lucky. I’d like to try it out. How about you?”

The collective will to survive the war binds the women together, even as the days are elongated. After the near-tragic situation at Emeke-Obibi community where Sule, a vandal soldier almost capturedDeze, Mrs. Phoebe Ofoegbu’s willingness to accommodate Deze in the shackle which she erected in the Mkporo forest to hide her two daughters away from the vandal soldiers, becomes the pivot of this successful account of Agbasimalo’s. Her willingness to share her deepest secret which has the grave consequences of death if not well-managed, is brave. (TFD: p. 173-174): “’ … When I heard that they were at your place, I was scared for you again. I remembered the Emeke incident. II was just trying to decide wither or not to tell you about the Mkporo forest.’”

In the same vein, Dora shares useful ideas and information with other women in similar circumstances. Agbasimalowrites (TFD: p. 100): “Before long, she had found out where there was a safe market should could buy from and resell. She got a few other interested women to join her …” She (Dora) had also shared the herbal juice with which Pa Zuruike cured her ill child, with Oyoyo, whose son Lazzie was very sick for a long time; and also, invites her to join her business network. (TFD: p. 102): “When she (Oyoyo) confided in her that she had no money, Dora loaned her some and she began the mini-trade.” Five years after the war, many women are yet to get over the effects of the war and the women continue to offer each other unprecedented assistance as the war affected each in a different way altogether. Deze shares her pocket money with Lele, a forest dame who later married Tom, although his ‘booming trade in cosmetics’ is destroyed by the pogrom in Northern Nigeria. (TFD: p. 269-270). The women go hunting for snails in the bushes together (TFD: p. 239): “Oyoyo philosophized, ‘We are like cows whose tails have been chopped off by the war so God Himself is the One keeping the flies in check for us, …’”

CONCLUSION

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Although a corpus of writings unfolding the challenges of the female gender in the Igbo patriarchal society has been produced, only few showcased the resilience of this gender for relevance and doggedness in lethargic circumstances surrounded by patriarchal notions. The woman emerges to embrace a redefined patriarchy that enshrouds the vulnerability of the female gender in an innate forte, thereby empowering the female gender towards subduing patriarchal challenges, even in war and conflict. Agbasimalo’s women could not be tethered by patriarchy or cultural limitations which seek to place them as the endangered gender during the hostilities. Ojonma and Uwadie become unfortunate women that are sacrificed by fate for the redemption of many more women. (TFD: pp. 235 & 140)

REFERENCES: Agbasimalo, A. (2012). The Forest Dames.Lagos, Origami Books.

Ann, J.T. (2001). Patriarchy.Routledge. Encyclopedia of International Political Economy: Entries P-Z. Taylor & Francis. pp. 1197– 1198. ISBN 978-0-415-24352-0.

Asian Pacific Institute on Gender-Based Violence (APIGBV). Patriarchy & Power. Retrieved from http://api- gbv.org/violence.patriarchy-power.php

Barrett, Michele and Phillips, Anne (Eds), Destabilizing Theory: Contemporary Feminist Debates. Great Britain, Stanford University Press.

Foran, J. and Kurian, P. (2003). Feminist Futures – Re- Imaging Women, Culture and Development, London, Zed Press.

ICRC Resource Center. (1988). Basic rules of international humanitarian law in armed conflicts, https://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/basic-rules-ihl-311288.htm

Makama, GodiyaAllanana. (2013). Patriarchy and Gender Equality in Nigeria: The Way Forward [E-Reader Version]. Retrieved from http://eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/1161/1177 rMerriam-Webster Dictionary and Thesaraus.http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/patriarchy

Nkechi, N. (1996). Gender Equality in Nigerian Politics. Lagos, Deutchez Pub.

Oyekanmi, F. D. (2005). Gender Issues in Globalization: An Overview of the Situation in Africa, in Oyekanmi, F.D. (ed.) Development Crisis and Social Change, Department of Sociology, University of Lagos, Lagos.

Patriarchy & Power, in the Asian Pacific Institute on Gender-Based Violence.http://www.api-gbv.org/violence/patriarchy-power.php

Salaam, Titi (2003). A Brief Analysis On the Situation of Women in Nigeria Today, Democratic Society Movement DSM. Retrieved from http://socialistnigeria.org/women/1-3-03.html

Unicef. The State of the World’s Children. (1996). Retrieved fromhttp://unicef.org/sowc96pk/sexviol.htm

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Strategies Towards Effective Financial Managementin the Administration of Government Owned Secondary Shools in Bayelsa State

Ikati, Lawrence Dept of Vocational/Technology Edu, Faculty of Education Niger Delta, University, Wiberforce Island, Amasoma, Bayelsa State [email protected]

Abstract There is an increasing demand for education and school administrators have the responsibility of ensuring adequate provision of needed facilities as the only means to provide qualitative education with adequate professional competencies that will guarantee an atmosphere of transparency and accountability in the management of school funds as allocated. Best financial practices and acceptable global standards are required from administrators of schools to achieve desired objectives as enshrined in the National policy on Education (2004). This paper provides guide with deep procedure and processes school administrators could apply to bring about effective financial management in secondary schools in Bayelsa.

Keywords: Strategy, Effective Financial Management, Administration.

INTRODUCTION Education constitutes a vital flow in the management of human, physical and financial resources of a nation, especially in developing countries like Nigeria and growing states like Bayelsa. This is so because education had been considered the key to all development process, and produces the right skills and attitudes to move a nation forward. Stressing the importance of education and the role of human resources development in a nation’s developmental process, scholars like Harbison (1973) and Todaro (1977) submitted that; Human resources constitute the ultimate basis for the wealth of a nation. Capital and natural resources are passive factors of production. Human beings are active agents who accumulate capital, exploit natural resources, build social, economic and political organizations and also carry forward national development. A country or state, which is unable to develop the skills and knowledge of its people and utilize its resources effectively in the national economy, will be unable to develop anything else.

Education is a very vital and essential tool in national development. It is the process by which a person develops abilities, ideas, and other forms of behavior, which are of positive value to the immediate environment (community, society) at large. These skills can be acquired through formal education in the walls of a school and informal education as well. The National Policy on Education (2004) stated that ‘the Federal Government of Nigeria has adopted education as an instrument par excellence for effective national development’. It also sees education as the greatest investment the nation will make for quick development of its economic, political, sociological and human resources. The establishment and progress of any industry or firm (school) calls for funds of both capital and recurrent expenditure, which also calls for administrators, at all levels, to exhibit transparency and honesty in every sphere of leadership, capable of inspiring the confidence of the public of the public as a continued support for the school system, financially and otherwise for the creation of a healthy society.

Bayelsa State offers some free educational programs at different levels through scholarships but the educational system is still not growing accordingly because the administrator does not properly manage the funds needed to finance the system.This calls for urgent attention.Good and sustainable management strategies such as budgeting, auditing, record keeping, supervision and monitoring, manpower development, investment planning amongst others, would provide teachers with a clear view towards goal attainment and equally direct them to be better managers and future educational administrators. It would also provide a standard for which the future performance can be improved. Today, the issue of effective financial management in the administration of secondary schools has not been encouraging; School administrators still collect illegal fees from students and parents for the provision of reading materials other their school facilities which otherwise should have been provided by the government.

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Experience shows that for strategic financial management in the administration of secondary schools to be meaningful and successful, the government must lead the process of planning and implementation of policies and bring offenders to the law. Administrative planning is concerned with how the government can optimize the use of its resources within strategic objectives. Efficient management of funds, flows through the main financial objective that is; to maximize the economic welfare of the owners.

Importance of Financing Education Ehiametalor (1985:24), while writing on implementation of the National Policy on Education, stressed the place of educational financing when he said. “The success of any educational programme where little or no educational equipment are present, depend heavily on the amount of money available for education”. By this, Ehiametalor sees financing as one of the most important factors in planning for any educational programme. Another importance is also identified in the national policy on education (2004) where it states that education is an expensive social service and requires adequate financial provision from all the tiers ofgovernment for a successful implementation of the educational programmes.

Finance is the power of education, which it has for its growth and progress. It is a dependent variable therefore; proper management is required for the utilization of funds. Not all teachers’ have seen or read policies on how they are expected to operate. They do not know the desire of the nation for its youths. Davis (1996) says in many developing countries, 80% of recurrent expenditure and 60% of total expenditure is spent on institutional staff cost therefore he says that ‘Teachers’ allowances constitute a major proportion of the total cost of education’. Ehiametalor (1985) says, “A pupil’s effort at learning in school can be handicapped by the circumstances under which his learning takes place. He also said that two important elements- The services received and the benefit inherent in the services must be given serious attention in considering the circumstances of a students’ learning at school.

Physical Facilities Some of our secondary schools today are still an eyesore. Infant, most schools have a predominated feature of a building, few desks and chairs. They are still using the initial school population to provide these facilities. Some of the important and expensive school equipment are reserved under lock and key and used only when external supervisors and inspectors come around. Facilities should be designed to support and strengthen teaching and learning process. Adaralegbe (1972) is of the view that poor and inadequate facilities contribute to a poor quality of education and a poor educational system.Adesina (1977) observed that apart from the danger to which pupils are exposed to, when the school plant is deplorable, there is also the fact that a deplorable school environment offers little or no stimulus to learning.Concerning the construction of secondary school buildings, Adesina (1982) said, for school buildings, staffed with architects, engineers and technicians that are familiar with school construction requirements.

Teaching Aids Teaching aids in Nigeria according to Byrne and Williams (1973) is a major determinant of academic attainment in schools. Wales (1982) on the other hand emphasizing the place of teaching aids, added that they enable him (as a teacher) teach more in the time allocated and on certain occasions, facilitate the extent of learning to which you cannot achieve through verbal or written words alone. Adaralegbe (1970) maintains that the right type of environment for effective learning consists of school buildings and better teaching facilities.

Running Cost The PTF (Petroleum Trust Fund) has also tried to fund education by subsidizing the sale of exercise books, educational texts, stationary, etc. on an affordable rate by students and teachers. It has also in this case, reduced the total running administrative cost of the school system.

Sources of Funding for Educational Finance in Nigeria Nigeria’s independence, the establishment, planning and management of schools were on in the hands of missionary groups, voluntary organizations and individuals. Amongst these were missions who have an upper hand in the running of schools. Adesina (1977) said that at the post primary school level, the Christian missions were controlling 80% of the schools’ finance and 77% of students financing. The sources of funding are diverse and many depend on the ability of the school head in projecting the image of the school to the

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 164 international and external environment. In most cases, it is a point of joint affair between the federal, state and local government regardless of where the school is located. In general, funds for educational financing can be gotten from government, grants, foreign aid, assistance from missions and churches, community efforts, PTA collection.

Government For Secondary School Education, the Federal Government under the 3rd national development plan, assumed the responsibility for 55% funding. What this has shown is that the Federal Government bears major fiscal responsibility for education, since most of the funds for educational development and maintenance comes from it. Whatever money a state can commit to a large extent, is able to make and spend on education. Government can also assist in the building of infrastructural projects, learning materials, supply of office equipment, books etc.

Foreign Aid Foreign aid can be said to be assistance gotten/given to by a foreign country to a home country. This aid can come in different forms to developing countries. It can come as supply of school equipment, supply of teachers in different subjects to teach in various institutions in the country. In all part of the 3rd world countries, in which Nigeria is categorized under, schools benefit from volunteers from various countries. Also embassies distribute library books, school equipment and other educational resources as the request may be. Also, the International Monetary System (IMS) tries to assist member nations by assisting them in areas of Education, Agriculture, Irrigation, electricity projects.

Community Efforts Most Bayelsa communities are becoming increasingly aware of the importance of education and these communities play a vital role in educational awareness which is for the benefit of their children. In order to achieve this, communities contribute huge sums of money to meet the need for education. For example, if farming of palm fruit is a common practice, they may decide to pass a law to prevent the farmers from harvesting from the community for a period of time, after which the fruit are then harvested and sold. The proceeds are used to fund education. Also, communities fund education by donating their land for building of schools and some give their labour free towards the building of classrooms, teachers quarters, clearing of bushes. Today, individuals, old boys’ association (Alumni), industries in the locality are happy and readily available to fund education in the communities.

Assistance from Mission Outfits In spite the government takes over of schools, Missions still give assistance to their schools in form of revenue or by assisting in the provision of learning materials and sometimes scholarships.

School Fees Payments of fees have been one of the oldest forms of raising fund. It is also the most consistent method used to raise funds for education. The amount of fees charged especially at the secondary school level depends on the institution, Federal or state and the type of ownership, either public or private owned. School fees paid by each pupil are used to run the school’s educational system. It is also used for administrative purposes, to pay teacher’s salaries and to supply school facilities. Fees are generally used for the running cost of the school system.

PTA Collections Igwe (1990) noted that PTA may be defined as a voluntary welfare association of Parents/guardians and teachers aimed at ensuring the welfare of both child and school. It makes both parents and teachers conscious of their joint responsibility to produce good education for the community in which they live in. Igwe (1992) also observed that Parent Teacher Association (PTA) refers to an organization comprise of parents and teachers of a particular school whose major aim is to mobilize resources that are geared towards effective school administration. Parents’ Teachers’ Association agrees on a levy to be paid by parents for their child. These levy collections have become very strong sources of income mainly for capital projects in the school e.g. building of more classroom blocks, hostels or auditoriums. Strategies towards Effective Financial Management in Education

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Mbiom (2000) says that education is planned in Nigeria as an integral part of the national development programme, the educational planners have to face the problem of resource allocation at the National, State and Local Government levels, and Resource allocation for educational programmes has affected the number of political, social and economic attitudes. It is therefore possible for an effective administrator to use appropriate planning tools to reach optimal investment decisions. There are so many approaches to project evaluation and planning. They include: -

The social demand approach: which provided useful projections of a private demand for education and;

The manpower requirement approach: which recognizes the role of education in providing trained manpower and;

The Cost-benefit Analysis approach: This compares the total cost of the project with the total benefit in order to determine its worth.

The Cost-benefit Analysis Cost-benefit analysis is the same as rate of return analysis. It is concerned with the relationship between cost and the benefits received due to incurring cost, Mbiom (2000) defined cost-benefit as the process of determining whether a given programme is ‘worth’ more than it costs. The aim of cost-benefit analysis is to maximize all benefits, less that of all cost, subject to specified constraints.

Ndebbio (1998) says the purpose of the cost-benefit analysis is to assist in decision making, bringing into focus factors that are relevant. More to the fact that cost-benefit analysis aids good investment decision, it also measures the average rate of return so that the local management (school) can improve their finances by investing in projects, which earn above the existing finances or by ceasing projects, which will bring them below their average. For example, a school awarding scholarship to a student because the student is brilliant and good at football. The student will benefit the school academic brilliance and sport fame. Another example of cost benefit is in a community which funds its sons and daughters with funds raised, they will sponsor those who are brilliant so that they can upon graduation, get good jobs, promote the communities name and represent the community in the world of work. Instead of the reverse which has no positive benefit.

Record Keeping The school administrator needs a lot of information to be able to plan, organize and administer the institution effectively. He cannot carry all the information in his head. Some records are statutory and some are not. Even the records that are not statutory must be kept also to help the administrator and his staff to do their work better. The quality of records kept in a school tends to speak for the quality of discipline in the school. School records like admission register, log book, personnel record cards, finance records, school inventory book etc. must be kept very well because they aid the administrator in financial management.

Admission Register: - it shows the number of students admitted by the school. It further differentiates them into students admitted through entrance examination to begin from class 1, those on transfer from other schools, those repeating; the number who have left the school on transfer, the classes of each student etc. A well-kept admission register is an indispensable data book for the school. The school administrator keeps it. It contains information of the totalfees paid by each student, which must correspond with the financial records, and also contains vital information about all the students i.e. their state of origins, addresses, name, address and phone number of parent. Guardian etc.

Log Book: - It is a statutory record. It shows major events that take place in the school. The resumption and closure dates, the visitation date of the school by inspectors and the amount spent on each occasion, etc. The events should be recorded in a chronological order in which they occurred. Catastrophes like storms and flood should also be recorded and in fact all important news pertaining to the history and existence of the school should be reported in the log book.

Personnel Record Cards: This shows vital information about staff. The number of staff working in the school, their monthly salaries and allowances, date they started work their qualifications, grade levels etc.

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Financial records: - Money talks a lot about people especially those in public officers. The school administrator/bursar is in charge of all the monies received, kept or expended. All monies spent must be receipted and documented. The cash book must be kept using security codes. The bursar must be given a specific time to bank all cash received in a day and for any cash to be spent, the principal/administrator and bursar must be signatories to approve any ash to be spent.

School Inventory: - This is a list of the total of all school property. The principal to ensure they are in good form and if they are not, write a report so that sufficient measures can be carried out. He must monitor the items belonging to the school

Auditing Auditing was established in the later part of 19th century. Originally an auditor was one to whom the receipts and payments of an establishment were read. This practice existed first ancient civilization, such as Egypt. Auditing practically means to be able to verify, understand and tell the enterprise concerned of that, they have exactly done over a period of time audited. Auditing can be defined as a process whereby the accounts and records of the organization are subjected to scrutiny and will enable the auditor form an opinion as to their accuracy, truth, fairness of the organizations state of affairs (Osuala, 1996).

International Auditing Guideline (IAG) and International Federation of Accounting Committee (IFAC) views Auditing as an independent administration of and the expression of an opinion on the financial statements of an enterprise by an appointed auditor, in accordance with his terms of engagement and the observance of statutory regulatory and professional requirement.

Why do we need an auditor? An auditor in Nigerian must be a certified or chartered accountant who is a bonafied member of a recognized professional body e.g. ICAN, ACCA; therefore, his activities are guided by statue. Companies and Allied Matters Decree, Institute of Chartered Accountant of Nigeria. (CAMD 1990, ICAN act 1965). An Auditor is needed to check all financial books and records to ensure accuracy and confidence to its users.

The Benefits of Auditing: It gives confidence to parents, government etc on how their money is used. It gives confidence to it users e.g. principals, bursars etc It gives advice with regards to handling of financial and management matters.

The Importance of Auditing: To ensure prudent management To safeguard assets. To prevent and detect fraud. To prevent and detect other irregularities To ascertain that proper records and financial statements are kept. To provide prescribed information required.

AA budget should be able to meet the needs for which it was designed. It should not just be seen as a revenue expenditure operation required by law and may be easily forgotten without attention given to the needs of each school should be identified and given consideration. Candoli, Hack, Ray and Stollar (1978).

The Budget Process: The controlling function of the budget makes it very useful in our educational system because in view of the decline budgetary provisions for the sub sector, the available ones should be effectively and efficiently utilized. The budget process starts with educational planning. A school budget is educational planning translated into naira and kobo. One of the ways to effectively and efficiently carry out budgetary process is through Planning, Programming and Budgetary System (PPBS). This is a procedure where Planning and development of Programme and Budgeting are required resources, which are integrated into a whole. Inherent

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 167 in this method are the specification of objectives, the identification and evaluation of alternatives to accomplish the objectives, the minimization of costs and maximization of benefits.

The Planning Portion of planning, programming and budgetary system involves objective formulation and identification alternative and the means to accomplish the objective while the programming aspect consist of delineating those resources (manpower, material, finance, facilities) required of each alternative and the budgetary port involves amount of the resources required by the programme.

The School Budget As may be seen from ICMA definition, the budget is not based on the actual money the school has, but also on projected money the school hopes to have. A school’s budget is an educational programme and planning expressed in financial terms, Amaewhule (2000). It is a plan expressed in financial terms, usually one year.

In preparing a budget, it is important to back it up with clearly defined educational objectives. The preparation of the budget begins with the individual schools. The budget forecasts the activities, programmes and service that the Board of Governors has approved for the school. The school head (PRINCIPAL) has a say in the choice of equipment, stationary, and text books etc. The school budget shows in detail the estimated expenditure for the various sections of the school system. The school board examines the mini budget prepared by the school and finally prepares a budget document, which has to be approved by the state executive council before it can be adopted. If the budget is carefully planned, it would help to control the administration of school programmes. Through adequate budgetary control, the principal can compare the actual operations in the school with the budgets to determine if the plans are being carried out or if not, to determine the reasons for deviations.

Budgetary planning varies considerably in accuracy, complexity, extent of details and ways of developing and implementing the budget. Evaluation of budget reveals the success or otherwise of the budget. What improvements should be carried out in the next budget, what imbalance had been created between programmes that are over financed with those that were under financed will be revealed. Therefore, the administrator after analyzing the previous budget must write out a statement of accounts drawn from all financial books and records and also present a report and advice to government based on its accounts revealed. The state executive council after reading the administrators report and statement of accounts will review the budget if need be to do so.

CONCLUSION A government policy on education is a good strategy towards effective financial management insufficient funds will lead to poor educational output. It will also pose a problem in the teaching/learning process thereby distorting the purpose of the National Policy on education (2004) which states that the success of an educational system is hinged upon proper planning, efficient administration and adequate financing. If the learning environment is not conducive (lack of school building, unhealthy environment filled with microorganisms which we will come in contact with) it will lead to poor academic performance and cause some health hazards for both teacher’s and students’. Health is Wealth. Udoh (1980) said that students are able to study well when they are physically strong. A good environment will improve learning and disciple and also be a source of w to the teachers making them dedicated to their job.

RECOMMENDATIONS It is therefore recommended that:

Money should be made adequately available; since money seems to be the main key for the progress of many social groups, in which the school falls. Specific strategies should be undertaken to solve the problem of financial management. Some of the strategies include: record keeping, auditing and budgeting.

There are some of the ways in which more funds can be raised for education i.e. some alternative sources of funds e.g. producing crafts for sale to the public, voluntary and educational organizations, donations and fund raising and funds from government Effective disbursement of the financial management strategies must be maintained. Immediate repair of structure, equipment and other physical facilities which will cost less than

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 168 embarking on new projects, Mbiom) (2000). No matter how difficult the economic and financial problems of the school maybe they should not assume defeat but efficiency, optimism and faith should be their watchword.

REFERENCES: Adaralegbe, A. (1972). Problems and Issues of Financing Education in Nigeria.West African Journal of Education, (xi) (1).

Adesina, S. (1977). Planning and Education Development in Nigeria. Ibadan: Educational industries Nigeria Ltd.

Adesina S. (1980). Some Aspects of School Management. Ilorin: University of Ilorin Press.

Ahuchaogwu, K. C. (2002). Contemporary Issues in Financial management; the professional skills Compendium.Ikeja: KnowRoch Investments Ltd.

Ajayi, I. A. and Ayodele, J. B. (2000). Fundamentals ofEducationalManagement Ife; University of Ile-Ife printing press.

Amaehule, W. (2000). Introduction to Vocational Education and Administration. Owerri: Spring field publishers . Davis, R. C. (1996). Planning Resources Development Educational Model.Chieago: Schemata rand Mcnally& Co. Ltd.

Edem, D. A. (1987). Introduction to Education Administration in Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum books Ltd.

Ehiametalor, T. E. (1981). Introduction to Administration of Schools in Nigeria Ibadan: Evans brothers Ltd.

Ehiametalor, T. E. (1985). Strategies in the Management Administration and Planning of Owerri Education. Ibadan: Evans brothers Ltd.

Harbison, F. E. (1978). Human resources as the Wealth of Nations. London: Open University Press.

Hicks, H.G. & Gullet, C. R. (1972). Management of The Organizations. New York: McGraw hill.

Igwe, L. E. (2000). Fundamental Theories, Concepts, Principles and Practice of Educational Administration. Port Harcourt: Harley publications.

Mbiom, G. (2000). Educational Administration and planning. Calabar: Glad Tidings Press Ltd.

National Policy on Education (2004). (4th Edition). Yaba, Lagos. NERDC Press.

Okah, I. R. (2002). Modern Strategies in Educational Administration, Planning and Supervision. Port Harcourt: Harley Publications.

Olaniyi, W. O. (1998). Conceptual Approach to Educational Administration. Ibadan: Patrick Ade printing press.

Oteri, I. G. (1987). Expenditure and Cost Analysis. M.Edthesis. University of Ibadan.

Shubin, A. S. (1957). Business Management. London: The Barnes & Noble outline series, harper row publishers.

Todaro, M. P. (1960). Economics for a Development World. London: Longmans press Ltd.

Ukaeje B. O. (1990). Foundations of Education. Benin: Ethiope Publishing Corporation.

UZoka, N. D. (2006). Financial Management.Owerri: Bon Publications.

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African Oral Literature and Modern African Drama: Inseparable Nexus

Ezeugo, Anthonia E. Chukwuemeka Odimegwu Ojukwu University. Igbariam Campus. [email protected]

Abstract Every traditional culture presumptively has its own oral literature which is not only concerned with societies the western prejudice tagged uncivilized. Oral literature does not emphasize only the past events because oral forms are now modified to mirror modern age. Moreover, yearly festivals which mostly center on oral forms are still celebrated in many African cultures. Satirical songs, jokes and proverbs are still used in certain communities to attack and disparage those who flout the culture of the people. Prior to invention of print such oral forms were composed, circulated and transmitted orally. Nowadays electronic media such as television, radio and tape recorders are used to circulate and preserve the oral forms. Plays and scripts can be enacted on the stages before cameras for the benefits of a larger number of audiences. They can now be used for traditional wedding ceremonies. Less effort is used by African children to learn their society’s oral forms. And the study of literature cannot be separated from its society. Therefore, society has much to acquire from its oral forms. This essay propounds that modern African Drama is inseparable from various aspects of African oral literature. At this stage, we are no longer contending with the issue of true existence of African oral literature but to demonstrate its relevance to modern African drama and the latter’s indebtedness to oral forms. Among other issues, this paper analyses the ways some playwrights incorporated the oral forms in their dramatic works in order to preserve them and still serve as entertainers, moralists, educators, socialist, advisers, custodians and chroniclers of the people.

Keywords: Oral, literature, Drama, Nexus, Culture, Performance,

INTRODUCTION African oral literature is commonly perceived as a concept rooted in the past because it comprises material many generations old. Moreover, it is also transmitted by word of mouth. But it still has relevance in the modern life and living even in the presence of and pressure induced by scientific and technological forces. If Africa still wants to be identified as a people, her oral forms as myths, tales, legends, proverbs, riddles and oral songs must be preserved and reserved. These oral forms still have relevance and significance for this age in spite of the technological setting. There is still connectivity between the oral forms and the present – there is still obvious relationship between tradition and modernity because healthy issues of moral and social are rooted in the past hence Igbo proverbs say: “Mgbe enu bu ani osa”. “Mgbe ezi di n’ ukwu ukwa” which means when there was a pathway under the breadfruit tree.

Oral literature for instance, the tale form still occupies the mainstream of our modern life via the modern artists. There is still symbolic representation of human beings using animals and abstract principles by our playwrights. And in virtually all societies there is at least one yearly festival celebrated and this calls for celebration of oral forms such as: African type of music, dance, and poetry and art exhibition. Even some of our dance troupes have travelled to places in the world.

Performers in form of bards and griots still exist, their sonorous voices still reel out fables, tales, myths and legends and other forms of lore’s to their audience. They are custodians of African cultures and tradition. And these are still reflected in modern African drama. Therefore, the playwrights and their actors are regarded as moralists, preservers of culture, entertainers, educators, socialists and advisers. With this, modern dramatists move their audience/readers in antiquity connecting them between the past and the present and provoke future. With its strong device drama becomes a nexus of the past and present and shapes the audience’s future.

Though their language may be Western, playwright principally reflect their oral tradition, ideals and accepted behavior. On this bond between oral forms and written forms, killam (1973:3) remarks that:

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Modern African writing has been concerned almost exclusively with the reality of African life and few African writers of English expression to date have sought their thematic material outside Africa. Unlike writers in some countries with similar colonial pasts, African writers have not turned their backs on their own vultures; rather they have faced up to the problems, and sought solutions for them in imaginative form. Their fiction is a general echo of general cultural reality. Killiam’s comment embraces all genres of literature; whether prose, poetry and drama.

The playwrights discussed below borrow extensively from their oral literatures in terms of content and technique. Their language style, imagery, form or structures have bonds with the cultures of the particular artist. That is why most critical works on Wole Soyinka, Ama Ata Aidoo, Efua Sutherland, Herbert Ogunde, Duro Lapido, Zulu Sofola reflect their oral literature indebtedness. It has been discovered through research that all societies have their own peculiar literature whether oral or written. Chronologically, oral literature takes precedence over the written form. Oral medium remains important in all societies since according to Okoh Nkem (2008:75-76); “in no society does writing predate or precede speech” … it is not worthy that even Western Societies that claim to be highly technologized had as their beginnings the phenomenon called oral literature’.

Oral literature encapsulates the three main segments of literature as prose (spoken), poetry (song), and drama (acted). The prose genre contains riddles, proverbs, and tongue twisters under fixed phrase, tales, myths, legends, jokes and anecdotes fall under free phrase. Poetic genre contains work, birth, marriage, war and funeral songs. Drama genre contains masquerade displays, dances, festivals and rituals.

The origin of drama is difficult to trace and its development in human society in difficult to describe. The word drama – a Greek word which means to do’ or to act was said to be used the first time about 560 BC. Emeka Nwabueze (2011:11-12). testifies that a: Sole actor impersonated and imitated the hero instead of singing about him, or chanting his praises, thereby turning a purely story-telling and praise- chant activity into dramatic form before the ecstatic spectators. The man who performed this historic act was Thespis, the Greek artist credited with discovery of drama, and who eventually became known as the first actor, as well as the first writer of tragedy.

The above quotation not only illuminated the origin of drama, it also proves that such oral forms as chanting of praises and story-telling have existed before Thespis turned the above oral forms to drama. Thespis achieved this when he enriched the religious singing and dancing by wearing a mask and expressed a part of the action in meaningful words and gestures. Right from that time drama becomes an art which represents human life experiences in the presence of audience. In furtherance, drama is undoubtedly developed from religious rites as in festivals which are also a form of oral literature. At an earlier stage it was difficult to demarcate ritual which developed as parts assigned to one or several actors, while the rest of the people watching become audience. For instance, the officiating chief priest represents and expresses the desires and emotion of the entire community.

Still referring to Nwabueze’s statement, story-telling which formed the bed rock of the choral group to which Thespis belonged is a performance in itself and also an essential part of oral literature. For instance, a narrator of old stories has his main point in the sung (Poetic) or spoken (Prose) performance. Drama itself is described from the light of oral literature which is most recently referred to as Orature. Holt, et al (1997:340) describe drama as literature in action”. Diyanni (2002:1161) says that “drama is a stage art”. Ogunbiyi, (1981:2) “traditional drama is the sum total of the doings of a people before written records were kept”.

The major contents of the above definitions hold that drama is acted which means performance. Performance in performing arts generally comprises an event in which a performer or group of performers behave in a

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 171 particular way different from their personal behaviour for another group of people. Therefore, performance involves imitation, or re-enactment or impersonation. In oral literature, ritual acts such as masquerade which according to Okoye (2009:128) ‘mmuo’, ‘mmonwu’ as ‘mmanwu’ which literally means caster of spell capable of drying up whatever that is living... is sure way of saying that masquerade is stronger than man, or it is a spirit”. It goes to explains that whoever in the mask is imitating or impersonating the spirit of dead people who dwell in the chthonic realm.

Though modern drama is composed to be acted or to be read; basically, it is composed to be performed. It is this unique characteristic that brings both oral literature and modern drama to a common base. Therefore, a clear separation between oral literature and drama cannot be achieved. Precisely the genres of oral literature are at the same time drama in a way since performance is an essential aspect of this art; hence Finnegan (1970:2) emphasizes that, “oral literature is by definition dependant on a performance who formulates it in word on a specific occasion – there is no other way in which it can be realized as a history product”

The Nexus From above explication it is now obvious that there is great connectivity between oral literature and Modern African Drama because both are performance based. The two disciplines depend absolutely on performance for their existence though modern African Drama can be read without going to theatre. But on the other hand, oral literature creation and its transmission cannot easily be disentangled; they are tied and interwoven and its actual presentation is most noticeable aspect of its nature. It is constantly inherent in performance, because it is always accompanied by action of verbal art. As in modern African drama, oral literature’s structure, content, and its ultimate quality depend on elements of performance such as dance, song, mime and gestures. Oral literature lacks tangibility in absence of performance hence Okoh (2008:87) reveals that: The intangibility of oral literature means that any given piece remains there, or somewhere, that is maintains its existence in that state until it is verbalized, actualized or performed. This point to rank performance appropriately, that is in relation to the other attributes of oral literature. That is why a well-composed song, example, funeral song may be ruined by an unsteady and poor presentation. A dirge singer is expected to compose herself well with facial expression of sadness and gloom. Such is also expected of a drama artist if he should imitate such a gloomy situation.

Oral literature is expected to be closely watched and criticized by an audience. It is through its close accuracy and quality to dramatic correctness and morals that it can be functional to a social environment. Most oral literature is envisaged for a special audience as a result the dramatic immediacy and social relevance are reflected in both style and content. The performance is always tied to a particular ceremony or social activity. The same applies to modern African drama; it is rarely performed for arts for arts’ sake. Every production in modern African drama has something at the back of the mind of the playwright.

Moreover, African oral literature makes use of African places and names, local images and symbols from our flora and fauna, transliterated culture, idioms, proverbs, expression and ideas. In the same vein for modern African drama to maintain the nomenclature, it must apply the sensibilities of African people which are hidden in the oral literature. The conceived difference is that African oral literature because of its quality of tending to social activities projects communal or social values rather than enigmatic or iconoclastic eccentricism of contemporary Modern African Drama; but tends towards propagation of raw African values.

Another visualized disparity is in the area of ephemeral nature of African oral literature whose life and longevity is dependent on only performance if not preserved in written form. Again African oral literature may have complex and difficult oral forms, for instance in forms with extensive proverbalization and mantic (divination or prophetic) poetry, its hallmark is simplicity but modern African drama endures in complexity both in form, and spoken diction.

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Oral literature the bedrock of Modern African Drama Hubert Ogunde and Duro Lapido Influence of African oral tradition operates in the works of Nigerian historical and mythological dramas of the Duro Lapido, through Hubert Ogunde’s and Kola Ogunmola’s plays. Their dramatic works are formation of complex cultures of the Yorubas. Hubert Ogunde synthesizes the forces of paganism and Christianity in his work. Obafemi Olu (2001:14) affirms that: Chief Ogunde, the rightly acclaimed patron of Yoruba theatre, is, for example, an initiate of the cults of Osugbo and Egungu even though his father was a Baptist Clergyman. The two shaping forces of his work are thus the ‘pagan’ the ‘Christian’. These influences are reflected in the synthetic process of theatre. Ogunde freely mixes jazz, African rhumba and the Yoruba gangan (talking drum) in the same dramatic experience. Also, culture conflicts supply the themes of his operas in God and Africa. … The dominant influence is the traditional festival and other verbal and performed arts of the Yoruba.

He still points out that the three main constituents of oral performance are: poetry and folk tales, music and dance are interrelated. Poetry in its own peculiar way is realized in performance via songs, chants, and music and recitative forms. Worthy of mention is that the poetic form has both esoteric and popular forms. The esoteric comprises the ifa- this relates to oracle in prophetic and for-telling of the future. Its divination is sometimes ambiguous and hard to interpret usually associated with Omenmila, the Yoruba god of divination. Ofo is another oracular poetry used for making incantation for casting magical spells. Sango pipe praise song is used in eulogizing the Yoruba god of thunder, lightning and retributive justice. The above mentioned and host of other elements of oral performance form the bases of Nigerian drama. For instance, Duro Lapido’s Oba Ko Soportrays a great sadness of unfolding of Sango’s reign and praises though the major concern of the play is not necessarily Oba Sango but mankind, human condition and nature. Obafemi Ola (2001:21) asserts that the play; Is in conformity with the nature of the Yoruba opera which strives to project community-sense and spirit, and psychological fulfillment. In fact, in the Yoruba cosmology which Lapido mirrors in his play, the stature and existence of the gods is determined by the people. Duro Lapido’s Oba Ko So is a reenactment of myth of origin of Oyo Kingdom performed in both languages of cultic and ordinary, exposing the Yoruba oral literature.

In African world-view, the essence of time is crucial. It operates in Lapido (1978:4) ‘Oba Ko So’. At the beginning of the drama people rejoice because according to them Sango’s time is good and also characterized by success. Happily they sing Igba oba wa dara funwa – Our king’s time suits us Igba oba wa sunwon fun wa – Our king’s time is good for us Ija kosi o te kosi - There is no rows, there are no intrigues Igboro ma dun gbongbon fien wa - There is jollity, there is merriment.

Duro Lapido’s other plays: Oba Waja, Oba Moro, Moremi and Eda are all rooted in oral literary forms such as history, myth and legends; combination of verbal arts: dance, music and oral poetry. Oba Waja is a prototypical of a historical event during the colonial period in Oyo precisely. In the play Ojurongbe unknowingly shatters the custom by not dying with the king as custom demands. This single act leaves the kingdom in terror for he refuses to accompany the king to the underworld. He leaves the King’s spirit wandering in the spirit world. Ojurongbe has danced round the Oyo Kingdom which would have followed his death but he refuses to die. Instead his son Dawudu who is back from Ghana dies through the ritual death. Through his ritual death Dawudu restores peace especially between the physical and metaphysical realms. This history is recreated by Wole Soyinka (1975:56) in his Death and King’s Horseman. In association of this authorship another author imitates the characteristics of Soyinka’s Death and King’s Horseman. Esiaba comments: “In the exploration of local resources of performances and in the evocation of the tragic spirit,

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Nwokedi shares these attributes of Soyinka’s Death and the King’s Horseman. Layiwola (2008:224) quoting Turner describing ritual, said: Ritual is most typical cross-cultural express, a synchronization of many performation genres, and often ordered by dramatic structure, a plot, frequently involving sacrifice or self-sacrifice, which energizes and gives emotional colouring to the interdependent communicative codes which express in manifold ways meaning inherent in dramatic Leitmotiv.

As aforementioned Ogunde has unusual origin. The contrastive origin of being the son of a clergyman and maternal grandson of a Babalawo (Ife diviner). These two extremes struggle for influence in his works. Ogunde (1976:241) reports: Here I was, a youth versed, as I could to be then, in juju music and used to the altar of the ifa priest. I had eaten fowls and sheep slaughtered in pagan festivals and enjoyed them full. Then I was in a church, singing songs of praise to God denouncing the juju man and his ways … I began to see that I could blend charms and splendor of the church house and the colorful solemnity of the alter and use them to good advantage.

Ogunde uses his Strike and Hunger to repudiate the foreign domination in the governance of this country which led to the 1945 workers strike. He makes use of his role as a custodian of the society which depicts his heritage from Alarinjo Masque drama. His play is greatly influenced by traditional traveling theatre. It has the opening merriment visual, verbal elements of music and dance mostly replayed during Yoruba festivals. Ogunda is always at the forefront of Nigerian politics always committed to truth which earned him forbiddance from acting at one given time.

Ogunde’s play Strike and Hunger centers on Past World War II in Nigeria of 1946. The play is allegorically presented. King Yejide is the allegorically represented colonial ruler. The colonial administrators became hostile to Ogunde and group and didn’t waste time to arrest him and bar his plays. His opening music, minstrelsy is most provocative: Araige ewa kewa parapo kajo jija ebi Come people of the world, rally round to fight hunger Angeli ebo Angeli ebo wa waiye (Descend oh Angels, grant us audience) Angeli ebo wa wora enie (Angels behold the people of the world) Tinse alaimi ehun ewa wole aiye (Deprived of good things of the world) (translated by Obafemi 2001:41).

Ogunde’s opening entertainment stands for Yoruba native rite at the beginning of their festivals. But instead of paying homage to a Yoruba god, it is paid to the angel in complaint of Oba Yejide’s mercilessness and misconducts against Nigeria. With this he provokes the people to fight against the foreign rules. Ogunde applies and makes use of local praises drawn from Yoruba oral literature. These are in form of music, proverbs, dialogues mingled with Christian – foreign concepts and repetitive device.

Ama Ata Aidoo and Efua Sutherland Common traditional folk tales based on people’s cosmology, common people, wise and foolish people, happy and unhappy people exist in traditional African Societies, and some playwrights base their plays on such stories. A typical example is Ama Ata Aidoo’s Anowa and Efua Sutherland’sEdufa.

The two plays reflect the concept of story-telling among Ghanaians in the West African Coast. The two playwrights borrowed a lot from their traditional African background. Anowa dramatizes the well-known story of a willful, beautiful girl who rejects every suitor the parents propose because she wants to make her own choice. Anowa’s attitude is against the existing rules. Ama uses the rebel girl motif which is an important

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 174 motif on marriage in African culture and folklore. According to the motif, if a girl refuses to marry a man the parents suggests for her, she would suffer misdemeanor in form of disappointment in her marriage for violating social laws/rules. Though Ama portrays Anowa as being very intelligent, pretty and knows what she wants in man, she suffers disappointment because her husband is unable to make her pregnant. This in the end tallies with the penalty inherent in African folktale that forms the bases of Ama’s art.

In Edufa by Sutherland, apart from classical influence on the play, Alcestis by Euripides, her work reflects a story of legend among the Ashantis of Ghana where a woman exchanged her life for her husband. The legend holds that a woman is only concerned for the preservation of souls.

Wole Soyinka The same African folklore inspired soyinka’s Death and King’s Horseman. It is inspired by a historical fact that concerns the people’s belief system. The historical event took place about 1946 when the King (Oba) of Yoruba land. Oba Alafin is representative of god on earth. As Yoruba tradition demands that when the king dies, he must be accompanied to the grave by his horseman because the horseman’s spirit is essential in helping the king’s spirit to ascend into the spiritual realm. Otherwise the King’s spirit will wonder the earth and bring harm to Yoruba people. This explains the belief in the transitory nature of human life which promotes the relationship between the dead, the living and the unborn. The living is assumed to come from the dead; so a cyclic rotation between life and death is the core of Yoruba philosophy.

There are also many traditional stories about animals. Some modern plays are based on animal stories. Again Efua Sutherland has dramatized some of them especially Anansewa which literarily means Ananse stories. Efua uses the story to show that spider Ananse is a kind ofcharacter seen in some men. She uses it to show the people whom they are and how such qualities such as greediness, ambition, silliness or slyness affect the society. The character of Ananse may be ridiculous in his tricks but it has great moral information. She uses Ananse to criticize the covetousness of man.

Zulu Sofola Zulu Sofola’s works show how strongly tradition continues to persist in contemporary African drama. Sofola’s writing can be accessed from traditional and folkloric dimension since they are based on traditional and cultural society. She presents people within a society whose beliefs, plights and struggles and sociological organization can be properly assessed from the lens of African values, beliefs and modes of behavior and this is the hallmark of African oral literature. She believes that traditional influences must be mingled within modern society and that the past should be used to strengthen the present to make projection into the future. Her plays that conform to the societal culture which Okoye (2009b:16) confirms to be “shared in common by members of a particular culture which are transmitted apocryphally either by writing as word of mouth from generation to generation”. Her plays that conform to African culture are: King Emene, Wedlock of the Gods, The Sweet Trapand Old Wines Are Tasty.

In Old Wines Are Tasty,0kebawo, an educated and widely travelled man meets his fall and tragic end as a result of his disrespect for tradition. His people’s strict adherence to the customs of their land appears awkward to him, as he turns deaf ears to his admonitions of both his uncle, Akagwu, the elders of Izuani town council and even his mother. His death therefore did not elicit pathetic response from the audience, because it went as expected.

Emene displayed the same kind of obstinacy in King Emene. He was cautioned against the impending danger of performing the rites of ushering in the peace week because of the totally reprehensible crime that has been committed in the palace. He turns his deaf ears to the warning in respect of his people’s way of life. According to tradition, the King must be purified. The oracle and the gods must confirm that he is purified before the King enters the shrine. But all is not well because the elders warned the King to make a public confession of what the King’s mother has done. But King refuses to adhere to the elder’s warning for the purification of throne. His rejection of the advice leads to his tragedy.

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Wedlock of the gods also finds its roots in the ritual of death and mourning. The traditional solemnity of the ritual is distorted because the widow refused to engage in the normal funeral rites and rituals which should have cleansed her and sent the spirit of the deceased to the world of the gods; she rather expressed sense of liberation from unwanted marriage. Her mother-in-law in turn performs the rites meant to destroy her son’s widow as an act of vengeance for supposedly killing her son. Ugwome’s mother-in-law therefore avenges his son’s death by killing Ogwoma with magical charms. Uloka kills her too, but commits suicide and dies with his love Ogwoma.

From Sofola’s play it is discernable that she advocates adherence to custom and tradition of the Africans because she penalizes the characters in the plays that ignore or disrespect the tradition handed down from the past generation. Even in herThe Sweet Trap she advocates the leadership and supremacy of husbands over their wives and frowns at women who do not submit to their husbands. In the play Femi Sotubo refuses to consent to Clara; her wife’s birthday against his prior approval. Clara concurs with the advice of her divorced friend and holds the party some other place. When the party is disturbed, Clara sought the advice of her uncle, kneels and apologizes to her husband and there was peace again. This proves that Sofola approves male superiority even when they are seemingly wrong as it is the accepted in African culture where men have the final say.

Femi Osofisan (2006) also relies on oral forms in the crafting of his Women Owu because it has poetic forms and heavy reliance on traditional and ritualistic language. The same thing applies to Chris Ngozi Nkoro’s (2006:17) The Sick Throne. There is artistic use of poetic language in her dialogues: He asks. He asks questions Like the babe that he is. You are greater than today’s great men Already ensconced on the stool You are he that’s awaited… What comes forth from the studies of the above playwrights is the obvious connectivity and influence of their imaginative works to oral performance and tradition. Therefore, notwithstanding the western language used by the playwrights, the bedrock of their plays prove to be from African oral forms.

CONCLUSION Africans still underrate African oral literature and cling to Western way of life even when we have a better alternative. But we can only be identified as a people by our own culture which is embedded in our oral form. Africans are encouraged to preserve our rich oral heritage. This essay has established that there is an inseparable bond between African oral literature and Modern African Drama through performance and that most African playwright have been influenced by African oral literature in crafting of their dramatic works.

The early playwrights such as Ogunde Hubert and Duro Lapido use complex cultures of the Yorubas to produce historical and mythological dramas. Again Ghanaian playwrights: Efua Sutherland and Ama Ata Aidoo use traditional folk tale based on their people’s cosmology in their plays. Soyinka applies Yoruba myths to create Death and Kings Horsemen. Zulu Sofola, Ahmed Yerima, Femi Osofisa, and Chris Nkoro demonstratetheir adherence to custom and tradition of the Africans in her various plays. The playwrights have demonstrated the nexus between oral literature and modern African drama.

REFERENCES Aidoo, A. (1970), Anowa London: Longman

Diyanni, R. (2002), Literature – Reading Fiction, Poetry and Drama (5th Edition), New York: McGraw Hill Publishers.

Finnegan, R. (1970). Oral Literature in Africa. Nairobi: Oxford University Press.

Holt, Rinehart & Winston (1997). Elements of Literature, Second Course, Orlando: Harcourt Brace and Company.

Iriobi, E. (2010). Voices Offstage Nigerian Dramatists on Drama and Politics (Ed) Gbemisola Adeoti. Ibadan: Kraft Books Ltd 50-56.

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Killan, G. D (1973) (Ed) African Writers on African Writing. London: Heinemann.

Lapido, D. (1978). Oba Ko So. Ibadan: University Press

Layiwola, D. (2008). “Is Ritual Drama Humanistic Methodology? Thoughts on the New Theatre” Cross Currents in Theatre in African Theatre (Ed) Austin Asagba Ibadan: Kraft Book Ltd. 212-229.

Nkoro, C. N. (2006). The Sick Throne. Aba: Up to date

Nwabueze, E. (2011). Studies in Dramatic Literature. Enugu: ABIC Books.

Obafemi, O. (2001). Contemporary Nigerian Theatre Cultural Heritage and Social Vision Ibadan: Kraft Books Ltd.

Ogunbiyi, Y. (1981), “Nigerian Theatre and Drama – A Critical Profile” Drama and Theatre in Nigeria: A Critical Source Book, Lagos: Nigeria Magazine.

Okoh, Nkem (2008). Preface to Oral Literature. Onitsha: Africana first Publishers Ltd.

Okoye, P. I. N. (2009). Orature of Igbo Speaking People (South of Nigeria). Awka: Amaka Dreams Ltd.

Osofisan, F. (2006). Women Owu. Ibadan: University Press

Soyinka, W. (2002). Death and King’s Horseman. London: Metheun, 1975. Yerima Ahmed. The Liman andAde Ire.Ibadan: Kraft Books,

Zulu, S. (1974). King Emene: Tragedy of Rebellion. Ibadan: Heinemann B

Zulu, S. (1973). Wedlock of the gods Ibadan: Evans Brothers Ltd 1973

Zulu, S. (1981). Old Wines Are Tasty: Ibadan: Ibadan University Press 1981

Zulu, S. (1977). Sweet Trap. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press 1977

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Harmonious Resolution of Controversy (Acts 15:1-35) Panacea for Integral Development of Any Society.

Rev. Fr. Dr. A.I. Ezeogamba Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University Anambra State [email protected]

Abstract. Jesus, the head of Christianity, left few adherents mainly from among the Jews. He urged his disciples (those he had already made his followers) as he was about leaving the world to go into the world and make disciples of all nations, ordering them to "Baptize them, In the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit" (Matt 28:19). This admonition coupled with the indwelling of the Holy Spirit, vivified the disciples in their missionary enterprise to the extent that Christianity embraced various nations with their various cultures and natural inclinations. In Acts 15:1-35 the meeting of different cultures brought about controversy which nearly rocked the Gentile mission and indeed the entire missionary enterprise. Peaceful resolution of the misunderstanding brought about proper definition of what Christianity is all about (which is salvation by faith in Jesus Christ) and subsequent universal development of the church. It was as a result of the harmonious resolution of that controversy that made both the Jews and Gentles to feel welcomed in the one family of Christ hence the innumerable number of Christians today. In our society today, integrated development is hindered because of various unresolved controversies. This article aims at identifying the reason why there is no integral development in very many societies and organizations and proffering solution to that effect. It argues that if the leaders of various organizations and societies were to understand properly the actions of the apostles, elders and the church in Acts 15:1-35 and imbibe it, then integral development would be assured. The method we shall adopt is library research which is mainly an exegetical analysis of Acts 15:1-35. key words: Harmony, Controversy, Resolution, Development, Society.

INTRODUCTION: Jesus Christ was born a Jew, lived, died and buried a Jew (Luke 2:21-24; 2:41-42; John 19:40). He had his immediate followers who were all Jews. He trained them for them to train others and handed over the mantle of leadership to them. It was within the post resurrection period or rather shortly before ascension that He gave His disciples the mandate to universalise His teaching (Matt 28:18-20). Peter and indeed the rest of the apostles went into action and converted many Jews, as much as three hundred (Acts 2: 37-41). From that day on wards, even Jews in Diaspora heard the good news and became Christians. These include Greek speaking Jews or Hellenists. In fact, from among the Jews, almost all Jewish sects were represented in this new assembly especially the Pharisees. The common denominator is that they were all Jews or those that have been made Jews through birth or slavery. Even among the Jews that have become Christians, there arose also quarrel between the Hellenists and Hebrews, but this church promptly settled this initial controversy through the institution of the seven deacons which included Stephen (Acts 6:1-7).

It was in obedience to the command of Jesus, for his followers to 'disciple all nations', that Peter led by the Spirit converted and baptized Cornelius (a Roman centurion) and his entire household (Acts 10:44-48). With the death of Stephen, the first Christian martyr, Christianity spread outside the fold of the Jews which included Antioch and surrounding nations (Acts 11:19-21). Again, with the conversion of Paul, and the stubbornness of the Jews, the missionary zeal towards the Gentiles increased greatly. Most of the Gentile conversions came from Paul which include (i) conversion of Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:6-12); (ii) Conversion of many Gentiles in Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:42-49); (iii) conversion of Greeks in Iconium (Acts 14:1); (iv) conversion of Cornelius and his household (Acts 10). All the above conversions came from Paul with the exception of the last one.

The entrance of Gentiles into the family of Christ brought serious controversy as a result of the misunderstanding of Christ event- suffering, death on the cross, burial and resurrection of Christ. Earlier than now, is like the apostles and disciples of Jesus from Jewish extraction believed that there is no salvation without circumcision. The implication is that, only the Jews who are circumcised that would be saved and African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 178

Jewish converts. Hence, placing circumcision above the shading of Christ's blood on the cross; thereby rendering useless the reason of Jesus' birth, and death. The Judaizers, i.e. those that uphold tenaciously the traditions of their ancestors and those who insist that salvation lies with circumcision and Laws of Moses, claim that anyone that wants to become a Christian must first of all become a Jew. This idea, if upheld, would have made Christianity another sect within Judaism.

Judaism and Her Sects Jesus met three main Jewish sects and they include: The Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes. Each of these schools have their schools and followers. Our interest is restricted to the first Sect, which is the Pharisees for the sake of this article. The Pharisee sect is rightly called the Law experts and quarrelled with Jesus more than any other group because of their blind obedience to the Law. They never had it easy with Jesus and hence received the highest condemnations from Jesus (Matt 6:2, 5,16; 15:7; 23). They are the group John the Baptist called "brood of vipers" who rested complacent in their having Abraham as their progenitor (Matt 3:7-8). They are exact observers of the Law of Moses. Their progenitor are the Hasidaeans. The Hasidaeans, a transcription of the Hebrew chasidim, - (Hasidim) i.e., pious ones, were a society of men zealous for religion, who acted under the guidance of the Scribes, in opposition to the godless Hellenizing party (Sadducees); they scrupled to oppose the legitimate High Priest even when he was on the Greek side. Their fundamental principle was complete separation from non-Jewish elements, they were the strictly legal party among the Jews, and were ultimately the more popular and influential party. Hence, legalism is their watch word (W.E. Vine,1997:853). It is no exaggeration to say that they follow law sheepishly. They follow Law without understanding the spirit of the Law or the Law giver. Their interest is on the letters of the Law. Josephus observed that when the Jewish people faced an important decision, they relied on the opinion of the Pharisees rather than that of the king or high priest (J.I. Packer and M.C. Tenney Eds., 1980: 506). Let us not forget that Paul (Saul) was a member of this sect before his conversion to Christianity (Phil 3:4-7; Gal 1:14). Hence, the solution to the controversy that this article wants to portray as a model for settling disputes for integral development to thrive was really a controversy between Paul's community and Pharisaic sect. Let us at this stage look at how this separated group values the Gentiles.

Groups Outside Judaism - Gentiles: The Hebrew word goyim, Latin word gens and the Greek word ethnos (Josh 24:11) has sometimes been translated 'nations, Gentiles, heathen.' Gentiles has applied to all nations other than the Jews (Watts, J. Wash, 2005: 670). The word Gentiles was first applied to the descendants of Shem, Ham, and Japheth (Gen. 10:5,20,31) without any distinction. Distinction only came with Abraham being called by God to be the father of the chosen people of God (Exod 19:4-6). From that grows the idea that Israelites who keep the covenant of God with faithfulness are regarded as nation of God (Psalm 106:5; 9:5), whereas those who do not are called just 'the nations, Gentiles, heathen' (Isa 60:3; Acts 13:47; 10:16). Thus to think of the nations, is to think of idolatry, people who are corrupt and those who do things that are not in harmony with commandments of God (Lev. 18).

According to some ancient traditions, the Israelites were asked to be separated from them in every ramification be it marriage, religion, and politics (Exod. 23:28-33; Deut. 7:1-5; Josh 23:4-13; 2 Mac 14:38). Those were traditions before Christ. Christ came to change all that. He came to reconcile humanity as a whole back to God. He came to settle the eternal enmity between the Jews and Gentiles. The Pharisees no doubt do not understand the message of Christ which is the breaking down of the barrier between nations which is the barrier between the Jews and Gentiles (Eph. 2:14). Paul fought tooth and nail the efforts to distinguish between Jew and Gentile in the Christian community (Rom. 3:29-30; Gal. 2:11-21; 3:26-29). He received several oppositions (Gal 2:12). Paul's insistent, according to David W. Suter, "furthered the success of Christianity within the empire and led to its emergence as a distinct religion by the end of the first century" (1994:339). Without Paul who made this insistence to release the Gentiles from this type of bondage, Christianity would have remained a sect within Judaism.

Brief History of Acts of Apostle In a simple term, Acts of the Apostle is the product of that command which Jesus gave to his disciples in Matthew 28:18-20. In other words, it is the record of event that took place after the departure of Jesus from the universe. It is the sum total of the works done by the apostles and their converts through the guidance of the Holy Spirit. Scholars are unanimous in affirming that Acts is no doubt the "history of the rise of

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Christianity" (Henry Wansbrogh [Gen.Ed.], 1984:1794). It then means that Acts brings to focus the history of the beginning of Christianity. This fact authenticates the demands of Jesus when he says, "You will be my witnesses not only in Jerusalem but throughout Judea and Samaria, and indeed to the earth's remotest end" (Acts 1:8). Acts 1-5 exposes how this extensive work got its firm root in Jerusalem. This fact was corroborated by Michael D. Coogan (ed) when he wrote, "The book of Acts tells a dramatic story of the birth and expansion of the Church from the time of the ascension of Jesus until the arrival of Paul in Rome" (2001:183).

One wonders why the title 'Acts of the Apostles' which supposes to be the actions of the twelve apostles after the death, and ascension of Jesus. Some scholars would have even preferred to name the book 'Acts of Paul' since it records more the persecution wrought by Paul, his conversion and great role he played in fighting for the independence of Christian Community from remaining a sect of Judaism; again coupled with the fact that the book ends with the arrival of Paul to Jerusalem. Coogan wrote, "As a title, Acts of the Apostles is clearly a misnomer, since Peter is the only apostle who receives individualized portrayal. Nevertheless, it does capture one of the key concepts of the book, namely, that the apostles guarantee continuity with Jesus through their status as witnesses to everything that happened during his ministry (Acts 1:21-22), this testimony applies above all to his resurrection (Acts 10:39-41)" [183]. Without minding any contrary voice, it is good to note that it was the apostles, who inaugurated the elders, to head the various communities they (apostles) gathered and through the promptings of the Holy Spirit all the missionary enterprise of Paul to the Gentiles were ratified (Acts 15:1-35). Hence this book records the continuation of the works Jesus started in the Gospels. Among all the documents of the earliest Christian period, this book offers a narrative sequel to the accounts of Jesus' words and deeds found in the Gospels (Coogan:183).

Scholars are almost unanimous in affirming that Acts of the Apostle is the second volume of the two books written by Luke in the New Testament. It is not easy to point out any dissenting voice to this fact. He (Luke) first wrote Gospel which deals with the birth, life, teaching, suffering, death, burial, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus into heaven (John 1:1-2). The second volume deals with actions of the Apostles and their converts as well as the promptings of the Holy Spirit in extending the mission of Christ to all parts of the world (Acts 1:1-2). The purpose of Luke in this second volume is to "imbue Christians of his day with an unshakable confidence in their future through a didactic survey of their past” (Coogan:183.). In doing this, he made effort to solve other socio-cultural, and theological problems brought about by the relationship of the new community with its Jewish heritage and as well as its Roman socio-cultural and political environment.

Let us summarise this background information with this beautiful articulation by Henry Wansbrogh as it affects this work we are developing: The most urgent problem facing the new church was the admission of gentiles, and Acts provides important details about this, without, however, revealing the full extent of the difficulties and disagreements this must have caused within the Christian community, and even between its leaders (Gal 2:11-14). The Jerusalem brotherhood led by James remains faithful to the Jewish Law (Acts 15:1,5; 21:20ff) but the Hellenists, for whom Stephen acts as spokesman, want to break away from Temple worship. In Luke's account, Peter, but even more so Paul, gets the principle of salvation through faith in Christ recognised at the council of Jerusalem (1797).

The whole book therefore centres its central message on the fact that salvation depends on the faith one has in Christ. It emphasizes that just as circumcision is for entrance into Judaism, baptism is absolutely necessary for entrance into community of believers. It affirms that one does not really need to be a Jew in order to become follower of Christ. For Acts, circumcision is for Old covenant and Baptism is for the new covenant. Thus, separating Christianity from Judaism and encourages the growth and expansion of Christ's event to the ends of the earth.

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Structuralanalysis of Acts 15:1-35 The events of Acts 15:1-35 raise several difficulties which include Vv 1-2 is repeated in vv 5-7. Some scholars see this repetition as two different accounts of two actions concerning the controversy that tends to rock the Gentile community in Antioch. Others see it as the same account but repeated as a result of the short meeting which was held between the executive fold before the general assembly. But a close study reveals that if one holds that there was private meeting as verse 6 suggests before the general meeting, one can easily be contradicted by vv 12-22 which suggest order wise. Verses 12-22 suggest that the debate from the beginning involved all the assembly. Again, though the decree of v29 was intended for the churches of Syria, and Cilicia, in v23 Luke has nothing to say about Paul's publishing it when he travelled through those provinces (v41) but the decree of vv 19-21 incline to show that the decree was meant for Gentiles as a whole. In this write up, irrespective whatever argument that is being adduced by scholars to suggest that our text deals with two distinct controversies, we shall maintain our ground to take it as single event and that the repetition is nothing but literary device. So, in spite of these little dissenting issues, Acts 15:1-35 is a unit.

Acts 15:1-35 is a unit. It starts with the arrival of self acclaimed teachers from Jerusalem to Antioch which generated unimaginable controversy that would have destroyed the church if not for the quick intervention of the Jerusalem Church. The story equally ended with authoritative intervention from Jerusalem Church to the Antiochene church. The problem was introduced in the community of Antioch by false teachers from Jerusalem church and was equally resolved by authoritative, true messengers, and letters from the Jerusalem community to the Antiochene community. We shall interpret this all important text by dividing it into the following sub heads namely:(i) of Elders (Jewish) And Redemption Wrought by Christ in Contest Vv 1-4; Arrival of the Emissaries to Jerusalem (vv 5-6); Peter's and Antiochene Emissaries' Speech (vv 7-12); James' Speech and Proposal for the Antiochene Church (vv 13-21); The Jerusalem Decision (vv 22-29); The Delegates and the Message (vv 30-35); After Effects of the Letter. In each of these sections, we shall first of all look at some key words that will help us to interpret each section well.

Tradition of Elders (Jewish) And Redemption Wrought by Christ in Contest Vv 1-4 Certain men came down to Antioch from Judae. Such people were also mentioned in Gal 2:12. The term Judea may occasionally be used to mean all the region occupied by the Jewish nation. Several of Luke's references seem to be the most conclusive (Luke 23:5; Acts 10:37; 26:20). From every intent, they are Judaizers from Jerusalem Church who were struggling to subjugate the why of Christ to Judaism; hence taking Christianity to be a sect within Judaism. But who were the Judaizers then, "this is an extra-biblical term for those who acted like Jews and/or sought to influence others, based on Paul’s charge that Peter's attitude would force Gentiles 'to judaize' (Alcorn:965). That means, to become or live like the Jews (Gal 2:14). So anyone who struggles to enforce circumcision and other Jewish legal norms (Laws of Moses) to none Jews is a judaizer. William Baird in his effort to identify the men from Judea says, they "are converts who belonged to the party of the Pharisees. Coming out of a legalistic background they believe the law of Moses must be obeyed by Christians (1983: 56). What is certain is that no one permitted this group to meet with Antiochean Christian community (v.24).

Vv.1-2 introduce the coming of the Judaizing teachers in Antioch. In Gal 2:12, they are introduced as people who came from James. But here it was not specified. They began to teach the brothers that "unless you have yourselves circumcised in the tradition of Moses you cannot be saved". Thus making circumcision a prerequisite condition for salvation. Their conviction was because it was prescribed by the custom/tradition (ethei) of Moses. But one knows that long before Moses, God established a covenant between him and Abram and subsequently Abraham's descendants. One wonders why urging them to be circumcised according to the tradition or custom of Moses instead of that of Abraham. Maybe because, Moses took it upon himself to enforce it to the general assembly of the Jews since they used to read it on the Sabbath days. Besides, to talk of Moses is to talk of the Law, hence he has been acclaimed to be the highest law giver in the whole bible.

The Gentiles were very happy when the good news was preached to them by the Jews. Their joy and hope was dashed by the judaizers that just arrived in their community. They insisted that circumcision is very important for them. This no doubt stirred no small dispute or controversy in the Church of Antioch (Taylor:1604). Let us at this stage understand what circumcision is all about.

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The Greek word peritmethete is an aorist, passive term, subjunctive mood, from the word peritemno meaning to 'circumcise.' Circumcision from the beginning signifies that anyone who would have anything to do with the Jews must be circumcised (Gen 34:14; Exod. 4:24-26; Lev. 19:23). It qualifies one even to marry a Jewish woman, to eat, play or worship with the Jews. It is only a sign that makes one a Jew. In Gen. 17:1- 14 circumcision stands to remind both God and the Jews of the covenant they entered into. In it, God is their father and they are sons of God. In the same way, the rainbow in Gen 9:16-17 is a sign to God and all creatures that they are in a covenant with God. While rainbow is a sign of covenant with whole humanity, circumcision is a sign of covenant between God and only the chosen people, the descendants of Abraham (Gen 17). This restricted covenantal sign has its obligations and responsibilities which include obedience or fidelity to the Law (Exod 19:5; 24:7-8) and to Sabbath observance in particular (Exod. 31:16-17).

These Judaizers should not be blamed in anyway, because they were at the time reacting against those who were trying to push them away from the tradition in which they were brought up. Whatever they were doing to defend the tradition handed over to them was in order because they were really acting out of ignorance. They fought with the same zeal Saul fought with so as to destroy Christianity before his conversion (Acts 9). Paul (Saul) after his conversion, he removed the yoke of Judaism and put on the yoke of Christianity. He accepted that the only road that leads one into the community is baptism. This was why he embraced wholly the charge given by Jesus to his apostles in Matt 28:18-20.

These explanations will help us to understand why there was a heated argument between the Judaizers that came down from Jerusalem and the Christian teachers like Paul and Barnabas in verse 2. Each of the group seem to have talked out of conviction. Let it be said immediately that both groups were under the influence of the Holy Spirit, otherwise, they would not have accepted to go to Jerusalem for the clarification of idea so as to settle the controversy. Hence, Paul and Barnabas and the other unnamed members of the Church were detailed to go to Jerusalem for the sake of peace. Among the unnamed members of the delegation, some scholars have named Titus as being part of that group (Gal 2:1-3) most importantly because he has a gentile blood. Though this is a mere speculation, but it seems most plausible because one is supposed to be where his case is being discussed.

On their way (v3), they passed through Phoenicia, and Samaria. Some scholars even assume that the emissaries did not move straight to Jerusalem, but they made effort to visit as many churches as possible to break the good news to them (Rickard: www.themoorgngs.org). Those they met While on the way and the Christian brothers and sisters they met on the arrival were highly delighted. That is, the news of the conversion and welcoming of gentiles into the Church was received with great joy and the Judaizers were aware of this development. This must have helped to weaken the courage of the Judaizers as they moved towards the meeting in Jerusalem. It helped to reduce the Judaizers to "a splinter faction in the church" (Dillon: 751).

Arrival of The Emissaries to Jerusalem (Vv 5-6) When these arrived Jerusalem, they were seemingly welcomed warmly. They were welcomed by the apostles, elders and indeed the entire church. There is no doubt that under neat the enthusiastic group that welcomed them were judiazers who must be struggling on the strategy to deal and defeat them into submission. To assume that the Judaizers were also happy in welcoming Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem is being economical with the truth. The atmosphere was seemingly cordial preempting what would be the outcome of the deliberation. What is very clear from that encounter is the openness with which majority approached the dialogue table. They met each other in the openness of mind. Hence, one notices that before there could be any meaningful dialogue, there must be willingness of both sides to meet and willingness to accept the outcome of the meeting.

There is a little discrepancy between v6 and v12. In v6 we read that apostles and elders met but in v12 we read that the entire 'assembly' were silent. The western text has the addition of 'assembly' i.e. 'apostles, elders and assembly' met. This last information is more plausible.

Verse 1 presents the circumcision party as people who claim that circumcision is absolutely necessary for salvation but verse 5 presents circumcision as prerequisite for social participation in the Christian community. When the issue why the emissaries came to Jerusalem was tabled before the entire assembly, therefore, there

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 182 were heated debate. This debate was really initiated by the Pharisees who were newly converted to Christianity. Peter and others who know the truth kept their faith. At a point, according to the Western text, Peter was' prompted by the Spirit' and he spoke up. He stood to challenge the spirit that was about to derail the faith; to express that some of those who were arguing do not really understand the full import of the blood Christ shaded on the cross. Peter stood up to explain the difference between tribal gospel and the gospel of Christ.

Peter's and Antiochene Emissaries' Speech (Vv 7-12) After the heated argument, Peter, an authority in the mission Christ entrusted to his followers before departing from this universe spoke up. The speech of Peter came in vv 7-11. Peter saw the circumcision as an unnecessary burden on the converts. Peter's speech seems to have ended the issue at hand to the extent that no one mentioned it again. He reminded them that it was through him as destined by God that the first Gentile converts got their conversion v.7 (Acts 10:44-45). He reported that it was exactly what happened to them at Pentecost (when the Holy Spirit descended on them) that happened to the gentiles during their own time, i.e. they received anointing also as the apostles did (v8). The implication is that God has no favorite (v9; see also 10:34-35). Peter really spoke like Paul in Gal 2:16; the emphasis is that salvation or anointing is a gratuitous gift from God. Hence, no one can claim that he merited it through his obedience to the Law (Rom 11:32; Gal 2:15-21; 3:22-26; Eph 2:1-10). This assumption of Peter throw away the importance attached to circumcision as the necessary condition for salvation (v1). What Peter said raise very highly the moral of Paul and Barnabas. For them their mission has been accomplished with the speech of Peter. The speech of Peter provoked sober reflection in the minds of all present to the extent that silence prevailed in all direction (v12a). In fact, the voice of Peter sounded like a voice everybody was waiting to hear. His speech ended every argument.

It was only then that Barnabas and Paul added their voice to authenticate or concur with what Peter had said. This time, they were not really propounding any new doctrine but just to give testimonies of what God accomplished through them when they ministered to the Gentiles (v12b). The voice of Barnabas and Paul only strengthened the solid rock Peter had already laid.

James' Speech and Proposal for The Antiochene Church (Vv 13-21) James having heard all that Peter had said, which touched him deeply as well as others, argued that what Peter said was already propounded by prophet Amos (9:11-12) using the Septuagint edition. Amos, according to James, had prophesied that before the second coming, the fallen hut of David would have been repaired (vv 13-18). James as the presiding officer of the Jerusalem Church concurred with what Peter said and urged the assembly that the church should avoid laying a heavy burden on the shoulders of the new converts from the Gentile World (vv 19-21). He subsequently listed four things the Gentiles would be asked to avoid or abstain from. James was against those that were laying heavy burden on the new converts (v19). But even in the midst of not being with those who lay heavy burden on them, he believes that there must be some commitment from the Gentiles. The relationship in the new assembly will be a mutual assembly where the Jews must let something go and the Gentiles must also sacrifice something. Hence, "The result of the conference (in contrast to Gal 2:6-10) is a compromise. Circumcision is not required for salvation, but Jewish ritual requirements are essential to fellowship" (Baird: 58).

In order to accommodate the Gentiles without circumcision and observing other laws of Moses they were asked to avoid some avoidable old ways which includes "abstaining from (1) things polluted by idols (this refers to the meat of animals killed for heathen sacrifices (v29; 21:25; Col 8:10); (2) from illicit marriages (This include all the irregular marriages listed in Lev. 18); (3) from the meat of strangled animals; and (4) from blood (blood symbolizes life which belongs to God alone Lev 1:5);" Talor calls the illicit marriage "fornication" (1605). Every detail of these four issues the Gentiles were asked to run away from are still part and parcel of the tradition the Jews received from their forebears as recorded in Lev. 17 and 18. In these two chapters it was clearly stated how Jews were to live with Gentiles who are living in their midst. For instance, Lev. 17:1-9 state that to God alone should sacrifice be offered. Next comes the commandment not to consume the blood of any creature, since life is in the blood and belongs exclusively to the giver of life (Lev. 17:10-14) [Jerusalem Bible Note: 1825]. Similarly, both Israelites and foreigners will become unclean if they eat the flesh of an animal that has died a natural death or been savaged (Lev. 17:15-16). As for

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 183 fornication, this term covers all the forms of unlawful sexual union that are prohibited in Lev. 18 and are forbidden to Israelites and to foreigners alike (Talor 1605). James judgment "embodies the authoritative conclusions of the Church. That Jewish Christians should not trouble the Gentile converts refers to the yoke (v 10) and implies that circumcision is not to be required. The requirements which are made (v20; c.f. v29) constitute the apostolic decree" (Baired: 58).

Gal 2:9 testifies to the importance of the part played by James in this matter especially in the controversy over local problems of social relations (Acts15:1a, 20). One is right, therefore, to say that the part played by James in this particular chapter can never be over emphasized. Let us conclude this section by saying that James settles the controversy, and the terms of the apostolic letter are those of his own pronouncement. This is because as at that as Gal 2:9 suggests, he occupied the first place in the Jerusalem church (Acts 12:17-18).

The Jerusalem Decision/Apostolic Decree (Vv 22-29) The decision reached by the apostles, elders and the entire church is more of a concession than a decree. Israelites knew things that may likely make them unclean according to their tradition and asked the Gentiles to avoid them. Again avoiding them would never cause the Gentiles any indignities; instead it will raise their status. It is like saying, 'if you must be my friend, then you must avoid falsehood.'

The council was very meticulous in sending their message back to those it was meant for. Instead of sending back to Antioch only Paul and Barnabas with the set of concessions they agreed on, the council so as to authenticate their message and for their message to be delivered as agreed, they send down to Antioch also Judas son of Sabbas and Silas to send the message to the Antiochean Christian community and to the whole Gentile world (vv22-23). The essence of this was to prove to the Gentiles that what they have as letter from the apostles, elders and the whole assembly is authentic. The tone of the letter was highly encouraging. It specified that the letter came from 'the brothers, both the apostles and the elders' and that the letter was meant for the 'believers of Gentile world that are of Antioch, Syria and Cilicia' origin (vv 23-27). The letter reminded them that those who came previously to them to lay heavy burden on them came on their own accord and never from the authority of the Jerusalem Church. Above all, the letter claimed that the decision they have taken were not really theirs alone, but it was taken in union with the Holy Spirit. The implication is that there were four groups in the decision namely, the apostles, the elders, the church, and the Holy Spirit. The letter reads in part: "It has been decided by the Holy Spirit and by ourselves not to impose on you any burden beyond these essentials: you are to abstain from food sacrificed to idols, from blood, from the meat of strangled animals and from illicit marriages. Avoid these, and you will do what is right. Fare well" vv 28- 29: NJB). The Jerusalem concession shows a complete confidence that it worked with the Holy Spirit (Talor 1606).

Those that were chosen to send the message to Antiochene Christian community are men of proven character. They have the integrity that commands respect (v22-23). Silas for instance, became a missionary companion of Paul from after the delivering of the message (Acts 15:40-18:5.) He is the same as the Silvanus mentioned in 2 Cor.1:19; 1Thess 1:1; 2Thess 1:1 and 1 Peter 5:12). He was not a hidden member of the Church even before this event. "The letter denounces the Judaizers of verse 1 and commends its bearers as men who have risked their lives for the Lord's sake" (Baird:59).

The Delegates and The Message (Vv30-35) The messengers arrived Antioch and summoned the whole community and read the letter to their hearing. Baird said, "In sending the letter, the Jerusalem leaders assume authority over a wide area. Actually, it is addressed only to the Christians of Syria and Cilicia, but Paul delivers its decisions to the Churches founded on his earlier mission (16:4), and James considers it directed to all Gentile Christians (21:25)" [59]. There is nothing wrong with that, after all, the letters of Paul we are reading today were not originally meant for us but were written to those communities to solve one problem or the other. We are reading them today because those problems Paul set out to solve with those letters are still the problems of our own time. The community was highly delighted with the encouragement the letter gave them.

They were very happy that their Jewish brothers have fully accepted them to be together with them under Christ. Their joy knew no bounds when they heard that they were called "brothers" by the members of the Jerusalem Church. They were very happy that the barrier between them have been knocked down. "The

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 184 people were glad for the encouraging news that would, at least for now, resolve the conflicting teaching. This may very well have been gladly received by the Antioch Judaizers, since they would no longer feel like spiritual policemen going around accusing the Gentile Christians of an incomplete faith" (www.biblicaltheology.com/arts/44.15). The whole group both Jews and Gentile that gathered "responded with great rejoicing. They glorified God for releasing the Gentiles from circumcision and all the other difficult requirements of the ceremonial law" (Richard, www. themoorings.org/expositions/acts/chap15. The arrival of the Jerusalem delegates to Antioch opened a new page in the history of Christianity. With the reading of the apostolic letter from Jerusalem Church and explanation that followed from Silas and Judas and the irresistible joy that heralded it, the letter sealed the fact that Christianity is not a sect in Judaism but an advancement on Judaism or Jewish ethnic religion. Hence, though Christianity has its root in Judaism, it is universal and not ethnically bound.

After Effects of the Letter Earlier before the council's meeting in Jerusalem, Paul and indeed the whole apostles were afraid to preach comfortably in the midst of the Gentiles but after the apostolic letter new zeal entered into Paul and other apostles. After the dialogue at Jerusalem, the expansion of the church was like a wild fire. It became catholic on the true sense of the word.

Paul moved out through Lycaonia, crossing Asia Minor, arrived Philippi, Thessalonica, Beroea, Athens, Areopagus council meeting. From Athens he went back to Jerusalem through Asia, Macedonia and Achaia, Ephesus, Troas to Miletus, and then to Jerusalem. From Jerusalem with all the problems he faced, he appealed to Rome. Rome was where he finished his missionary enterprise (Acts 28: 30-31).

Let it be reiterated again that it was as a result of the harmonious resolution of the conflict that would have destroyed the church as a universal church that Christianity is now in all parts of the world including Achina my home town. Those who came for the dialogue in Jerusalem were open minded and were ready to listen to the opinion of others and that is why the conflict was amicably resolved. If not for the timely intervention, maybe the church or Christianity would have remained as another type of sect within Judaism like the Pharisees, Sadducees and Essenes. In conclusion, it is now clear from the example exhibited by the apostles, the elders, the entire Christian assembly of Jerusalem, as well as Paul and Barnabas (representing Antioch Christians), Peter and James i.e. openness to dialogue that brought about harmonious resolution of the controversy. This goes a long way to show that harmonious resolution of controversy remains an inevitable panacea for integral development of any society (Acts 15:1-35). Companies, societies, organizations, countries where members or citizens cannot gather to discuss their problem cannot progress or develop.

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Acts 15. http://www. biblestudy tools.com/commentaries/ jamieson-fausset-brownn/acts/acts-15.,4/8/15

American Journal of Biblical Theology. http://www.biblicaltheology.com/act/. 4/8/15

Coggins, R.J. and Houlden, J.L (1990). (eds.) A Dictionary of Biblical Interpretation. Philadelphia: Trinity Press International.

Dillon, J. R (1990). Acts of the Apostles. The New Jerome Biblical Commentary (4th ed.). Hendon: Geoffrey Chapman.

Matthew Henry's Concise Commentary. Acts 15. http://www.Christnotes.org./commentary. 4/8/15

Packer, J.I. and Tenney, M.C. (1980). (Eds) Illustrated Manners and Customs of the Bible. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers.

Pfeiffer, F. C. Vos, F. H. and Rea, J. (2005). (Eds.) Wycliffe Bible Dictionary Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers.

Rickard, Stanley Edgar. http://www.themoorings.org/expositions/acts/chap15.html. 4/8/15

Rienecker, F. (1980). A Linguistic Key to The Greek New Testament. Michigan: Grand Rapids.

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Talor, J. (2004). Acts of the Apostles," The International Bible Commentary. Bangalore: Theological Publications in India.

The New Jerusalem Bible (SE). London: Darton, Longman & Todd. 1985.

The R.S.V. (1958). Interlinear Greek-English New Testament. Michigan: Grand Rapids.

"The Book of Acts" http://executableoutlines.com/acts-so/ac15. 4/8/15.

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Does It Really Work? Analysis of How Journalists Employ Advocacy in Fighting Domestic Violence in Nigeria.

Nwammuo, Angela Nkiru Nworah, Uche R. Department of Mass Communication Nigeria Association of Women Journalists Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University Anambra State Chapter. Igbariam, Anambra State [email protected]

Nwafor, Gideon Department of Mass Communication Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam, Anambra State [email protected]

Abstract This paper examines how female journalists especially registered members of Nigeria Association of Women Journalists (NAWOJ) Anambra State Chapter, use advocacy Journalism in fighting war against domestic violence on women. Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was used in eliciting responses from the respondents. The analysis of the generated data was qualitatively done using Experimentation Building Technique. The findings of the study show that female journalists in Anambra State—Nigeria actually engage in advocacy against domestic violence on women. They mostly use persuasive campaigns and talks in doing this. The most common forms of domestic violence which they campaign against are wife battering and sexual abuse/rape. The findings also revealed that female journalist encounter threats to life and negative attitudes from male editors as challenges towards the use of advocacy in fighting domestic violence. Based on the findings, the study recommends among others, that appropriate legislation/laws be made so that journalists will be protected from threats and other challenges that mitigate against the use of advocacy in fighting domestic violence.

Keywords: Advocacy, Advocacy Journalism, NAWOJ, Domestic Violence, Journalist

INTRODUCTION International convention on women issues recognizes eradication of violence against women as a basic human right as has been noted by Nwanmmuo and Ochonogor (2012). This is in view of the fact that violence against women violates the law of fundamental human rights, and strongly militants against women’s growth and development. But of all the actions of violence against women, domestic violence seems to be the most pervasive and the least recognized human abuse worldwide (Abama and Kwaje, 2009; Amnesty) international, 2007; Afrol News,2007).

Domestic violence can be described as any violent behaviour be it physical, mental or sexual pain inflicted on a person by either a spouse or a close relative. Nworah (2011 p.4) refers to domestic violence thus: …a pattern of abusive behavioiur in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control over another intimate partner…. or threats of actions that influence another person. These include behaviours that intimidate, terrorize, coerce, threaten, blame, hurt, injure or wound someone.

The foregoing presupposes that when the above violent actions are inflicted upon a female by a spouse or close relative, domestic violence against women is said to have occurred. Domestic violence against women therefore takes the following forms: spousal rape, spousal abuse, battering, slapping, name calling, disrespect, private and public criticisms etc, (Aihie, 2009). It is “an age long and deep seated cultural practice which instead of prosecuting the perpetrator inflicts a condemnable stigma on the victim” (Afrol News, 2007 p: 6). Domestic violence subjugates women to the background. This is why concerned international and regional organizations of the United Nations, Non-Governmental organizations in Nigeria, call all stakeholders

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 187 including journalists, to join in the war against domestic violence in Nigeria. It is based on this backdrop that the advocacy role of journalists has been identified as a strong weapon for achieving success in the fight against domestic violence on women (Nworah, 2011).

Advocacy here basically means an effort to influence and implement a development map. As a journalistic term, advocacy journalism refers to the use of facts and information to persuade media audience to adopt a particular cause for taking appropriate actions on the issues raised, (Senam, in Ntiense and Okorie, 2012). The media play significant roles in awareness creation and education of the masses at both national and grassroots levels. Journalists in upholding a social or political cause can therefore employ journalism techniques. This is what advocacy journalism entails. It advocates a course or expresses a viewpoint. It tends to persuade through fact telling and rejects the notion of objectivity, instead it exposes bias to the audience and expresses explicit opinions on the subject matter (Asemah, Edegoh and Ezebuenyi; 2013). The general goal is to present facts in such a compelling, well-researched manner so that media audiences will be swayed to some degrees or at least be better informed about the issue at hand. This is the crux of this study. It is aimed at x-raying how journalists in Anambra state employ advocacy in the fight against domestic violence on women. Specific objectives that necessitated the study include: To ascertain the forms of advocacy used by female journalists in the fight against domestic violence on women; To find out the forms of domestic violence covered by the female journalists; To find out whether there are challenges journalists encounter while employing advocacy in the fight against domestic violence on women.

Review of Literature: Curbing Domestic Violence through Advocacy Combative measures have been initiated by media houses and some organizations in the fight against domestic violence in Nigeria. Okeibunor (2010); Nworah (2011), Abama and Kwaja (2009) and Nwammuo (2013) record some of the organization as: World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations Declaration of Elimination of Violence Against Women, Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination on Women (CEDAW) etc. Some Non-Governmental organizations have also joined in the war against domestic violence on women. Some of them are: Social Institute and Gender Index (SIGI); Virtual Knowledge Centre, Project Alert, Awesome Treasures Foundation (ATF); Legislative Advocacy Coalition on Violence Against Women (LACVAW) etc.

In addition, to the concerted efforts of the concerned organizations in the fight against domestic violence on women, some scholars believe that the battle against this societal menace needs media attention, (Chrunik, 2011, Asemah, Edegoh and Ezebuenyi, 2013). Media forms, both print and electronic do not engage in wars or battles with machine guns but with words neatly woven to achieve certain aims and objectives. The media can successfully play a paramount role in sensitizing the masses against inflicting violent actions on women.

Okafor (2011) carried out a study to ascertain the role of journalists in curbing harmful cultural practices against women in Anambra state using survey research design. This study found that journalists have the capacity to inform, educate, sensitize and mobilize the society towards taking appropriate actions against perpetrators of harmful cultural practices against women in the society. Similarly, Ekeli and Tsebee (2012) sought whether advocacy journalism could be used successfully in the fight against violence on women. Using survey as the research design and agenda setting as the theoretical framework, the study found that advocacy journalism can successfully curb and eliminate violence against women over a period of time.

These reviewed works are related to this study in that all of them are gender studies that deal with violence against women and the role of journalists in fighting the menace. This present study is significant and different from the reviewed studies because it seeks to ascertain how female journalists in Anambra state employ advocacy in the fight against domestic violence on women. Previous studies adopted survey research design while this present study adopted qualitative research approach. Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was used in collecting data for the study while previous studies adopted the use of questionnaire in data collection. This research endeavour is therefore worthwhile.

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Theoretical Framework A theory is a set of related propositions that present a systematic view of a phenomenon by specifying relationships among concepts (Wimmer and Dominick, 2003). For this reason, framing theory is adopted as the theory upon which this study is situated.

The basis of framing theory is that the media focuses attention on certain events and then places them within a field of meaning. According to Deetz, Tracy and Simpson (2000), framing consists of three elements: Language, thought, and forethought. Language helps us to remember information and acts to transform the way in which we view situations. To use language, people must have thoughts reflected on their own interpretive frameworks and those of others. Being able to do so, had to do with having the forethoughts to predict framing oppostunities. Kahnman and Tversky (1981) explains that framing theory focuses on a deliberate packaging of media contents by media practitioners to change or influence the understanding of an issue or a message. Framing involves giving an angle to an event with a view that the audience would perceive the story from the perspective of the media reporting same. This view is supported by Entman (2002, p 291) who sees framing as the “selection of some aspects of a perceived reality and making them more salient in a communication text in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, casual interpretation, moral evaluation or treatment recommendation for the item described”. To Entman, framing can simply be summarized as “selection and salience”. Media framing therefore refers to the act of giving prominence to an issue or personality by selecting and giving more prominence and emphasis on such issue or personality. This is the views of Iyengar & Kinder (1987. 114) when they argued that by “lavishing news coverage on an issue while ignoring others, the media draw attention to certain aspects of life at the expense of the others”.

METHODOLOGY This study adopted qualitative approach in which focus group discussion (FGD) was used in collecting data from the respondents. Members of Nigeria Association of Women Journalists (NAWOJ) Anambra state chapter served as respondents for the study. Women journalists were purposively selected because the researchers thought it wise to study them in order to ascertain how they advocate for issues concerning women.

Registered members of NAWOJ, in Anambra state served as the population. From the secretariat, a list of 82 women was provided as the total population, but only 48 were regular in their meeting. These 48 women served as the respondents. So the study was a census of all the registered and up-to-date members who attend NAWOS meetings. Focus Group Discussion was held with these members five consecutive times of one hour per session. Questions that guided the discussion include: Do female journalists use advocacy in fighting domestic violence? If yes, what forms of advocacy do they use? What is the nature of domestic violence that female journalists use advocacy to fight? What are the challenges female journalists faces while advocating for women? Explanation building technique was used in the presentation and analysis of the data.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The result of the study indicated that an overwhelming majority of the respondents engage in advocacy against domestic violence on women. All the women agreed to have done one form of advocacy or the other on the domestic violence and have studies its impact on the growth and development of women in Nigeria. One Mrs. Ebere from “National light newspapers” has this to say: Advocacy here is all about speaking up and fighting against domestic violence on women. Most of us do this through our write-ups and we even go to some men organizations in churches and communities especially during International Women’s Day celebrations. We tell our men that wife battering and other violent actions against women are wrong and can send a man to jail. This is in line with Nwammuo and Ochonogor (2012), when they emphasized that advocacy journalism is a dominant feature of the journalism practice in Nigeria. Nigerian journalists engage in many forms of advocacy especially in health, politics and education. On the forms of advocacy used by Nigerian female journalists in the fight against domestic violence on women, the following findings emerged:

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Persuasive campaigns to force government to make laws to prosecute perpetrators of domestic violent and protect victims.

The above statement was made by the Chairperson of NAWOJ, Anambra state chapter. Another member of the organization pointed out thus; We carryout campaigns to lobby government to provide services to women experiencing domestic violence like shelter, telephone hotline, psychological and legal advice and support network.

Another form of advocacy engaged by female journalists, as revealed by another discussant is “reaching out to young girls in various secondary schools and educating them on their rights and how to shun any form of violent treatment from boys or men”. NAWOJ as an association of female journalists in Anambra state also “organizes a team of its members who normally goes to schools on career days and educates young girls on issues concerning women, and sexual harassment and other vices against women”. This was made known by the secretary of the association.

The above measures taken by the discussants in fighting domestic violence on women is in line with International Council of Aids Services Organization (ICASO), declaration that local, regional, national and international organizations have a lot to do with regards to the use of advocacy in stimulating effective actions on health and other related issues (UNAIDS & WHO, 1999). And as it is clearly stipulated by Senam, Ntiense and Okorie (2012), advocacy journalism can be used to persuade an audience to adopt a particular action that can lead to a change of attitude, opinion, lifestyle etc.

The findings of this study revealed the nature or types of domestic violence which female journalists mostly use advocacy to fight. The ones mentioned and agreed by the discussants as the most popular forms of domestic violence on women include the following: wife battering/beating Rape/sexual abuse Emotional abuse Economic/financial abuse Harmful widowhood rites.

Most discussants especially those working with the print media singled out wife battering as the most common form of domestic violence encountered by journalists. Dorathy, a journalist with one of the national dailies, expressed her views in these words: Most men be their husbands or boyfriends to not consider beating a woman as a crime. Most rural women are now punching bags for their husbands and boyfriends. They do not ever see it as anything. It is indeed worrisome. The issue of rape or sexual abuse is a “no-go” area. To most men, whether educated or uneducated, they own our bodies. To say no is to invoke their wrath and the result is force.

On the challenges faced by female journalists while employing advocacy in the fight against domestic violence on women, the study revealed the following challenges: Unwillingness on the part of the victims to open up even when the victims are spotted by the press. Male editors’ attitude towards the reportage of such issues. They tend to “kill” such reports. Threat to life for daring to cover or publish such cases by the perpetrators. On this note, one of the discussants narrated her experience after publishing a rape incident thus: I nearly lost my life after covering and publishing a rape incident. The rapist threatened to kill me or kill either my husband or children. My husband warned me after such threats to desist from such publications for according to him, it is none of my business.

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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS This study examined how female journalists use advocacy in fighting domestic violence on women. A census study involving all the registered members of NAWOJ, Anambra state chapter, using Focus Group Discussion (FGD) yielded interesting findings. Female journalists engage in advocacy journalism against domestic violence on women. Campaigns and talks were mostly used in the fight against domestic violence on women while wife battering and sexual abuse were the common forms of domestic violence on women. Fear of being harmed and “killing of stories” by editors are the most common challenges faced by female journalists while advocating against domestic violence.

This study therefore concludes that female journalists fight domestic violence by focusing attention on it. This is the major tenet of the framing theory which served as the theoretical framework of this study. By focusing on domestic violence using deliberate language, thoughts and forethought, journalists influence opinions and change attitudes towards domestic violence on women, (Entman, 2009; Iyengar and Kinder, 1987).

RECOMMENDATIONS Based on these findings, the study recommends the following; That more persuasive language and face-to-face communication be combined with media messages in order to encourage victims of domestic violence to voice-out their pains; That male editors be discouraged to desist from killing of stories relating to domestic violence. NAWOJ, RATTAWU, NUJ and other media organization write in doing this. That female journalists should be protected by legislations and other laws from threats that may emanate from covering domestic violence on women.

REFERENCES Abama, E. and Kwaja, M. (2009). “Violence against Women in Nigeria: How Millennium Development Goals Addresses the Challenge”. Journal of Pan African Studies. 1 (3) p.23-34.

Afrik News (2007). “Half of Nigeria’s Women Experiences Domestic Violence”. Retrieved on Jan. 2015 www.afrolnews.com.

Aihie, O. (2009). “Pretence of Domestic Violence in Nigeria: Implications for counseling”. Retrieved on 24th Jan. 2015 from www.aoi.info/index.

Amnesty International (2007). “Look of lives blown apart: Crimes against women in times of conflict”. Retrieved on 25th Jan 2015 from www.amnestyinternational.com.

Asemah, E; Edegoh, L. and Ezebuenyi, E (2013). “Advocacy Journalism and the rights of Nigerian children to free and compulsory Education; A prescriptive Approach”. Journal of Arts and Humanities. 2 (6) p.175-182.

Chrunik, E. (2001). Does caring require Advocacy in journalism? Retrieved online on 26th Jan 2015. From www.reporterfacinghistory.org.

Deetz, S; Tracy, S and Simpson, J (2000). Leading Organizations Through Transition. London: Thousand Oaks and Sage.

Ekeli, E and Tsebee, k. (2012). “Curbing Violence against women to Nigeria through Advocacy journalism”. Journal of Linguistic and Communication Studies. (2 (1) p.207-218.

Entman, R (2002). “Framing: Towards Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm”. In McQuail, D. (ed). Readings in Mass Communication Theory. London: Sage.

Iyengar, S. and Kinder, R. (1987). News that Matters: Television and American Opinion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Kahneman, D and Tresky, A (1979). “Prospect Thoery Analysis for Decision under Risk”. Econometrical vol. 47 p.263-291.

Kamath, M. (2008) Professional journalism. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.

Nwammuo, A. (2013). Social Media and Perpetuation of Violence against Women: The case of Facing Death on Facebook. International Journal of Language, Literature and Gender Studies. 2(6) p. 1-10.

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Nwammuo, A and Ochonogor, C (2012). Advocacy Journalism and Nigerian Journalists: A case of pinching shoes. Journal of Linguistics and communication Studies. 2 (1) p.281-292.

Nworah, U (2011). “Violence against women in Nigerian community: Issues of power Control”. Retrieved on 15th Jan 2015 from www.safeworldforwomen.org.

Ikeibunor, N. (2010). “Broadcast Media and Empowerment of Women: Issues and Challenges”. International Journal of Communication Studies. vol.12. p.50-61.

Senam, N; Ntiense, I and Okorie, N (2012). “ICTs and Advocacy Journalism in the Fight against Terrorism in Nigeria”. Journal of Linguistics and Communication Studies. 2 (1) p.99-44.

UNAIDS/WHO (1999). Aids Epidemic Update. Geneva: UNAIDS and WHO.

Wimmer, R. and Dominick, R. (2005). Mass media Research: An Introduction. California: Wadsworth Publishers.

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Characterization of Rhizomicrobial Isolates Associated with Crude Oil Pollution Umeaku, C.N. Department of Microbiology, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli, Nigeria [email protected]

Abstract Microbiological and Biochemical characterization of microorganisims involved in rhizoremediation of crude oil-contamination of soil was carried out in the Microbiology Laboratory of Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli, to evaluate the involvement and diversity of micro- organisms in crude oil- contaminated environment ex-situ. This study also explores the methods of rhizoremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon and the physiology of microorganisim involved in the processes. The bacterial and fungal diversity in a tropical soil experimentally polluted with crude oil during a 25-day rhizoremediation was investigated in five 1m2 plots using total culturable hydrocarbon utilizing organisims (HUO), total heterotrophic bacteria and fungi analyses. Four planted plots out of the five experimental plots received NPK fertilizer while all the five plots were polluted with 4 liters of bonny light crude oil each. Spread and pour plate techniques were employed. Physico-chemical parameters such as pH, moisture content, Nitrate, phosphate, total organic carbon and potassium were determined. Endophytic community assessment and microbial community assessment were carried out. Bacterial isolates include: Arthrobacter sp., Pseudomonas sp., Gordonia sp., Corynebacterium sp., Flavobacterium sp., Alcaligene sp., Bacillus sp., Rhodococcus sp., and Micrococcus sp while the fungal isolate include: Aspergillus sp., Penicillum sp., Fusarium sp., and Candida sp. The overall data suggest an important contribution of Actinobacteria during rhizoremediation of crude oil polluted soil. Rhizoremediation could be a good remediating strategy that is inexpensive and adds aesthetic value to the environment.

Keywords: Rhizoremmediation, Microorganism, Bacteria, Crude oil, Polluted.

INTRODUCTION Petroleum derived contaminants constitute one of the most prevalent sources of environmental pollution in the industrialized world (OSIR, 1997). Spills from tankers, pipelines and oil wells are examples of point sources of pollution where the origin of the contaminants is a single identifiable point. They also represent catastrophic releases of a large volume of hydrocarbon pollutants. Majority of pollution from oil is from non point sources, where small amounts coming from many different places over a long period of time add up to large-scale effects. Not all oil released from land sources is quickly washed away into the sea, pipeline and oil-well accidents, unregulated industrial waste and leakage of underground storage tanks can all permanently contaminate large area of soil, making them economically useless as well as dangerous to the health of organisms living in and around them (OSIR, 1997).

Growing awareness of the harmful effects of pollution to the environment and human health has led to a marked increase in research into various strategies that might be used to clean up contaminated sites. Many conventional, engineering-based decontamination methods are expensive partially because of the cost of excavating and transporting large quantities of contaminated materials for ex-situ treatment, such as soil washing, chemical inactivation and incineration (Chaudhry et al., 2005; Pilon-Smits, 2005). The increasing costs and limited efficiency of these traditional physicochemical treatments of oil have spurred the development of alternative technologies for in situ applications in particular those based on biological remediation capabilities of plants and microorganisms (Singh and Jain, 2003; Chaudhry et al., 2005). An alternative technique which involves the mutualistic relationship between plants and microorganisms employed to breakdown contaminants and clean-up the environment is called rhizoremediation (Nichols et al., 1997).

Rhizoremediation is the enhancement of naturally occurring biodegradation in the soil through the influence of plant root (where complex microbial communities are supported by root exudates, mucilage and decaying root cells) that leads to destruction or detoxification of organic contaminants (Mishra, 2007). It is a specific form of phytoremediation involving plants and their associated microorganisms (bacteria and fungi)

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(McGunnies and Dowling, 2009). Without microbial contribution, phytoremediation alone may not be a viable technology for many hydrophobic organic pollutants (Chaudhry et al., 2005). Plants remediate organic pollutants by: Direct up-take of contaminants which are converted into non-toxic substances and accumulated in the cells. Release of exudates and enzyme stimulating microbial activity, growth and biochemical transformation. Enhancement of mineralization in the rhizosphere (Mackova et al., 1997)

While the microorganism breakdown the pollutants into daughter products or completely mineralize them to products such as carbondioxide (CO2) and water (Mishra, 2007). These microbes constantly implicated include various species in the genera Pseudomonas, Arthrobacter, Penicillium, Burkholderia, Actinomyces, Streptomyces, Xanthomonas, Erwinia etc (Brazil et al., 1995; Radwan et al., 1995; Schnoor et al., 1998; Ronchel et al., 2001; Pemberton and Schmidt, 2001).

The use of plants in combination with microbes has among others the advantage of causing an increase in microbial population and metabolic activity in the rhizosphere (Aprill and Sims, 1990; Kingsley et al., 1994; Schwab et al., 1995; Nichols et al., 1997; Kuiper et al., 2001). Rhizoremediation has been reported to be an effective, in-situ, non-destructive, low-cost, aesthetically pleasing, ecologically benign, socially accepted technology to remediate polluted soils (Alkorta and Garbisu, 2001; Weber et al., 2001; Garbisu et al., 2002). It helps prevent landscape destruction and enhances activity and diversity of soil microorganisms to maintain healthy ecosystems, which is consequently considered to be a more attractive alternative than traditional methods of remediation (Bogardt and Hemmingsen, 1992; Cunningham and Berti, 1993; Cunningham et al., 1995; Salt et al., 1995). Thus, the use of rhizospheric bacteria capable of degrading toxic organic compounds in combination with specific plants could offer an efficient economic and sustainable remediation technology for the twenty first century. The aim of this research is to isolate and characterize microorganisms associated with Pennisetum purpureum, Mannihot esculenta and Axonopus compressus capable of utilizing and degrading hydrocarbon pollutants and to have a clear knowledge of their physiology

MATERIALS AND METHODS Experimental Design The soil used for the rhizoremediation field study was located beside the Faculty of Health Science, Uli Campus, Anambra State University, Uli, Nigeria. Five composite soil samples were collected from 15 cm depth taken randomly to get a representative sample and taken to the laboratory for analysis.

The rhizoremediation protocol consisted of five experimental plots measuring 1m2 and respectively designated. Pp – Plot with Pennisetum purpureum vegetation Me – Plot with Mannihot esculenta vegetation Ac – Plot with Axonopus compressus vegetation MP – Plot having all three plants CP – Control plot having no vegetation

Each plot was treated with 3kg of NPK fertilizer except the control plot which lacks vegetation. They were tilled to 15cm depth and left undisturbed for 2 days after which the different plots were experimentally polluted with 4L of bonny light crude oil with a sprinkler. The polluted plots were left again for 4 days.

Sampling Samples were collected on days 4, 14 and 25 post-contaminations respectively. They were collected at 15cm depth from the surface of the soil. They were collected in sterile polythene bags, tightly packed and labelled then carefully transferred to the laboratory for analysis.

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Physico-Chemical Properties of Soil The soil physico-chemical parameters were analyzed. The soil is of sandy- loam texture. Parameters such as pH, moisture contents, nitrate, phosphate, total organic carbon (TOC) and potassium were determined using the methods of Schollenberger and Whittaker (1958) and Walkey and Black (1934).

Isolation and Enumeration of Bacteria The total heterotrophic bacterial count (THB) was determined by the pour plate method using nutrient agar media. 1g of soil was dissolved in 9ml of sterile distilled water and agitated vigorously. Different aqueous dilutions 10-3 and 10-4 of the suspension were applied on to plates and about 20ml of 400C nutrient medium was added to it and rocked gently. The plates were incubated at 28oC for 24 hours. Hydrocarbon utilizing organisms (HUO) were enumerated as adopted from Mills et al. (1978) and modified by Okpokwasili and Okorie (1988) using mineral salt medium with crude oil supplied by the vapour phase transfer. The plates were incubated for 2- 11 days. Selected colonies were transferred from mixed culture of the plates on to respective agar plates and incubated at 28oC for 24 hours. Plates containing pure cultures were stored for identification using biochemical tests and microscopy.

Isolation and Enumeration of Fungi The total heterotrophic fungi (THF) count was determined using spread plate method on Sabouraud’s dextrose agar media (SDA) with chloramphenicol to inhibit bacterial growth. The plates were incubated at 28oC for 72 hours. Selected colonies were transferred from mixed culture of the plates on to respective agar plates and incubated at 28oC for 72 hours. Plates containing pure cultures were stored for identification using morphology and microscopy.

Characterization of Isolates Each isolate was examined severally for its size, shape, margin, consistency, opacity, elevation, pigmentation and Gram reaction. The isolates were characterized using the following properties; citrate utilization test, indole, catalase, urease, oxidative fermentative utilization of sugars, triple sugar iron test and motility test using Bergey’s Mannual of Systematic Bacteriology as guide.

Endophytic Community Assessment Plant samples were uprooted from the site and carefully transported to the Laboratory for analysis. Rinsed roots were surface disinfected by sequential washes with 95% ethanol followed by several rinses with sterile water. To assess surface sterility 0.1ml aliquot of the final rinse water was spread on nutrient agar plate and incubated for 24 – 48hours. Roots were stored at 4oC for 24 hours while awaiting results from sterility assessment.

Microbial Community Analysis Endophytic extracts were produced by macerating 2.5g surface sterile root from each plot in 22.5ml mono- -1 potassium phosphate (MPP) buffer (0.65g K2HPO4, 0.35g KH2PO4, 0.10g Mg SO4L H2O) using a sterile mortar and pistle. Root extracts were serially diluted in MPP and 10-2 and 10-3 dilutions were used for culturable microbial enumeration in nutrient agar plates. Plates were incubated at 28oC for 24 hours.

RESULT Physico-Chemical Properties of Soil The physico-chemical characteristics of soil samples from the different plots used for the study were analyzed and are represented in Table 1: The various characteristics like pH, moisture content, nitrate, phosphate, total organic carbon and potassium depend upon the soil sample.

Isolation and Enumeration of Bacteria and Fungi The THB, THF and HUO counts for the various plots were taken pre-contamination and the results are represented in Table 2. Samples collected on days 4, 14 and 25 post-contaminations were also analyzed, THB, THF and HUO counts were taken and is represented in Table 3. Nine (9) genera of bacteria were

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isolated, they are Micrococcus, sp., Pseudomonas sp., Flavobacterium sp., Bacillus sp., Rhodococcus sp., Alcaligens sp., Gordonia sp., Arthrobacter sp., Corynebacterium sp., and their biochemical characteristics are represented in Table 4. The bacteria were differentiated based on their growth pigmentation and colony morphology on nutrient agar at 28oC for 24 hours. Fungal isolates include Aspergillus sp., Penicillium sp., Fusarium sp., and Candida sp., identified using microscopy and their colony morphology on sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA) at 28oC for 3 – 4 days, and is represent in Table 5.

Endophytic Microbial Community Analysis Analysis of the endophytic community pre and post contamination shows an increase in the growth of the endophytic microbial count as represented in Table 6. Two microbial isolates were identified, they are Pseudomonas sp., and Arthrobacter sp., and their biochemical characteristics are represented in Table 7.

Table 1: Physico-chemical properties of soil Sample Organic Organic Carbonate Available Nitrate(NO ) pH Moisture 3 carbon (%) matter (%) (CO3) (%) P (mg/kg) (mg/kg) H2O KCL Wet (%) Dry (%) Ac 0.4389 0.7567 5.8 5.2 10.819 0.705 0.895 6.75 0.0343

Pp 0.4788 0.8255 5.7 5.1 7.759 0.806 0.901 10.85 0.0516

Me 0.4788 0.8255 6.3 5.8 8.932 0.604 0.895 8.10 Trace

CP 0.5985 1.0318 5.3 4.5 10.619 2.881 0.895 8.85 Trace

MP 0.6384 1.1006 5.5 5.3 8.225 3.540 0.880 14.00 0.2288

TOC: Total organic carbon

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Table 2: Microbial counts pre-contamination in cfu/g Sample THB HUO THF

MP 13.0 x104 10.0 x104 30.0 x102 10.0 x105 5.0 x105

Pp 12.0 x104 10.0 x104 12.0 x102 10.0 x105 5.0 x105

CP 25.0 x104 7.0 x104 20.0 x102 4.0 x105 3.0 x105

Me 26.0 x104 14.0 x104 30.0 x102 10.0 x105 1.0 x105

Ac 12.0 x104 7.0 x104 30.0 x102 7.0 x105 5.0 x105

THB: Total heterotrophic bacteria, HUO: Hydrocarbon utilizing organisms, THF: Total heterotrophic fungi, MP: Mixed Plot; Pp: Pennisetum purpureum, CP: Control plot; Me: Mannihot esculenta, Ac: Axonopus compressus.

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Table 3: Microbial counts post-contamination in cfu/g Sample Parameter Day 4 Day 14 Day 25 Pp THB 17.5 x104 19.2 x104 36.5 x104 12.0 x105 14.5 x105 17.5 x105

HUO 13.0 x104 14.5 x104 20.0 x104 7.0 x105 10.0 x105 13.0 x105

THF 25.0 x102 20.0 x102 15.0 x102

MP THB 16.5 x104 2.0 x104 13.0 x104 13.5 x105 15.0 x105 78.0 x105

HUO 13.0 x104 14.5 x104 64.5 x104 10.0 x105 12.0 x105 30.0 x105

THF 20.0 x102 14.0 x102 4.2 x102

CP THB 10.0 x104 12.0 x104 8.0 x104 3.0 x105 7.0 x105 5.0 x105

HUO 5.0 x104 7.0 x104 5.0 x104 2.5 x105 3.0 x105 2.0 x105

THF 2.0 x102 18.0 x102 10.0 x102

Me THB 28.0 x104 42.5 x104 150.0 x104 14.0 x105 20.0 x105 90.0 x105

HUO 14.5 x104 18.0 x104 50.0 x104 9.0 x105 12.0 x105 25.0 x105

THF 30.0 x102 20.0 x102 15.0 x102

Ac THB 15.0 x104 17.0 x104 55.0 x104 10.0 x105 15.5 x105 23.5 x105

HUO 10.0 x104 12.0 x104 25.0 x104 7.0 x105 10.0 x105 20.0 x105

THF 25.0 x102 12.0 x102 10.0 x102

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Table 4: Biochemical characterization of isolates Organisms Gram Citrate Catalase Indole Urease Redox Motility TSI Reaction

Bacillus sp. +ve Rod + + - - O+/F+ - A/(A) Micrococcus sp. +ve + + - - O+/F- - K/K Cocci Corynebacterium +ve Rod + + - - O+/F+ - K/A Sp. Alcaligenes Sp. -ve Rod + + - + O+/F- - K/K Gordonia sp. +ve Rod + + - + O+/F- - K/K Flavobacterium -ve Rod + + + + O+/F+ - K/K Sp. Pseudomonas Sp. -ve Rod + + - + O+/F- + K/K Rhodococcus Sp. +ve + + - + O+/F- - A/(A+) Cocci Arthobacter Sp. +ve Rod - + - - O+/F- - A/(A)

Keys:

+ = Positive A/A = Glucose and lactose or sucrose and glucose fermentation (Acid slant and butt) - = Negative A/(A) = Sugar fermentation with gas production K/K = Alkaline slant and butt (No glucose fermentation) A(A+) = Sugar fermentation, gas production and K/A = Alkaline slant and Acid butt (Glucose fermentation) H2S production O+/F+ = Fermentation and Oxidation O+/F- = Oxidation

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Table 5: Morphology of fungi isolates Organism Morphology

Aspergillus sp.(i) Light sparse grey green cornidia, conidiophores are coarsely roughened with wrinkled mycelia growth.

Aspergillus sp.(ii) Black and densely packed conidia, conidiophores are smooth walled with wrinkled mycelia and incouspicious hyphae.

Penicillium sp. White conidia with dense coniediophores. Conidiophores are smooth.

Fusarium sp. Pink/reddish conidia with cottony aerial mycelium and pyriform shape.

Candida sp. Opaque creamy white small colonies looking like single cells.

Table 6: Endophytic community analysis pre and post-contamination in 104 cfu/g Sample Pre-contamination Post contamination

Ac 45.0 x104 200.0 x104 Pp 40.0 x104 250.0 x104 Me 60.0 x104 160.0 x104

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Table 7: Biochemical characterization of endophytic organisms Organisms Gram Citrate Catalase Indole Urease Redox Motility TSI Reaction

Pseudomonas -ve Rod + + - + O+/F- - K/K Sp. Arthobacter Sp. +ve Rod - + - - O+/F- - A/(A)

Keys: + = Positive - = Negative K/K = Alkaline slant and butt (No glucose fermentation) A/(A) = Sugar fermentation with gas production O+/F+ = Fermentation and Oxidation O+/F- = Oxidation

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DISCUSSION In Table 3, it was observed that the THB and HUO counts increased in the course of the study while THF decreased with observed disappearance of certain species. This corresponds with the findings of Anyanwu and Obire (2009) that high concentrations of crude oil have an adverse effect on fungal diversity while enhancing the population of a fewer fungi. With the exception of the control plot which did not receive NPK treatment, other plots showed tremendous increase in bacterial counts.

The study shows the dominance of Gram positive Actinobacteria among the hydrocarbon degraders. This observation has supported the fact that the rhizosphere of oil polluted soil is dominated by Gram negative rods, probably due to efficient utilization of growth substrate and detoxifying enzymes produced (Kuiper et al., 2004; Chaudhry et al., 2005). However, these observations may be biased due to limitations of (culturing) techniques to reveal the real situation in nature for example only up to 1% of soil microbial species can be currently cultured in the Laboratory (Kirk et al., 2004; Chaudhry et al., 2005).

Totally, 9 genera of bacteria were isolated, they are Micrococcus, sp., Pseudomonas sp., Flavobacterium sp., Bacillus sp., Rhodococcus sp., Alcaligens sp., Gordonia sp., Arthrobacter sp., Corynebacterium sp. and it was found out that some of the organisms were also endophytic to the plant during degradation. Aspergillus sp., Penicillium sp., Fusarium sp.(Table 4), and Candida sp. were the fungal isolates seen in the course of the study (Table 5). The increase in bacterial and fungal counts indicates that the organisms present are capable of using petroleum hydrocarbon as a sole source of carbon thereby stimulating their growth and multiplication while suppressing the growth of certain species.

CONCLUSION Continued rhizoremediation research could benefit from a multidisciplinary approach, involving teams with expertise at different levels, to study the remediation of pollutants from the molecule to the ecosystem. In order to design the most effective method of soil treatment an elaborate study of the site should be made which should include study of parameters such as the nature of pollutants, soil structure, the nutritional state and microbial composition of the site.

Knowledge of the physiology of microorganisms involved in the rhizoremediation of petroleum contaminants will help in designing proper rhizoremediation program for the degradation of target pollutants enhancing environment biotechnology.

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Anyanwu, E.C. & Obire, O. (2009). Impact of various concentrations of crude oil on fungal population of soil. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 6(2): 211–218.

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Chaudhry, Q., Blom-Zandstra, M., Gupta, S. & Joner, E.J. (2005). Utilizing the synergy between plant and rhizosphere microorganisms to enhance breakdown of organic pollutants in the environment. Environmental Science Pollution 12:34–48.

Cunningham, S.D. & Berti, W.R. (1993). Remediation of contaminated soils with green plants: an overview. In Vitro Cell Developmental Biology 29(4): 207–212.

Cunningham, S.D. & Ow, D.W. (1995). Promises and prospects of phytoremediation. Plant Physiology 110(5):715–719.

Garbisu, C., Hernandez-Allica, J., Barrutia, O., Alkora, I. & Becerril, J.M. (2002). Phytoremediation: a technology using green plants to remove contaminants from polluted areas. Review of Environment Health 17(3):173–188. African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 202

Kingsley, M.T., Fredrickson, J.K., Metting, F.B. & Seidler, R.J. (1994). Environmental restoration using plant-microbe bioaugmentation (1st edition). Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, U.S.A, Pp. 287-292.

Kirk, A., Sayler, G.S., Sonoki, T. & Locke, M.A. (2004). Monitoring the efficacy of bioremediation. Tibtechology 11: 334–343.

Kuiper, I., Lagendijk, L.E., Bloemberg, G.V. & Lugtenberg, B.J.J. (2004). Rhizoremediation: a beneficial-microbe interaction. Molecular Plant- Microbe Interactions 17(1): 6–15.

Mackova, M., Macek, T., Petra, K. & Barthard, J. (1997). Degradation of polychlorinated biphenyl by hairy root culture of Solarium nigrum. Journal of Biotechnology Letters 19(8):787–790.

McGuiness, M. & Dowling, D. (2009). Plant-associated bacterial degradation of toxic organic compounds in soil. International Journal on Biodeterioration and Biodegradation 76: 328–332.

Mills, A.C., Brevil, C.& Colwel, R.R. (1978). Enumeration of petroleum-degrading marine & estuarine microorganisms by the most probable numbers method. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 22:552–557.

Mishra, C.S.K. (2007). Environmental Biotechnology (1st edition). APH Publishers Ltd, New York, 466 pp.

Nichols, T.D., Wolf, D.C., Rogers, H.B., Beyrouty, C.A. & Reynolds, C.M. (1997). Rhizosphere microbial populations in contaminated soils. Water Air Soil Pollution 95:165–178.

Oil spill intelligence report, (1997). Oil spills from vessels (1960-1995). An International Historical Perspective. New York. Aspen Publishers.

Okpokwasili, G.C. & Okorie, B.B. (1988). Biodeterioration potential of microorganisms isolated from car engine lubricating oil. Tribology International 21:215–220.

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Pilon-Smits, E. (2005). Phytoremediation. Annual Review of Plant Biology 56:15-39

Radwan, S., Sorkhoh, N. & El-Nemr, J. (1998). Oil biodegradation around roots. Nature 376:302.

Ronchel, M.C. & Ramos, J.L. (2001). Dual system to reinforce biological contaminant of recombinant bacteria designed for rhizoremediation. Applied Environmental Microbiology 67:2649–2659.

Salt, D.E., Blaylock, M., Kurma, N.P.B.A., Dushenkov, V., Ensley B.D., Chet, I. & Raskin, I. (1995). Phytoremediation: a novel strategy for the removal of toxic metals from the environment using plants. Biology Technology 13(5):468-474.

Schnoor, J.L., Aitchison, E.W., Kelly, S.L. & Alvavez, P.J. (1998). Phytoremediation and bioaugmentation of 1,4-dioxane. Abstract, Advanced Biology System Conference. Pp 87-91.

Schollenberger, C.J. & Whittaker, C.W. (1958). Improved determination of carbonates in soils. Soil Science 85 :10–13.

Schwab, A.P., & Banks, M.K. & Arunachalam, M. (1995). Biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in rhizosphere soil. Battlle Memorial Institute 4:23-29.

Singh, O.V. & Jain, R.K. (2003). Phytoremediation of toxic aromatic pollutants from soil. Applied Microbiology & Biotechnology 63:128–135.

Walkley, A. & Black, L.A (1934). Modification of the chromic acid method. Soil Science 37:29-38

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Financing Corporate Organization for Efficient Performance in Nigeria: Equity or Debt Option

Nduka, A. Joseph Ucheahara, O. Felicia Dept of Banking and Finance Dept of Business Administration Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam Igbariam [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract This paper investigates the financing corporate organization for efficient performance: equity or debt option. To carry out this research we employed a disaggregated approach using sample of twenty-seven firms listed on the Nigerian Stock Exchange during the seventeen- year period, 1996- 2013 and a model with the necessary policy variables was constructed. Panel data for the selected firms are generated and analyzed using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) as a method of estimation. Our result reveals that a firm’s capital structure represented by Debt Ratio, DR has a significantly negative impact on the Return on Asset (ROA) and Return on Equity (ROE) (firm’s performance proxies). Also the relationship between ROA and firm’s asset tangibility is negative and significant at 1% level being wrongly signed, against a priori expectations. This shows that firms with high ratio of tangibility have a lower financial performance ratio. The results also show that the size and growth of firm are correctly signed consistent with Myers and Majluf (1984). The study by these findings indicate consistency with previous empirical studies and provide evidence in support of Agency cost theory. The author recommended among others that firms should identify other relevant factors that influence corporate performance other than debt. It is also necessary that firms understand their conditions, analyze their debt capacities, look at the need to maintain comparability with firms in the same industry before making the final decision regarding the option; and especially when presented with attractive new growth opportunities.

Keywords: Finance, corporate organization, debt, equity.

INTRODUCTION The mix of debt and equity capital maintained by a firm is called its capital structure. The extant literature is awash with theories on capital structure since the seminal work of Modigliani and Miller (1958). Other capital structure theories like the Static Trade-off theory, the Perking Order theory and the Agency theory have been used to investigate the determinants of capital structure of organizations. How an organization is financed is of paramount importance to both the managers of firms and providers of funds. This is because if a wrong mix of finance is employed, the performance and survival of the business enterprise may be seriously affected.

The ability of quoted companies to combine the use of debt and equity optimally in their capital structure is very important if it wants to achieve its goal of increase in share prices, value and growth, and avoid bankruptcy, financial distress and prey to corporate raiders. A cursory look at quoted companies in Nigeria reveals large differences in capital structure. There is also growing predictions of bankruptcy, financial distress and restructuring. This could be caused by wrong combinations and mismanagement of debt and equity among others. Some firms therefore become riskier than others and as a result rational and informed investor purchase the securities of one firm and not the other.

Arguments have been generated in studies designed to test the relationship between capital structure and corporate performance; the Trade off, Agency cost or the Pecking order theory, best describes the financing choices of corporations. Shyam–Sunder and Myers (1999) provide evidence suggesting the pecking order theory is a good first order description of the financing behaviour of firms. Chirinko and Singha (2000) use three examples to illustrate potential problems with using the Shyam–Sunder and Myers test to evaluate the pecking order theory. Frank and Goyal (2002) argue that none of the predictions of the pecking order theory hold when a broad sample of firms and a longer time series is used. Fama and French (2002) find that short time variation in earnings and investment is mostly absorbed by debt, as predicted by the pecking order, but that the pecking order has other failings (namely significant equity issues by small growth firms).

To date, the empirical investigations that sought to examine the influence of capital structure on corporate performance are limited and inconclusive, but virtually no sufficient work has been done in the literature in Nigeria, apart from a

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 204 limited amount of empirical research on the pecking order hypothesis for example, Olatundun (2002). Also an attempt was made by Akintoye (2008) but the study only used 10 Nigerian firms; a sample size not representative enough. It also lacked the empirical analysis a study of this nature demands. Its conclusions are based on financial ratios as indicators of capital structure and no regression or any form of econometric exercise was carried out. Onaolapo and Kajola (2010) also did a study on capital structure with only non-financial firms; therefore, their conclusions could not be confidently applied to the financial sector that needs this research more.

This objective of this paper is to contribute to the debate on the relationship between capital structure and corporate performance from the agency cost theory perspective using data of twenty-seven firms listed on the Nigeria Stock Exchange (NSE) covering the periods 1996 to 2013. It seeks to provide answer to the question, “does capital structure affect corporate performance of firms?” The rest of the paper will be organized as follows: Besides the introductory section, section two review theoretical and empirical literature, section three examines the methodology, section four looked at the results and discussions and section five raps it up with conclusions, then references.

Theoretical and Empirical Literature Modigliani and Miller’s (MM) famous 1958 article launched an overwhelming amount of research on capital structure. Since then various capital structure theories have evolved to explain the financing decision of firms. The Modigliani Miller theory with its modifications is based on the assumption of a perfect capital market. This is followed by the trade off theory, which emanated from the works of De Angelo and Masulis (1980). According to the theory, the tax advantage of debt will be traded off against the cost of financial distress. This trade-off results in an optimal capital structure. The third theory is the pecking order theory. This theory implies that firms prefer being financed using retained earnings, followed by debt, and finally by equity (see Myers and Majluf, 1984). The agency theory which is associated with the works of Jensen and Meckling (1976) is also reviewed. These alternative theories lead to different conclusions regarding the influence of capital structure decisions on corporate financing choice.

The financial structure of an enterprise is shown on the left hand side (liabilities plus equity) of the balance sheet. Traditionally, short-term borrowings are excluded from the list of methods of financing the firm’s capital expenditure, and therefore, the long-term claims are said to form the capital structure of the enterprise. Equity includes paid–up share capital, share premium and reserves, and surplus (retained earnings). The company will have to plan its capital structure initially at the time of its promotion. Subsequently, whenever funds have to be raised to finance investment, a capital structure decision is involved.

Pandy (2000) is of the opinion that under favourable economic conditions, the earnings per share increase with leverage. But leverage also increases the financial risk of the shareholders. As a result, it cannot be stated definitely whether or not the value of the firm will increase with leverage. The capital structure decision can affect the value of the firm either by changing the expected earnings or the cost of capital or both. Leverage cannot change the total expected earnings of the firm, but it can affect the residue earnings of the shareholders. The effect of leverage on the cost of capital is not very clear. There exist conflicting theories on the relationship between capital structure and the value of the firm.

Modigliani and Miller Theory The background to the modern debate on corporate capital structure derives from Modigliani and Miller (MM, 1958). MM’s work overturned the traditional view of corporate finance. According to the traditional approach the cost of capital declines and the value of the firm increases within leverage up to a prudent debt level and after reaching the optimum point (minimum cost of capital or maximum value of the firm), leverage causes the cost of capital to increase and the value of the firm to decline. In other words, the traditional view brings with the observation that debt is generally cheaper than equity as a source of investment finance. Hence, a firm can lower its average cost of capital by increasing its debt relative to equity (i.e. its leverage), provided the firm’s cost of debt and equity remain constant. However, this process cannot be extended indefinitely because, in reality, higher levels of debt increase the likelihood of default resulting in debt holders and shareholders each demanding greater returns on their capital. Therefore, the cost of capital schedule ( r ) is u-shaped when plotted against leverage, with the cost of debt and equity both rising at an increasing rate as bankruptcy risk increases. The corresponding company market value schedule is an inverted u– shape. Optimal leverage occurs where r is minimized and the value of the firm is maximized.

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Campbell (2000) opined that the market value of a levered firm equals the market value of an unlevered firm plus the present value of interest tax shields. He assumed that the debt is perpetual. The implication is that the value of the firm is maximized when it is financed entirely by debt. This is not a very attractive implication for the theory with corporate taxes. Clearly, no firm is financed 100% by debt. Peyser (1999) in his opinion, state obviously that if the firm is unlikely to earn taxable profits, the effective tax shield is small. As a result, it should not borrow. Campbell (2000) also considers that, since the stockholders bear the cost that arises from the conflicts of interest, they have an incentive to minimize the agency costs.

The Trade-off Theory The trade-off theory of capital structure predicts that firms will choose their mix of debt and equity financing to balance the cost and benefits of debt. It should however be realized that a company cannot continuously minimize its overall cost of capital by employing debt. A point or range is reached beyond which debt becomes more expensive because of the increased risk (financial distress) of excessive debt to creditors as well to shareholders. When the degree of leverage increases, the risk of creditors increases, and they demand a higher interest rate and do not grant loan to the company at all, once its debt has reached a particular level. Further the excessive amount of debt makes the shareholders position very risky. This has the effect of increasing the cost of equity. Thus up to a point the overall cost of capital decreases with debt, but beyond that point the cost of capital would start increasing and, therefore, it would not be advantageous to employ debt further. So, there is a combination of debt and equity, which minimizes the firm’s average cost of capital and maximizes the market value per share.

Pecking Order Theory The major prediction of the model is that firms will not have a target or optimal capital structure, but will instead follow a pecking order of incremental financing choices that places internally generated funds at the top of the order, followed by debt issues, and finally, only when the firm reaches its “debt capacity” new equity financing. Myers and Majluf (1984) opined that this theory is based upon costs derived from asymmetric information between managers and the market and the idea that trade-off theory costs and benefits to debt financing are of second order importance when compared to the costs of issuing new securities. The development of a Pecking order based upon costs of adverse selection requires an adhoc specification of the manager’s incentive contract and a limitation on the types of financing strategies that may be pursued (Dybrig and Zender, 1991). Despite the theoretical criticisms, the pecking order theory remains one of the predominant theories of incremental financing choice. In a recent set of papers, tests designed to distinguish between these competing theories have been considered.

Agency Theory The seminal work on agency theory and capital structure is Jensen and Meckling (1976); the main extensions of the seminal work include Ross (1973), Fama (1980, 1990), Arrow (1985) and Jensen and Mecking (1992). Here a particular single owner-firm wishes to finance projects in excess of the firm’s internal resources. The firm has two options; to issue equity or debt. If the firm issues equity, the owner-manager’s fractional interest within the firm decreases. This increases the incentives for an owner-manager to undertake excessive peck consumption since the costs to the owner of such activities have been lowered as a result of a reduction in his fractional interest. However, in the presence of efficient markets, which incorporate expectations, external investors anticipate such actions by the owner-manager of the firm (James, 1999). Accordingly, the price of new equity is discounted to take into account the monitoring costs of external shareholders. Under these circumstances, the owner-manager would prefer to finance new projects using debt rather than equity. However, issuing debt to finance investment also incurs agency costs. These arise as a result of the conflict of interest between external lenders and the owner-manager.

Conflicts between Equity-holders and Managers The conflict between equity holders and managers takes several distinct forms. The first, pointed out by Jensen and Meckling (1976), is that managers prefer to have greater perquisite levels and lower effort levels, provided that they do not have to pay for these through lower wages or by a lower market value of their personal equity holdings. A second arises because managers may prefer short-term projects, which produce early results and enhance their reputation quickly, rather than more profitable long-term projects. On this point see Masulis (1988). Third, managers may prefer less risky investments and lower leverage to lessen the probability of bankruptcy. See Hunsaker (1999). Fourth, managers will wish to minimize the likelihood of employment termination. As this increases with changes in corporate control, management may resist takeover, irrespective of their effect on shareholder value. See Garvey and

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Hanka (1999). Managers and shareholders may also disagree over a firm’s operating decisions: Harris and Raviv (1990) observe that managers will typically wish to continue operating the firm even if liquidation is preferred by shareholders; managers may also prefer to invest all available funds even if shareholders want to be paid dividends.

Empirical Literature Modigliani and Miller (MM, 1958), startled the academic community by providing, under a restrictive set of assumptions including zero taxes, that capital structure is irrelevant, that is according to their original article, a firm’s value is not affected by its financing mix. Later, MM (1963) added corporate taxes to their capital structure irrelevance model and reached the conclusion that capital structure does matter, and that firms should use 100 percent debt financing in order to maximize firm’s value.

However, Brigham and Gapenski (1996) argue that an optimal capital structure can be attained if there exist a tax sheltering benefits provided an increase in debt level is equal to the bankruptcy costs. They suggest that managers of the firm should be able to identify when the optimal capital structure is attained and try to maintain it at that level. This is the point at which the financing costs and the cost of capital (WACC) are minimized, thereby increasing firm value and performance.

Jensen and Meckling (1976) argue that managers do not always run the firm to maximize returns to shareholders. As a result of this, managers may adopt non-profitable investments, even though the outcome is likely to be losses for shareholders. They tend to use the free cash flow available to fulfill their personal interest instead of investing in positive Net Present Value projects that would benefit the shareholders. Jensen (1986) argues that the agency cost is likely to exacerbate in the presence of free cash flow in the firm.

Empirical supports for the relationship between capital structure and firm performance from the agency perspective are many and in support of negative relationship. Zeitun and Tian (2007), using 167 Jordanian companies over fifteen- year period (1989-2003), found that a firm’s capital structure has a significant negative impact on the firm’s performance indicators, in both the accounting and market measures. In their cross-sectional study of the determinants of capital structure, Rajan and Zingales (1995) examine the extent to which at the level of the individual firm; the capital structure may be explained by four key factors, namely; market- to-book, size, profitability, tangibility. Their analysis is performed upon a firm – level sample from each of the countries, and although the results of their regression analysis differ slightly across countries, they appear to uncover some fairly strong conclusions.

However, the empirical evidence regarding the relationship between gearing and growth opportunities is rather mixed. While Titman and Wessels (1888) find a negative correlation, Kester (1986) does not find support for the predicted negative relationship between growth opportunities and gearing. Despite this controversy, however Rajan and Zingales (1995) uncovered evidence of negative correlation between market-to-book and gearing for all countries. This is thus consistent with the hypothesis of Jensen and Meckling (1976), Myers (1977), and lends weight to the notion that companies with high level of growth opportunities can be expected to have low levels of gearing.

Although on the supply side one would expect that more profitability would have better access to debt, the demand for debt may be negatively related to profits. Modigliani and Miller (1963) argue that, due to tax deductibility of interest payments, companies may prefer debt to equity. This will suggest that highly profitable firms would choose to have high levels of debt in order to obtain attractive tax shields

METHODOLOGY Sources of Data This research relies basically on secondary data sourced from the Nigerian Stock Exchange Fact book, Journals, Reports, among others. A major challenge to the study is the fact that most of the data were not available for some companies for some period, thereby reducing the number of companies to 27.

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Model Specification Our models were developed to capture the objective of the study. Because of the nature of the study, the analytical tool used was the single equation, involving the use of the ordinary least squares (OLS) multiple regression technique. The model made use of ROA (Return on Asset) and ROE (Return on Equity) proxies for measurement of firm’s performance. The only independent (explanatory) variable in this study is the Debt Ratio (DR). It serves as the proxy for capital structure. However, a number of variables were included which have been found by a large number of studies to influence the firm’s profitability (firm performance) such as firm’s Size (SIZE); Asset Tangibility (TANG); and Growth Opportunity (GROW); we therefore needed to include them as controlled variables in the model, which are treated in the same way as independent variables.

Thus, the general model for this study, as is mostly found in the extant literature is represented by;

Y= α0 +α1Di +β2Z2i + eit (1) Where; y is the dependent variable; Di is the explanatory variable; Z2 is the controllable variable; α1 and β2 are the coefficients of the explanatory and controllable variables, respectively; eit is the error term. It has zero mean, constant variance and non-auto correlated. Specifically, when the above model is adopted here, equation (1) above can be written as:

Models ROA = α0 + α1DR + α2TANG + α3SIZE + α4GROW + eit (1)

ROE = β0 + β1DR + β2TANG + β3SIZE + β4GROW + eit (2)

ROA = Profit after tax/Total assets α (1) ROE =Profit after tax /Total number of ordinary shares in issue β (2) Debt Ratio = Total Debt/Total Asset (3) Size = Natural logarithm of total assets (4) Asset Tangibility = Net Fixed Assets/Total Asset (5) Growth = Change in the natural logarithm of total assets (6)

Explanations of Equations of the Model This section explains the equations in the model to show the linkages or functional relationships between the dependent and the independent variables. Debt Ratio (DR): The A priori expectation according to the agency cost theory is that higher leverage would lower agency costs, reduce inefficiency and thereby lead to improvement in firm’s performance. Increasing the leverage ratio should result in lower agency costs outside equity and improve firm performance, all things being equal. Hence we expect an inverse relationship between leverage (DR) and firm performance.

Asset Tangibility: The a priori expectation here is a positive relationship between asset tangibility and firm performance. Asset Tangibility is considered to be one of the major determinants of firm’s performance. The most common argument in the literature favours a positive relationship between asset tangibility and performance. Mackie- Mason (1990) concludes that a firm with high fraction of plant and equipment (tangible assets) in the asset base made the debt choice more likely and influences the firm performance. Akintoye (2008) argues that a firm which retains large investments in tangible assets will have smaller costs of financial distress than a firm that relies on intangible assets.

Size: We also expect a positive relationship between firm’s size and its performance. The size of a firm is considered to be an important determinant of firm’s profitability. Size serves as a proxy for firm’s size. Larger firms can enjoy economies of scale and these can favourably impact on profitability.

Growth opportunities: We expect a positive relationship between growth opportunities and firm’s performance. The extant literature considers growth opportunities available to a firm as an important determinant of firm’s performance, hence the introduction of a controlled variable, GROW, a proxy for growth opportunities in this study.

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Method of Estimation The ordinary least squares method of estimation was used to test 30 quoted companies in Nigeria drawn from 18 different industries for better representation between 2001–2013. The co-efficient of the explanatory and controllable variables (α1…………β7) can be estimated by the use of OLS technique. Panel data methodology is adopted in this study. This combines simultaneously cross-section and time series data. Thus, there is need to check for the level of stationary of the data. This is done by the use of Unit Root test.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS This section presents the empirical results of the OLS estimates of the parameter coefficients of the model. This is shown in Table 4.1 below, with a set of two equations. The t-values of the estimates are arranged directly below their corresponding estimates in bracket, while the standard errors are arranged directly beneath their corresponding t-values. This is the order of arrangement in these results. The t-test is conducted using a two-tailed approach. We should note that the t-test is formally the same as the standard error test. The Durbin –Watson (DW) statistics, the F-test, student t-test, the standard error of the regressions (SER), Coefficient of multiple determination (R2) and adjusted coefficient of determination (̅R2) are other necessary statistics presented. The adjusted R2 measures the overall goodness of fit of the regression plane; the higher R2, the better the goodness of fit. F-statistic is used to test the significance of R2, while (DW) statistic is used to test for the first – order auto correlation of the random variable.

Equation 1

ROA = α0 + α1DR + α2TANG + α3SIZE + α4GROW + eit (1) ROA = - 21.6675 – 0.00312 DR + 0.141 TANG + 0.0022 SIZE + 0.048 GROWTH2 (-3.25237) * (-0.176096) (0.310591) (3.70166) * (1.62490) 6.66205 0.0000149429 0.000735395 0.526309 0.00380098

R2 = 0.193716, R2= 0.179964, F-ratio = 3.60386, DW = 1.69765 Equation 2

ROE = β0 + β1 DR + β2 TANG + β3 SIZE + β4 GROW + eit (1) ROE = -18.8462 – 0.018652 DR + 0.046687 TANG + 0.64075 SIZE + 0.321548 GROWTH2

(-3.09656) * (-0.17978)*** (0.733236) (3.82783) *** (0.465944) 6.08616 0.044623 0.063672 0.428637 0.010206

R2 = 0.145915, R2 = 0.088976, F – ratio = 2.56266, DW = 1.46932

In equation 1 and 2, we established a negative relationship between ROA and ROE (Performance proxies) with the only explanatory variable (DR) being significance at 1% level. The negative and significant relationship between Capital structure and corporate performance provides support for the Agency Theory. Hypothesis 1 posits that capital structure does not influence corporate performance. We therefore reject the hypothesis. It suggests that due to agency conflicts between a firm’s stakeholders, firms tend to over-leveraged themselves and this leads to negative financial performance. This outcome is consistent with the findings of previous studies such as Zeitun and Tian (2007), Akintoye (2008), Onaolapo and Kajola (2010) among others.

Asset Tangibility is wrongly signed, against a priori expectations. The relationship between ROA and firm’s asset tangibility is negative and significant at 1% level. This shows that firms with high ratio of tangibility have a lower financial performance ratio. However, the relationship between ROE and asset tangibility is positive but not significant. Hypothesis 2 posits that firm’s asset tangibility does not influence corporate performance. We therefore

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 209 reject the hypothesis. It provides salient evidence that the sampled firms were not able to utilize their fixed asset composition in the total asset judiciously to impact on their performance.

The results also show that the size and growth of firm are correctly signed consistent with the pecking order theory by Myers and Majlif (1984). The relationship between ROA and size of the firm is positive but not significant. But in the case of ROE and the size of firm, the relationship is positive and significant at 1% level. The outcome of the study confirms this hypothesis when ROE is used as a firm performance proxy. Thus, firm’s size is an important determinant of firm’s financial performance. The outcome is consistent with the findings of previous writers such as Gleason et al (2000) and Zeitun and Tian (2007).

Also although Growth is correctly signed being positive, but the relationship between the two performance measures (ROA and ROE) and growth opportunity is not significant. Our hypothesis 3 posits that Size and Growth of firm do not influence corporate performance. We therefore accept the hypothesis on the ground of its non- significance. Therefore, growth opportunity is not a major determinant in our sampled firms. The constant term which is the autonomous leverage though negatively signed instead of being positive is statistically significant at five per cent level. Again the constant term shows that the autonomous performance, that is, ROA when all other explanatory variables are fixed, decreases by 15.9142 per cent.

The goodness of fit is not very impressive with adjusted R2=14 per cent. This means that 19 per cent of the variation in ROA is explained by the variation in the explanatory variables only. F-test confirms that adjusted R2 is significantly different from zero, which implies that at least some of the estimated coefficients are statistically reliable. We equally test for first-order serial correlation in the disturbance term and find that with our DW value of 1.69, there is no auto correlation in the test at one per cent level CONCLUSION In this study, our intention was not to develop any new theoretical results or provide new evidence. Rather, the intention was to test using relevant policy variables on the financing a corporate organization for efficient performance in Nigeria: equity or debt option; and also to stimulate further research in an aspect of the Modigliani and Miller (1958) theorem that has largely been ignored in the past 20 years especially in Nigeria: specifically, the capital structure irrelevant hypothesis and perfect capital markets. The leading conclusion is that the firm’s capital structure is an important determinant of firm’s financial performance and the direction of the relationship is reverse. The outcome provides evidence in support of the agency cost hypothesis. This is evident by the statistical significance of the capital structure (DR) during the period of study.

The study, against theoretical expectations, provides evidence of a negative and significant relationship between asset tangibility and ROA as a measure of performance in the two models. The implication of this is that the sampled firms were not able to utilize the fixed asset composition of their total assets judiciously to impact positively on their firms’ performance. However, it provides evidence that asset tangibility is a major determinant of firm’s performance. This is consistent with results found by Hall, Hutchinson and Michaels (2000) in a study of 3000 noted U.K. companies. Again, demonstration of this result failed to provide evidence that growth opportunity is a determinant of firm’s performance in the two proxies of corporate performance for ROA and ROE models. This is directly contradictory to the startling prediction of the famous Modigliani-Miller hypothesis. The characteristic capital market imperfections in the country could be an explanation for this. Finally, the findings reported in this work must be accepted with some reservations. The reservations are especially due to measurement problems inherent in the figures contained in the financial statements of firms in a country where accounting and auditing standards appear commensurate with the less developed nature of the whole economy. This notwithstanding, however we still feel that the findings help to throw light on the objectives of the study.

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Chirinko, R.S. and A.R. Singha (2000). Testing Static Trade-off against Pecking Order Models of Capital Structure: A Critical Moment. Journal of Economics, 58, pp 417-425.

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Titman, S. (1984). The Effect of Capital Structure on the Firm’s Liquidation Decision. Journal of Financial Economics, 13, pp. 137-151

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Antimicrobial Activities of A. sativum, Z. officinale and O. gratissimum Extracts on Plant and Fish Pathogens

B. O. Uba* E. L. Okoye, O. P. Udeajah, Department of Microbiology, Department of Applied Department of Microbiology, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Microbiology and Brewing, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Anambra Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka Ojukwu University, Anambra State, State, Nigeria. Anambra State, Nigeria Nigeria. [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract The spoilage of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) and Orange (Citrus sinensis) from Eke Umuoma market in Uli, Anambra State, South-Eastern Nigeria were investigated. Healthy and Spoilt samples of orange and tomato were brought to the laboratory and analyzed for the presence of pathogens using the pathogenicity test. The isolation of fungi from the plant samples was carried out on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) and Malt Extract Agar (MEA) respectively. Characterization of various isolates from fish and fish products based on biochemical tests like oxidase, citrate, coagulase and Triple-Sugar-Iron test used on Thiosulphate-Citrate-Bile-Salts, Salmonella-Shigella Agar revealed S. aureus, V. vulnificus, Salmonella sp. and Vibrio sp. The method employed for the bioactive component determination and antimicrobial activity are phytochemical analysis and food poisoning technique. The result revealed the presence of flavonoids, phenolics, saponins, tannins, glycosides, phlobatannins, resins, steroids, alkaloids and quinones. Also, the results revealed that the combination of ethanolic extracts of A. sativum and Z. officinale, O. gratissimum, O. gratissimum, O. gratissimum, and combination of A. sativum and Z. officinale had the highest growth inhibition percentages of 37.84, 38.61 ,40.42, 34.10 and 56.43 at concentrations of 5%,15%,15%,15% and 15% on the fungal pathogens P. digitatum, R. stolonifer, F. solani, A. niger and R. stolonifer respectively. Moreso, spectrophotometric results of the percentage inhibition of fish pathogens by the plant extracts showed that ethanolic extracts of Z. officinale, A. sativum, O. gratissimum, combination of Z. officinale and A. sativum, and combination of Z. officinale and O. gratissimum at 55.34, 57.71, 58.46, 71.26 and 76.61 had the highest percentage inhibition on S. aureus, Vibrio, S. aureus, S. aureus and S. aureus respectively. Thus, there is evidence of fungistatic and bacteriostatic attributes of O. gratissimum, A. sativum and Z. officinale and could be further developed pharmacologically for controlling post harvest rot of tomatoes, oranges and fishery products by several pathogenic fungi and bacteria.

Key words: Pathogenicity, Lycopersicon esculentum, Citrus sinensis, Inhibition, Z. officinale, A. sativum, O. gratissimum

INTRODUCTION The ubiquity of pathogenic organisms leaves us open to developing food-borne illness, chronic conditions or deadly diseases. When it comes to the food supply, pathogenic organisms can be introduced in a number of different ways. Common vectors include water, soil, waste or fecal matter, humans and animals. For these reasons, the study and control of pathogenic organisms comprises a large part of our food safety systems.

Human infections caused by pathogens transmitted from fish or the aquatic environment are quite common and depend on the season, patients’ contact with fish and related environment, dietary habits and the immune system status of the exposed individual. They are often bacterial species facultatively pathogenic for both fish and human beings and may be isolated from fish without apparent symptoms of the disease (Acha and Szyfres, 2003).

Pathogenic and potentially pathogenic bacteria associated with fish and shell fish include mycobacteria, Vibrio vulnificus, Vibrio spp; Salmonella spp. and other (Chattopadhyay, 2000). Plant pathogens of fungal origin isolated from orange and tomato respectively associated with plant spoilage were studied on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) and Malt Extract Agar (MEA) respectively. Plants are the richest source of organic chemicals on the earth and produce a wide variety of secondary metabolites, which can be used as defensive weapons. Fungi are the most important of the various groups of pathogen that attack plants. Our agricultural fields, forests, grasslands and urban landscapes are diminished in economic value and beauty by this important group of plant pathogens. Some fungal diseases, such as chest-nut blight, make it impossible for hosts such as the America chestnut to grow where the disease is present

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Number of plants has been found to possess antimicrobial properties. These are Garlic (Allium sativum), Ginger (Zingiber officinale) and Scent leaf (Ocimum gratissimum).

Ajayi and Olufolaji, (2008) reported that extracts of Zingiber officinale and Gmelina aborea significantly inhibited the mycelial growth and sporulation of Colletotrichum capcici (in vitro), the causal organism of brown clotch of cowpea. Also, Wokocha and Okereke, (2005) reported that extracts of neem seeds, bitter kola, pawpaw roots and rhizomes of ginger effectively inhibited the sclerotial germination of Sclerotium rolfsii, in vitro, the causal organism of the basal rot disease of tomato. The objective of this study is to determine the inhibitory effects of A. sativum, O. gratissimum and Z. officinale extracts on isolated pathogens of plants and fishery products.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Sample Collection The fresh leaves of scent leaf were collected from Akwa-Ibom, Uyo State. The fish, shellfish, periwinkle were bought from Onne, Port-Harcourt, Rivers State. The rhizome of ginger and bulb of garlic, orange and tomato fruits were bought from Eke Umuoma market, Uli, Ihiala, Local Government Area, Anambra State (Akintobi et al.,2011).

Isolation of Test Fungi from Orange and Tomato A total of 12 randomly selected fungal infected fruits and 12 unblemished, healthy and clean looking fruits were purchased. Fruits were surface sterilized by exposing them in 1min 90% ethanol and then 3 min to 1% sodium hypochlorite and then rinsed three times in sterile distilled water. Segments (3-5cm) of tissues from the margins of the rotted areas were cut out with a sterile scalpel ad serial dilution is carried out with the spoilt parts dissolved in the water inside the test tube. The middle tube (10-2) of three tubes containing bad oranges and bad (spoilt) tomatoes respectively is taken and 1 ml is dropped onto previously prepared potato dextrose agar (three Petri-dishes respectively i.e spoilt tomato and orange in MEA and PDA respectively) and incubated at 28± 10C for 5 days under 12 h photoperiod (9.8 g of PDA in 250 ml of distilled water and 0.01 of chloramphenicol for orange) and 6.3g of MEA, 2.8 g of glucose, 0.7g of peptone, 2g of Agar-agar and 0.01g of chloramphenicol for tomato). After 2-3 days, colony forming unit (CFU) was counted (Akintobi et al., 2011)

Control Experiment Each of the fresh fruits were washed and sterilized with 75% ethanol. Then a little portion of each of the fruits was inoculated into 90 ml of sterile distilled H20 in a test tube (serial dilution). I ml is then taken from the second tube and dropped on sterile PDA and MEA plates (three each). All plates were incubated at 300C for 72 hours (Akintobi et al.,2011).

Identification of Fungi Isolates The pure isolated fungi were identified using cultural and morphological features according to the most documented keys in fungal identification (Klich, 2002).

Pathogenicity Test This was carried out as described by Baiyewu et al., (2007). Each of the fungal isolates was tested on healthy fruits for its ability to induce spoilage. Six healthy fruits (orange and tomato) were washed with tap water and rinsed with distilled water after which they were surface sterilized with 75% ethanol. A sterile 4mm cork borer was used to make holes in each of the fruits. A colony of fungi isolate (from each pure culture) was used to inoculate the fruits and the core of the fruits were replaced. The point of inoculation was sealed with petroleum jelly to prevent contamination. Controls consisted of six fruits each of orange and tomato, wounded with the sterilized cork borer but not inoculated. The inoculated fruits and the control were placed in clean poly ethylene bag (one fruit per bag) each moistened with wet balls of absorbent cotton wool to create a humid environment and incubated at 30±10C for 5 days (Akintobi et al., 2011). After 72 h, the inoculated fruits were observed for symptom development. The causal agents were re- isolated from the infected orange and tomato fruits and compared with the original isolates.

Isolation, Identification and Characterization of Pathogenic Bacteria from Shellfish and Fish Products Sample preparation were prepared . The part of the fresh fish body were scraped and swab stick was used to swab the shell fish etc. body and inserted into first test tube containing 9 ml of sterile distilled water as a stock, and five other test tubes also containing 9 ml of distilled water were arranged serially in the test tube rack. I ml of the stock was collected using a pipette to the first test tube and from the first test tube to the second test tube up to the fifth test tube i.e. 10-1, 10-2, 10-3, 10-4, and 10-5 respectively. 10-4 and 10-5 were used as the dilution factor and 1 ml was taken from

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 214 each factor into sterilized Petri-dish in duplicate. All plates were incubated at a temperature of 370C for 24 hours, before colony counting and isolation procedures. Identification and characterization of various isolates were based on gram-staining technique and biochemical tests. The biochemical tests include oxidase test, citrate test (Dark green), coagulase test and TSI (red) (Triple sugar Iron test, oxidase test makes use of Thiosulfate-Citrate-Bile-Salt (TCBS), Citrate test make use of Salmonella-Shigella Agar, Coagulase test make use of Mannitol Salt Agar while Thiosulfate- Citrate-Bile-Salts makes use of Salmonella-Shigella Agar. The isolates were also identified by comparing their characteristics with those of known taxa, as described by Holt et al (1994).

Preparation of the Plant Extracts Fresh leaves of Ocimum gratissimum, the bulbs of garlic and rhizomes of ginger were thoroughly washed with distilled water (sterile and air-dried at 28°C for 2 hours. Washed garlic bulbs and ginger rhizomes were cut into small pieces using a sharp sterilized knife. They were respectively ground into power using pestle and mortar. Exactly 10g of each of the pulverized garlic, ginger and Ocimum gratissimum were respectively introduced into 100 ml of cold distilled water and 100 ml of ethanol for 48 hours at room temperature to allow for maximum extraction of the components. This was followed by evaporation of the filtrate to eliminate the solvent. The residue was used as crude extract for each of the test plants (Wabale and Kharde, 2010).

Qualitative Determination of the Presence of Phytochemicals Alkaloids The plant extract was dissolved in dilute Hcl and filtered. The filtrate was used to test for the presence of alkaloid using Dragendroff’s reagent which indicated red precipitate (Kagbo and Ejebe, 2010). Tannins 1g of the extract was dissolved in 20ml of distilled water and filtered. 2 or 3 drops of 10% FeCl3 was added to 2ml of the filtrate. Blackish-blue or blackish-green showed positive result (Kagbo and Ejebe, 2010) Saponins Small amount of the extract was shaken with little quantity of water. Formation of 1cm layer of foam which persisted for 10minutes indicated the presence of saponins (Kagbo and Ejebe, 2010). Flavonoid A few pieces of magnesium metal were added to 5ml of the extract and concentrated HCl. A reddish colouration indicated a. positive test for flavonoids (Kagbo and Ejebe, 2010). Phenolics 50mg of the plant extract was dissolved in 5ml of distilled water. A few drops of neutral ferric chloride solution were cooled. A dark green colour indicated the presence of phenolics (Kagbo and Ejebe, 2010). Resins 0.2g of the powder sample was extracted with 15ml of 96% ethanol. The extract was then poured into20ml of distilled water in a beaker. A precipitate occurred indicated the presence of resins (Kagbo and Ejebe, 2010). Steroids 0.5g of the extract was dissolved in 3ml of chloroform and filtered. Few drops of concentrated H2SO4was added to the filtrate to form a lower layer. A reddish brown colour was taken as positive for steroid ring (Kagbo and Ejebe, 2010). Phlobatannins Four milliliters (4.0ml) of aqueous leaf extracts was mixed with 2ml 1% aqueous HCl and boiled for 5 minutes. The formation of precipitate was an indication of phlobatannin (Kagbo and Ejebe, 2010). Effect of Plant Extract on Fungal growth Different concentrations of the extracts were prepared (5% means 1 ml of extract + 19ml PDA; 10% means 2 ml of extract + 18ml of PDA and 15% means 3ml of extract + 17ml of PDA). The control contained 20ml of PDA without addition of extracts, but contained the fungal pathogens. Ethanolic extracts of ginger, garlic and scent leaf were used respectively and also in combination on all the Petri-dishes (Sharma and Borah, 2003). 58.5 g of PDA was dissolved in 1500 ml of distilled water and poured into 80 Petri dishes. The agar-extract mixture was allowed to solidify and then inoculated centrally with a 5mm diameter mycelia disc obtained from the colony of 10 day old cultures of each of the test fungi using a sterile inoculating needle. PDA plates inoculated with the test fungus but without the extract served as the control. All the plates were incubated at 270C, after which the zones of inhibition was measured for 5 days. Percentage inhibition was determined according to Vincent (1947). Percentage growth inhibition = C-T/C X 100 Where, C = Growth of pathogen in control after incubation T = Growth of pathogen in treatment after incubation.

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Turbidity Test for Bacterial Pathogens Nutrient broth medium was prepared (7.15 g in 550ml of distilled water) and dispensed in 10 ml aliquots into labeled test tube was covered with cotton wool and sterilized in an autoclave. The tubes were inoculated with the test organisms while the control was also inoculated. Two drops of both the water and ethanolic extracts were added into the test tubes except the control. All tubes were incubated at 370C for 24h and their absorbance measured at 570 nm wavelength. The difference in absorbance between the test culture and control was determined and express as a percentage. The percentage inhibition was calculated as shown below: % inhibition = AS – AU/AS X 100% Where AS = Absorbance of control; AU = Absorbance of test culture

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1: Component of plant extract and their qualitative analysis Component analysed Ginger Garlic Scent leaf Saponins + +++ + Tannins + +++ + Flavonoids ++ ++ +++ Phenolics + ++ - Glycosides + ++ + Pholbatannins + + + Resins + + - Steroids ++ + - Alkaloids + ++ - Quinones - - + Keys: + = Low presence; ++ = Moderate presence; +++ = High presence; - = Not present

Table 2: Colonial, morphological and cellular characteristics of fungi associated with the spoilage of fruits Isolates Colonial characteristics Morphology and cellular Organism structure

T1 A bundle of sporangiophores Colonies light grey, growing Rhizopus stolonifer stretching around from rhizoids. extreme rapidly and filling the Many spores present. Sporangia petri dish with dense cottony globose or sub-globose with mycelia producing mass of some flattened base sporangia Growth moderately rapid, Oval micro conidia produced. Fusarium solani covering agar plate within 4 Micro conidia produced on days with sparse, floccose richly branched conidiophores grayish-white mycelium. A cylindrical to facilitate bluish to bluish brown discolouration developed in the T2 agar Colonies velvety yellow, green Conidiophores smooth, relatively short. Penicillia Penicillium digitatum mycelia arranged very O1 irregularly and asymmetrically sparse metulae with phialides on them, smooth conidia O2 Colonies with loose white to Vesicles light yellow brown Aspergillus niger yellow mycelium rapidly darkbrown with wriggly changing to dark brown to black phialides. Primary phialides and upon conidia development secondary vesicles are both brown 03 Colonies light grey-sporangia Colonies light grey as in the Rhizopus stolonifer globose and subglobose with tomato isolate some flattened base etc

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Table 3: Biochemical properties of test organisms (Fish pathogens) No Biochemical test Media Sample Dilution Result -2 1. Citrate test S1 10 +ve -2 MF2 10 +ve -2 MF1 10 +ve -2 P2 10 +ve -2 2 Oxidase test TCBS P1 10 -ve -2 TCBS P2 10 -ve -2 TCBS MF2 10 +ve -2 TCBS CF1 10 -ve -2 3 Coagulase test MSA MF1 10 -ve -2 MSA CF2 10 -ve -2 MSA S1 10 +ve -2 MSA P1 10 -ve -2 4 TSI SSA S1 10 -ve -2 SSA MF2 10 -ve -2 SSA MF1 10 +ve -2 SSA P2 10 +ve Keys: SSA = Salmonella-shigella agar; TCBS = Thiosulfate – Citrate – Bile-Salts Agar; MSA = Mannitol salt agar; SSA = Salmonella Shigella Agar; TSI = Triple sugar Iron testS1 = Shell fish 1; MF1and 2 = Marine fish 1 and 2; P1, 2 = Periwinkles 1 and 2; CF1,2 = Crayfish 1 and 2

Table 4: Effect of various plant extracts on the growth of Penicillium digitatum at various concentrations S/NO Extract 5% Concentrations 10% Concentration. 15% Concentration.

Average colony Growth Average colony Growth Average colony Growth diameter(mm) Inhibition % diameter(MM) Inhibition % diameter(mm) inhibition %

1 Allium sativum 21.70 34.83 22.30 34.41 33.30 0.89 (Ethanolic extract) 2 Ocimum gratissimum 23.00 30.93 26.60 21.76 21.70 35.42 (Ethanolic extract) 3 Zingiber officinale 22.30 33.03 22.00 36.04 23.30 30.65 (ethanolic extract) 4 Combination of 1 & 3 20.70 37.84 28.70 15.58 26.70 20.54 (ethanolic extract) 5. Combination of 2&3 21.70 34.83 21.00 38.23 20.70 38.39 (ethanolic extract) 6 Control 33.30 34.00 33.60 Key: E.E. = Ethanolic extra

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Table 5: Effect of various plants extracts on the growth of Rhizopus stolonifer at various concentrations S/NO Extract 5% Concentrations 10% Concentration 15% Concentration

Average colony Growth Average colony Growth Average colony Growth diameter(mm) Inhibition % diameter(mm) Inhibition % diameter(mm) inhibition %

1 A. sativum (E.E) 38.30 16.73 32.60 29.13 40.00 13.23 2 O. gratissimum E.E 36.60 20.43 33.30 27.60 28.30 36.61 3 Z. Officinale E.E 41.70 9.34 33.30 27.60 33.60 27.11 4 Combination of 1&3 35.30 23.26 31.60 31.30 36.60 20.61 E.E 5. Combination of 2 and 3 45.70 0.65 33.30 27.60 34.30 25.60 E.E 6 Control 46.00 46.00 46.10 Key: E.E. = Ethanolic extract

Table 6: Effect of various plant extracts on the growth of Fusarium solani at various concentrations S/NO Extract 5% Concentrations 10% Concentration 15% Concentration

Average colony Growth Average colony Growth Average colony Growth diameter(mm) Inhibition % diameter(mm) Inhibition % diameter (mm) inhibition %

1 A. Sativum E.E 65.30 6.71 68.30 2.56 68.30 2.43 2 O. gratissimum E.E 46.70 33.28 58.30 16.83 41.70 40.43 3 Z. officinale E.E 64.30 8.14 51.70 26.24 66.70 4.71 4 Combination of 1&3 55.00 21.42 58.30 16.83 63.30 9.57 E.E 5. Combination of 2 and 3 63.30 9.57 48.30 31.09 51.70 26.14 E.E 6 Control 70.00 70.10 70.00 Key: E.E. = Ethanolic extract

Table 7: Effect various plant extract on the growth of Aspergillus niger at various concentrations S/NO Extract 5% Concentrations 10% Concentration 15%Concentrtion

Average colony Growth Average colony Growth Average colony Growth diameter(mm) Inhibition % diameter(mm) Inhibition % diameter (mm) Inhibition %

1 A. sativum 16.00 26.26 21.70 0.45 19.60 9.68 2 O. gratissimum E.E 20.00 7.83 19.60 10.09 14.30 34.10 3 Z. officinale E.E 18.30 15.66 18.70 14.22 21.60 0.46 4 Combination of 1 and 3 20.30 6.45 20.00 8.25 21.60 0.46 E.E 5. Combination of 2 and 3 20.00 7.83 18.70 14.22 16.70 23.04 E.E 6 Control 21.70 21.80 21.70 ` Key: E.E. = Ethanolic extract

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Table 8: Effect of various plants extracts on the growth of Rhizopus stolonifer at various concentrations S/NO Extract 5% Concentrations 10% Concentration 15% Concentration

Average colony Growth Average colony Growth Average colony Growth diameter(mm) Inhibition % diameter(mm) Inhibition% diameter (mm) Inhibition %

1 A. sativum 21.70 55.07 21.70 55.16 20.30 57.88 2 O. gratissimum E.E 41.70 13.66 41.70 13.84 41.70 13.49 3 Z. officinale E.E 31.60 34.57 23.30 51.85 23.30 51.66 4 Combination of 1 and 3 41.70 13.66 13.70 34.50 21.00 56.43 E.E 5. Combination of 2 and 3 40.00 17.18 23.30 51.85 21.70 55.00 E.E 6 Control 48.30 48.40 48.20 Key: E.E. = Ethanolic extract

Table 9: Percentage Inhibition of test organisms by the plants extract determined spectrophotometrically at 570nm wavelength Sample Staph.aureus (P1) Vibrio (P2) Salmonella Salmonella Staph. Vibrio Extrect (Mf1) (P2) aureus (S1) vulnificus (MF2) GgEE 55.34 43.55 20.65 19.85 19.53 45.81 GgWE 4.20 7.58 17.44 4.27 14.80 10.65 GLEE 33.84 57.71 17.23 47.33 24.94 48.02 GLwE 29.72 20.80 25.71 44.48 7.40 48.85 SLEE 58.46 34.22 47.40 9.18 25.90 13.35 SLWE 56.87 44.56 18.12 38.79 18.77 4.77 GgEE+GlEE 71.26 32.61 17.51 20.71 19.32 23.39 GgEE+SLEE 76.61 33.95 16.82 24.69 12.95 28.44 Keys: GgEE- Ginger ethanolic extract, Ggwe- Ginger water Extract; GlEE- Garlic ethanolic extract, GLWE- Garlic Water extract; SLEE- Scent leaf ethanolic extract, SLWE -Scent leaf Water extract; GgEE+GLEE- Ginger Ethanolic extract plus Garlic ethanolic extract; GgEE+SLEE,- Ginger Ethanolic extract plus Scent leaf ethanolic extract P1 = Periwinkles 1& 2, MF1 = Marine fish 1; S1 = Shell fish, MF2 = Marine fish 2.

This study reveals the phytochemical and antimicrobial effect of Ocimum gratissimum, Zingiber officinale and Allium sativum on both plant (fungal) and fish (bacterial) pathogens. The importance of phytochemical agents in plant had been a subject of discussion amongst the intellectual, traditional medicine practitioners and herbal trade fare across the globe. The pharmaceutical quality and the vast spectrum of activity of some plant active principles have been reported by Umar et al. (2000) and Adenisa et al., (2000) in their studies reported on the medicinal values of some of these plants which corroborate the result of the present study. The higher susceptibility of the test isolates to ethanol extracts is not surprising as previous studies have reported methanol and ethanol to be a better solvent than water (Obi and Onuoha,, 2000).

The results of the phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of tannins, phlobatannins, steroids, saponins, flavonoids and alkaloids in Ocimum gratissimum, Allium sativum and Zingiber officinale extracts. The presence of these phenolic compounds in these extracts indicates that these plants can serve as antimicrobial agents. This is because phenol and phenolic compounds have been extensively used in disinfection and remain the standard with which other fungicides are compared (Doherty et al., 2010). Phenolic compounds act as electron donors and are readily oxidized to phenolate ion or quinine, an electron acceptor (Doherty et al., 2010). The antimicrobial activity of the oils is believed to be associated with the phytochemical components of these plants (Matasyoh et al., 2007) which diffuse into and damage cell membrane structures.

The results of the effect of various plant extracts on the growth of plant pathogen clearly revealed the pronounced activities of the extracts against the tested organism. The ethanol extract was used as the active phytochemical constituents of the leaf extract had more ability to dissolve in ethanol (organic solvent) than in water (inorganic solvent) as stated above (Table 1). The effect of the different plant extracts varied on different fungal pathogens i.e combination of Allium sativum and Zingiber officinale had a pronounced effect on Rhizopus stolonifer (orange) while Allium sativum had the highest inhibitory effect on A. niger at 5% concentration but lowest in the 10 and 15% concentration respectively (Table 4 – 8). This shows that effect of plant extracts on pathogens both fungal

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 219 and bacterial, varies with concentration, the active components in the plant extract and the susceptibility of the pathogen to the extract. Wabale, A.S.and Kharde, M.N. (2010) reported that extracts of Boswellia serrata leaves were found significantly superior in inhibiting the mycelial growth 24.51 %, 30.42 % and 47.89 % of F. moniliforme at 5 per cent, 10 per cent and 15 per cent, respectively. Extract of Woodfordia fruticosa and Ocimum americanum were found second best after Boswellia serrata, while extracts of Gnidia glauca and Mundulea sericea were least effective in growth inhibition as compared to other plant extracts at all the three concentrations tried

The results of the percentage inhibition of fish pathogen by the plant extracts determined spectrophotometrically (Table 9) shows that these plant extracts are able to inhibit the growth of the test organisms irrespective of the method or means of its exposure to microbes, studies should be directed toward ascertaining the identity of the active principle. Such findings if harnessed will help in the preservation of our fruits, canned and fresh fishes, and studies should be directed in that direction. The antimicrobial mechanism of the test plant extracts is not fully understood, but like other antimicrobial agents, their effectiveness may be associated with the damage of cell wall or membrane, inhibition of protein synthesis, inhibition of nucleic acids replication of the pathogen amongst others.

The traditional spices studied in this work were found to have antimicrobial properties against known pathogens often implicated in fruits and fishes e.g. shellfish, periwinkles, etc. Since these spices are used in traditional food preparations in Nigeria especially south-eastern Nigeria. Therefore, the use of these spices as seasoning in food preparation is highly recommended as it helps combat against both fungal and bacterial pathogens in our foods and our bodies. The phytochemical properties of these spices revealed that they do not contain harmful phytochemicals like cyanide as HCN, but rather contain phenolic compounds which are being used extensively in disinfection and serves as a benchmark for fungicides and bactericides.

REFERENCES Adenisa, S.K., Idowu, O., Oladimeji, A.O., Olugbada, H., Onawunmi, T.A. and Pais, G.O. (2000). Antimicrobial constituents of the leaves of Acalypha wilkeriana and Acalypha hispida. Phytotherapy Research14:371-372.

Ajayi, A.M., and Olufolaji, D.B. (2008). The biofungicidal attributes of some plant extracts on Colletotrichum capsicum, the fungal pathogen of brown blotch disease of cowpea. Nigeria Journal Mycology1 (1):59-65.

Akintobi, A.O., Okonko, I.O., Agunbiade, S.O., Akano, O.R. and Onianwa, O. (2011). Isolation and Identification of Fungi Associated with The Spoilage of Some Selected Fruits in Ibadan, South Western Nigeria. Academia Arena,3(11):1-7.

Acha, E.N., Szyfres, B. (2003): Zoonoses and communicable diseases common to man and animals. Vol. 1. Bacterioses and Mycoses, 3rd edition, Washington, USA. Pp. 384.

Baiyewu, R.A., Amusa, N.A., Ayola, O.A., Babalola. O.O. (2007). Survey of the post harvest diseases and aflatoxin contamination of marketed Pawpaw fruit (carica papaya L) in Southwestern Nigeria. African Journal of Agricultural Research 2 (4): 178-181.

Chattopadhyay, P. (2000). Fish-catching and handling. Encyclopedia of food microbiology. Vol. 2 Academic Press, London. Pp. 1547.

Doherty L, Sheen MR, Vlachos, A., Choesmel, V., O'Donohue, M.F., Clinton, C., Schneider, H.E., Sieff, C.A., Newburger P.E., Ball, S.E., Niewiadomska, E., Matysiak, M., Glader, B., Arceci, R.J., Farrar J.E., Atsidaftos, E., Lipton, J.M., Gleizes P.E. and Gazda, HT. (2010). Ribosomal protein genes RPS10 and RPS26 are commonly mutated in Diamond-Blackfan anemia. American Journal of Human Genetics 86(2):222-228.

Holt et al. (1994). Bergey’s Manual for determinative Bacteriology, Baltimore

Kagbo, H.D. and Ejebe, D.E. (2010). Phytochemistry and preliminary toxicity studies of the methanol extract of the stem bark of Garcinia kola. Intern. J. toxicol. 7(2): 1-16.

Klich, M.A. (2002). Identification of common Aspergillus species. CBS, Utrecht, Pp.116.

Matasyoh L G, Matasyoh J C, Wachira F N, Kinyua M G, Muigai Thairu, A. W., and Mukiama, T. K. (2007) Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of Ocimum gratissimum L. growing in Eastern Kenya. African Journal of Biotechnology.;6(6):760–765

Obi, V.I. and Onuoha, C. Extraction and characterization method of plants and plant products. In: Biological and Agricultural Techniques. Ogbulie, J. L, and O. J. Ojiako (eds). 2000; Webs media publications, Owerri.

Sharma, S. and Bohra, A. (2003). Effects of Extracts of Some Medicinal Plants on Fusarium Oxysporumvarcumini. Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology, 33 (2):323-324.

Umar, A.I., Madai, B.I., Buratai, B. and Karumi, Y. (2000). The effect of a combination of Garlic (Allium sativa) power and wild honey on lipid metabolism in insulin. Nigeria Journal of Experimental and Applied Biology 1:37-42.

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Vincent, J.M. (1947). The esters of 4-hydroxy benzoic acid and relative compounds- Part I. Methods for study of their fungistatic properties. J. Soc. Chem. Land, 66(5): 149-155.

Wabale, A.S.and Kharde, M.N. (2010). Effect of plant extracts on the fungal pathogen causing wilt of sugarcane in in vitro. International Journal of Plant Sciences, 5 (2): 445-447.

Wokocha, R.C. and Okereke, V.C. (2005). Fungi toxic activity of extracts of some medicinal plants on Sclerotiumrolfsii, causal organism of basal stem rot disease of tomato. Nigeria Journal of Plant Protection 25:106-111.

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Effect of Investigative Laboratory Approach and Expository Method on Acquisition of Science Process skills by Biology Students of Different Level of Scientific Literacy

Nneka R. Nnorom Department of Science Education, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli. [email protected]

Abstract The study examined the effect of investigative laboratory approach and expository method on acquisition of science process skills by biology students of different level of scientific literacy in Nnewi North Local Government Area of Anambra state Nigeria. Quasi experimental test, pre-test, post test, non equivalent group design was used for the study. A sample of one hundred and fifty (150) senior secondary one (SSI) biology students randomly drawn from four sampled schools in Nnewi North Local Government Area was need for the study. Three research questions and two null hypotheses guided the study. Two instrument known as Test of Science Process Skills Acquisition (TOSPSA) and Scientific Literary Test (SLT) were used for data collection. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions while Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) were used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. Results revealed that students taught using investigative laboratory approach performed better than those taught using the expository method. Also, there was no interaction between the methods and scientific literacy level of biology students on science process skills acquisition. Based on the findings some recommendations were made.

Keywords: Effect, Investigative Laboratory Approach, Expository Method, Science Process Skills, Scientific Literacy.

INTRODUCTION Science being a great enterprise which nations depend on to advance technologically is receiving much emphasis in education because of its significance and relevance to life and society. Biology as a branch of science and the prerequisite subject for many fields of learning contributes immensely to the technological growth of the nation; this includes medicine, forestry, biotechnology and nursing. Science teachers should be aware of certain general rules, which facilitate the selection of appropriate approach of impacting knowledge or developing a particular skill to pupils. Several research reports indicate that students achieve poorly in secondary school science subjects (Azubike, 2005; Nwagbo, 2001; Anyagh & Okwu 2010, and Okoli, 2006).

Also, the West Africa Examination Council Chief Examiner Report (2011) revealed that although biology has the highest enrollment relative to other science subjects, it records a very poor performance at Senior School Certificate Examinations especially in the practical examination where students exhibit very poor science skill acquisition. Obiekwe (2008) reported that all is not well with science instruction in Nigeria Secondary Schools, and noted that science teaching lays extreme emphasis on content and the use of “chalk and talk” method rejecting the practical activity method which enhance teaching and learning. This negligence and “shy away” attitude from activity-oriented method of teaching is not in keeping with the aims and objective of education in Nigeria which state that: “education should aim at helping the child acquire appropriate skills, and competence, both mental and physical as equipment for the individual to live in and contribute to the development of his society (Federal Ministry of Education (FME), 2008). A number of factors have been identified as contributing to non acquisition of skills by secondary school students. One of such factors is the teacher variable, that is, the teacher’s method of teaching. Also research reports have shown that many science teachers prefer the traditional expository/lecture method of teaching and avoid innovative activity oriented teaching method such as inquiry, discovery, concept mapping, investigative laboratory approach, cooperative learning (Okebukola, 1985; Ezeliora, 1999; Okoli, 2006; Nwagbo, 2006; Nwagbo and Chukelu, 2011; Okeke and Nkiruka, 2013; Nnorom and Obi, 2013; Nnorom, 2015). Hence, there is need to investigate the effects of the investigative laboratory approach and expository method on science process skill acquisition by biology students of different levels of scientific literacy.

The expository/lecture method is a method of teaching that is centred on the teacher as the controller of the class. It includes those verbal methods in which some authority or experts preset information without overt interaction taking place between the experts and the learners (Nwagbo, 2006). Also, Okoli (2006) noted that expository method is a teaching method in which the teacher presents a verbal discourse on a particular subject, theme or concept to the learners. It is an ideal way of communicating coherent sequence of ideas and it is used to elaborate, clarify and discuss factional information or views on issues and problems. Teachers use it to deliver preplanned lessons to the students with little or no instructional aids or exposure to laboratory activities.

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According to Okeke and Nkiru (2013) the investigative laboratory approach is a method of teaching in which the students are guided to find out the truth of ideas, facts or assumptions for ultimate confirmation or rejection. The rationale for using this approach in science teaching lies in the fact that if children are fully involved in activities and challenged to come out with results, they are more likely to learn than if they were simply told or presented with outcome of experiments. This method emphasizes knowledge and skill acquisition through hands on-minds- on scientific activities under the guidance of the science teacher. Students are also provided with the opportunity to interact with the environment through observing, classifying, measuring, questioning, hypothesizing, collecting and interpreting data, accurate reporting, predicting and inferring (Okoli, 2006).

Also, science process skill according to Harlen (1984) are those abilities which can be developed by experience and which are used in carrying out mental operations and physical actions. Science process skills are cognitive and psychomotor skills which scientists employ in problem identification, objective inquiry, data gathering, transformation, interpretation and communication (Okoli, 2006).

Furthermore, studies have shown that when one acquires the science process skills on observing, measuring, designing experiments, interpreting data among others such a person becomes specially equipped with the tools required for scientific inquiry or problem solving as well as ability to use these skills in the laboratory for a variety of investigations, (Ajunwa 2005; Okebukola and Ogunniyi, 1984; Nwosu, 1990; Nwagbo and Chukelu, 2011).Therefore, laboratory skills are symnymous in many ways with science process skills; instructional strategies that enhance the acquisition of laboratory skills.

Scientific literacy is acquisition of scientific knowledge and skills that enable one to live successfully in this modern age of science and technology (Ibe, 2004). It enables one to take the right decisions on scientific issues affecting ones personal and civic life. The foundation for scientific literacy is laid in the secondary school, therefore there is need to investigate its acquisition process.

The persistent poor performance of biology students in West Africa School Certificate Examination with poor science process skills acquisition exhibited in practical examinations leaves one is doubt about the teaching method used by biology teachers. Several authors had reported that the expository method of teaching is popularly used by biology teachers, to teach biology in schools. Then if measures are not taken to improve the poor academic achievement, the hope of producing the right scientists for technological development would not be realized. Therefore, there is need to find out the effects of expository method and investigative laboratory method on acquisition of science process skills by biology students of different level of scientific literacy.

Purpose of Study The main purpose of this study is to find out the effects of investigative laboratory approach and expository method on acquisition of science process skills by biology students of different level of scientific literacy. Specifically, the study would also find out the interactive effects of teaching methods and scientific literacy levels of biology students on acquisition of science process skills.

Research Questions The following research questions were formulated to guide the study: - What is the effect of investigative laboratory approach and expository method on acquisition of science process skills by SSI biology students of different level of scientific literacy? - How do teaching methods interact with scientific literacy levels of students in acquisition of science process skills?

Null Hypothesis The following null hypotheses were formulated at 0.5 level of significance: - There is no statiscally significant difference (P<0.05) in the mean score on level of acquisition of science process skills of students of different level of scientific literacy taught biology concepts using investigative laboratory approach and those taught using expository method. - There is no statistical significant interaction (P.<0.05) between teaching method’s and scientific literacy level on acquisition of science process skills.

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METHOD The design of the study was Quasi-Experimental, specifically, pre test, post test, non-equivalent control group design. This design was adopted because intact classes were used as it was not possible to have complete randomization of the subjects. The sample consists of 150 Senior Secondary One (SSI) biology students from four (4) school randomly selected from Senior Secondary Schools in Nnewi North Local Government Area of Anambra State. Only four schools (two all boys and two all girls) were sampled using stratified and simple random sampling technique due to experimental nature of the study. One all boys and one all girls schools sampled were assigned to the experimental treatment while the other two schools were assigned to the control condition. The experimental sample (N = 76) consisted of 37 boys and 39 girls. While the control sample (N = 74) consisting of 36 girls and 38 boys.

Two instruments were used for data collection namely (a) Test of Science process skills Acquisition (TOSPSA) developed by the researcher based on the biology topics taught: Animal Nutrition, which was from SS1 biology curriculum. The TOSPSA comprised of 25 items test designed to measure the level of acquisition of each science process skill.

TOSPSA was made up of two sections (A and B). Section A was a practical skills test consisting of practical work while section B was of multiple choice type with four options A,B,C,D. The use of the practical questions for assessment in section A was based on preference of practical activities over theory questions. In this section, the students were required to demonstrate behaviours such as making careful and accurate measurements, observation, experiments, classifications, predicting on the basis of the experimental data and inferring. Examples of items on practical skill tests in section A are as follows: 1. Use your ruler to measure the length of specimen “K”. Cut it into two equal size and measure the part again. 2. Smear a drop of the mixture ‘L’ on a piece of white paper, hold the paper against the light and record your observation and inference. Thus:

Test Observation Inference

The TOSPSA test items were validated by two specialists, in science education who are also seasoned science teachers. The reliability of TOSPSA test was determined using split half reliability test and the reliability coefficient was 0.85. The Scientific Literacy Test (SLT) was a modified scientific literacy test developed by Nwagbo (1997) and consisted of four sections. It was validated and the reliability coefficient for the sections are as follows: Section A: Knowledge of science concept has K-R-20 reliability index of 0.72 Section B: Application of science concept and principles in problem solving; has alternate form reliability index of 0.74 Section C: Communication in science has alternate form reliability index of 0.91. Section D: Attitude to science and appreciation of science has cronbathAlpha reliability index of 0.92. The total score for each student on SLT was collected as percentage and this formed the basis for categorizing students into level of scientific literacy as follows: 70% and above High level of Scientific Literacy 50% - 69% Medium level of Scientific Literacy 0% - 49% Low level of Scientific Literacy

Experimental Procedure The regular biology teachers were used for the study in both experimental and control groups. The teachers who participated in the experimental treatment were subjected to rigorous training for a period of two weeks. The teachers underwent training on how to conduct instructions using the investigative laboratory approach to ensure uniformity and mastering of the teaching methods. Also, each of the experimental stream teachers was given a copy of the validated lesson plan and copies of the two instruments (TOSPSA and SLT) which was used for data collection. The teachers in the control group did not receive any training. They were required to teach the selected biology concepts using the conventional expository method of instruction. The researcher vetted the lesson plan prepared by the biology teacher in the control group to ensure that the teacher did not deviate from the procedures of instructions commonly used by biology teachers. Also, each teacher in the control group was given copies of the two instruments (TOSPSA and SLT) which was used for data collection. The Scientific Literacy Test (SLT) was administered only as pre-test and used for categorizing students into high, medium and low levels of scientific literacy. Test of science process skill acquisition (TOSPSA) was used for both pre test and post test. The treatment consisted of teaching a selected biology concept, Animal Nutrition using the investigative laboratory Approach.

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This involves exposition of students to practical/laboratory exercises, use of specimen/materials to concretize learning as well as foster students’ interaction with their environment, the teacher and among themselves. The control group was taught the same biology concepts using expository method. The teacher presented actual information to the students on the biology concepts and in addition gave a verbal explanation of the experiment procedure and the expected results.

The teaching lasted for four weeks of twelve periods. The teacher administered the post test (after reshuffling) of the items to the subjects in the two groups using science process skill acquisition test. The scripts from both pre- test and post test of the two groups were marked and scored using the marking guide. The data collected from the pre-test and post-test of TOSPSA were analyzed using mean and standard deviation for answering the research questions while Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05% level of confidence.

Results Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviation Scores of students in test of science process skills acquisition due to teaching methods and scientific literacy level.

Teaching method Type of test Scientific Literacy Level High Medium Low 푥̅ SD 푥̅ SD 푥̅ SD Investigative Pre-test 24.07 9.20 23.05 5.61 21.11 11.20 Laboratory Post-test 69.25 9.28 57.18 17.16 49.38 11.36 Approach

Expository Pre-test 26.18 19.10 21.19 13.38 21.10 13.11 Method Post-test 57.16 15.51 51.13 19.02 44.44 13.71

Table 1 shows that the two teaching methods had remarkable effects on the students level of acquisition of science process skills. Students in the high level scientific literacy group exposed to the investigative laboratory approach had higher mean science process skills acquisition score of 69.25 than those in the medium and low level of scientific literacy group scores of 57.18 and 49.38 respectively. While students in the medium level scientific literacy group had higher mean science process skills acquisition score than those in the low level scientific literacy group. From this result, it can be concluded that for the students exposed to the investigative laboratory approach (experimental group), the higher their scientific literacy level, the higher their level of acquisition of science process skills in biology . In the expository method group, students in the high scientific literacy level group had higher mean science process skills acquisition score of 57.16 than those in the medium and low level scientific literacy groups 51.13 and 44.44 respectively. Also, students in the medium level scientific literacy group had higher mean science process skills acquisition score than those in the medium and low level scientific literacy groups. Also, students in the medium level scientific literacy group had higher mean science process skills acquisition score than those in the low level scientific literacy group. These results revealed that for the students exposed to the expository method of teaching biology, the higher their scientific literacy level, the higher their level of acquisition of science process skills in biology.

Table 2: Adjusted Mean and Standard Deviation Scores of students on science process skills Acquisition in biology due to teaching Methods and scientific literacy level Teaching method Scientific Literacy Level High Medium Low Investigative Literacy Approach N 16 29 31 푥̅ 25.27 23.41 17.18 SD 9.42 18.30 10.81

Expository Method N 26 19 29 푥̅ 18.21 20.17 11.82 SD 12.61 10.30 10.61 Table 2 results showed that all levels of scientific literacy students exposed to the investigative laboratory approach recorded higher mean science process skills acquisition scored than those exposed to the expository

African Journal of Education, Science and Technology, April, 2016 Vol 3, No. 2 225 method of teaching. The results further revealed that there was no interaction between teaching methods and scientific literacy level of acquisition of science process skills in biology. The two hypotheses were tested using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) at 0.05% level of confidence. Table 3: ANCOVA of students’ science process skills acquisition scores by Teaching Methods and Scientific Literacy Levels Source Sum of Df Mean of F Significa Decision square squares nce F Pre-test 6764.121 1 6764.121 38.127 0.000 Main effect 3741.043 3 911.028 6.332 0.001 Teaching Methods 673.764 1 673.764 5.236 0.047 Scientific Literacy Level 3469.323 2 1725.54 8.252 0.001 2 way interaction Teaching methods scientific Literary Level 236.637 2 121.850 0.722 0.635 Explained 10371.045 6 2704.342 21.032 0.000 Residual 23266.424 136 140.745 Total 396394.71 142 325.647

The results for hypothesis one as shown in table 3 revealed that F(5.236) is significance at 0.047 for the teaching methods at 1 and 136 degrees of freedom. This is because 0.047 is less than 0.05 significant level as earlier stated. Hence the null hypothesis was rejected. That is, there is a significant difference in the level of acquisition of science process skills by students of different level of scientific literacy taught biology concept using investigative laboratory approach and those taught the same concept using the expository method. Also data on table 3 revealed that the main effect scientific literacy level had an F(8.525) at 2 and 136 degrees of freedom and is significant at 0.001. Hence, the null hypothesis was rejected. This implies that there was a significant difference in the mean score on acquisition of science process skills by students of high, medium and low levels of scientific literacy taught biology concepts using the two teaching methods. The result showed that the students taught using the investigative laboratory approach performed better than those taught using the expository method of teaching. For hypothesis two, result in the table indicated that the 2-way interaction between teaching methods and scientific literacy level is 0.722 at 2 and 136 degrees of freedom and is significant at 0.635. This value is not significant at 0.05 level. Hence the hypothesis is accepted that is, there is no significant interaction between teaching methods and scientific literary level on acquisition of science process skills.

DISCUSSION The findings of this study revealed that the investigative laboratory approach enhanced science process skills acquisition in biology among students of different levels of scientific literacy than the expository method. This finding is in agreement with Okoli (2006) and Nwagbo (2001) who found that the investigative laboratory approach and guided inquiry methods of teaching biology enhanced achievement better than the expository method among biology students of different scientific literacy levels.

Also, the result of this study in table 1 revealed that the investigative laboratory approach produced the highest mean of science process skills acquisition score in biology for the high level scientific group followed by the medium and low level groups. Also, the expository method produced the highest mean science process skills acquisition score in biology for the high level group followed by the medium and low level groups. This result is in line with Okoli (2006) who indicated that the investigative laboratory approach produced the highest mean science process skill acquisition score in biology for the highest level scientific literacy group followed by medium and low level group.

Furthermore, it was confirmed by ANCOVA result that there is a significant difference in the mean science process skills acquisition score in biology among students in the high, medium and low levels of scientific literacy. The findings revealed that the higher the scientific literacy level of the students, the better their science process skills acquisition in biology for the two teaching methods. This result is in consistent with the findings of Nwagbo (1977); Okoli (2006); Nwagbo and Chukelu (2011) who investigated on the effect of teaching methods on acquisition of science process skills among students of different levels of scientific literacy. The result also revealed that there was no interaction between teaching methods and scientific literacy level on acquisition of science process skills in biology. This result confirms with the findings of Nwagbo (2001) and Okoli (2006) who found no interaction between teaching methods and scientific literacy level of achievement in biology by students of different level of scientific literacy.

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The findings of this study revealed that teaching students using the investigative laboratory approach enables students to acquire science process skills and to participate actively in the class. This is because as the students participate and manipulate equipment, they apply their five senses and other skills to their lessons more than when they would have remained less active in the class.

The findings of this study have implications on the teacher who should adopt investigative laboratory approach of teaching which is the student centred method. Students learn better when they are involved in classroom activities. Activity-based method enhances and increase the ability to acquire science process skills by the learner.

CONCLUSION Based on the findings, the study revealed that use of an investigative laboratory approach for teaching biology concepts to students at different levels enabled them to acquire science process skills better than using expository method of teaching. There were no interaction effects of scientific levels and teaching methods on biology students acquisition of science process skills.

RECOMMENDATIONS Therefore, the following recommendations were made: - Teachers should encourage students to develop interest in laboratory activities by engaging them in practical, being creative, resourceful and enthusiastic in their chosen profession, and also inculcating scientific literacy in those students. - Government should provide conducive learning environment by equipping biology laboratory and adequate classroom to enhance science process skills acquisition by students. - Ministry of Education and professional organization like STAN should organize workshops, seminar and conferences for biology teachers. - Science educators and curriculum planners should incorporate innovative pedagogical strategies like investigative laboratory approach into their various teacher education programme.

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INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Author’s Template for Paper Submissions Author(s) Names(s) e-mail/s

These guidelines include complete description of fonts, spacing and related information for producing the paper. Please follow the guidelines as given below: 1. The official language is English and the document should be prepared in Microsoft Word using, Times New Roman, font size 10-point or one that closest in appearance to Times New Roman and formatted to A4 page size. 2. Paper title should be centered and capitalize the first letter of nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs; do not capitalize articles, coordinate conjunctions or prepositions (unless the title begins with such a word). After the main title leave one 12-point blank line. 3. Authors’ name(s) and e-mail(s) address(s) to be centered beneath the title, non-boldfaced. Multiple authors should be shown in a two- or three-column format, with their affiliations italicized and centered below their respective names. Include e-mail addresses. 4. Following the author’s information, a 250-300-word abstract should be provided with maximum of five key words. The abstract is to be in fully-justified italicized text below the author information. Use the word “Abstract” as the title, bold-face and centered relative to body of the paper. The abstract is to be single-spaced in a single-blocked paragraph. Leave two blank lines after the abstract then begin the main text. 5. The text of your paper should be single spaced without inserting page numbers. 6. Allow one blank line between the main titles in the paper (introduction, methods, procedures, results, discussion, conclusion, references). Main headings should be centered, bold and capitalized. The second order headings should be boldface, first letters of each word capitalized, flush left, preceded by one blank line, before, and one after. Third-order headings if you must use, should be boldface, initially italicized, flush left, preceded by one blank line, followed by a period and your text on the same line. 7. Caption and titles of figure(s) and table(s) should have the first word(s) capitalized. Figures and tables must be numbered separately and sequentially. For example: “Figure 1. Database contexts”, “Table 1. Input data”. Figure captions are to be centered below the figures. Table titles are to be centered above the tables. 8. References should be at the end of the paper and should be listed alphabetically. References and citations within the text should be in the APA format. References should be typed in 8 point font size. 9. Where applicable, SI unit should be used. 10. Maximum number of words should be 4000 (5-10 pages) Papers must be submitted in MS word. Please disable all document security and remove any hyperlinks. 11. Authors must adhere to a uniform format of the paper as stipulated below: a. Abstract b. Introduction c. Materials and Methods or Methodology d. Results and Discussion/Findings e. Conclusion and Recommendations f. Any acknowledgements g. References h. Appendices i. Bio-data at most 100 words 12. The author/s Affiliation(s) should be inserted at the end of the paper together with a short Bio-data of the main author.

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