Godwin Valentine O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

EZE, CAROLINE NGOZI PG/Ph.D/10/57530

MOTIVATIONAL INITIATIVES FOR CITIZENS’ PARTICIPATION IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES IN ANAMBRA AND IMO STATES OF NIGERIA

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION AND EXTRA MURAL STUDIES

Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name

DN : CN = Webmaster’s name Godwin Valentine O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

OU = Innovation Centre

MOTIVATIONAL INITIATIVES FOR CITIZENS’ PARTICIPATION IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES IN ANAMBRA AND IMO STATES OF NIGERIA

EZE, CAROLINE NGOZI PG/Ph.D/10/57530

DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION AND EXTRA MURAL STUDIES FACULTY OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA

JULY, 2016

TITLE PAGE

MOTIVATIONAL INITIATIVES FOR CITIZENS’ PARTICIPATION IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES IN ANAMBRA AND IMO STATES OF NIGERIA

EZE, CAROLINE NGOZI PG/Ph.D/10/57530

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D) IN ADULT EDUCATION/COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

SUPERVISOR: PROF. (MRS.) C.I. OREH

JULY, 2016 ii

APPROVAL PAGE

This thesis has been approved for the Department of Adult Education and Extral Mural

Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

……………………………… …………………………… Prof. (Mrs) C.I. Oreh Thesis Supervisor Internal Examiner

……………………….. ……………………………. External Examiner Prof. S.C. Nwizu Head of Department

…………………………………… Prof. Uju Umo Dean, Faculty of Education

iii

CERTIFICATION

Eze, Caroline Ngozi a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Adult Education and

Extral Mural Studies, with registration Number PG/Ph.D/10/57530, has satisfactorily completed the requirements for research work for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Adult

Education/Community Development. The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or full for other diploma or degree of this or any other University.

Eze, Caroline Ngozi Prof. (Mrs.) C.I. Oreh (Student) (Supervisor)

DEDICATION

This research work is dedicated to God Almighty the giver of wisdom and understanding for his mercy and love on us.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The researcher acknowledges the contributions of authors whose materials provided in- depth knowledge to literature of the study. The researcher also expresses her appreciation to her amiable supervisor Prof. (Mrs.) C.I. Oreh for her show of love, concern, constructive criticism and suggestions towards the successful completion of the study, and also made sure that the work was not delayed unnecessarily, The researcher is delighted to appreciate Dr. F.O. Mbagwu, Dr. O.N. Nwakaire and Dr. Eric K.N. Nwagu, the validates of the instrument of the study for their painstaking efforts in scrutinizing the questionnaire. The researcher also appreciates the immense contributions of Dr. C.N. Olori, who analyzed the research data. The researcher is also thankful to the entire staff members of the Department of Adult Education and Extral Mural Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka who is like a family to her and Mr. G.O. Obi, who was like a father to the researcher. The story of the researcher’s stay in Nsukka will not be complete without her making reference to Mrs. C.C. Okide and Mrs. C. Imoh who provided a home for her. The researcher’s utmost gratitude goes to her brother and sisters: Mrs. V.I. Onwuma, Mrs. J.O. Eke, Lady J. Mmaduekwe, Mrs. V. Osita and Mr. P. Onyiuke, for their support and encouragement. The researcher’s indebtedness goes to her loving husband Mr.K.I.O. Eze and her children Ifunanya, Chukwuebuka, Chukwudalu, Kosisochukwu and Chukwubuikem for their understanding, endurance and love. Finally, in recognition of the fact that no one takes upon oneself an honour if it does not come from above, the researcher therefore acknowledges the supremacy of God Almighty for His wisdom, guidance, direction, love, care and protection granted her for the period of this academic pursuit, may His name alone be praised for all eternity. Amen.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page i Approval Page ii Certification iii Dedication iv Acknowledgements v Table of Contents vi List of Tables viii Abstract ix

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Background of the Study 1 Statement of the Problem 15 Purpose of the Study 17 Significance of the Study 17 Research Questions 18 Hypotheses 19 Scope of the Study 20

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 21 Conceptual Framework 21 Motivational Initiatives for Citizens’ Participation 22 Concept of Citizens’ Participation 33 Concept of Community Development 40

Theoretical Framework 51 Needs Theory (Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs) 52 Participatory Development Theory 53 Expectancy Theory 55 Review of Related Empirical Studies 56

Summary of Reviewed Literature 59

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD 61 Design of the Study 61 Area of the Study 61 Population of the Study 62 Sample and Sampling Techniques 63 Instruments for Data Collection 63 Validation of the Instruments 64 Reliability of the Instrument 65 Procedure for Data Collection 65 Method of Data Analysis 66

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS 67 Research Question 1 67 Hypothesis 1 68 Research Question 2 69 Hypothesis 2 70 vii

Research Question 3 71 Hypothesis 3 72 Research Question 4 73 Hypothesis 4 74 Research Question 5 75 Hypothesis 5 76 Research Question 6 77 Hypothesis 6 78 Summary of Major Findings 79

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 81

Discussion of Findings 81 Conclusions 84 Implications of the Study for Adult Education 85 Recommendations 86 Limitations of the Study 87 Suggestions for Further Research 87

REFERENCES 88

APPENDICES 98 APPENDIX A: Letter to Respondents 98 APPENDIX B: Questionnaire Items 99 APPENDIX C: Information on the Population of the Study for Anambra State 101 APPENDIX D: Information on the Population of the Study for Imo State 103 APPENDIX E: Statistics of Registered Community Based Organisations in Anambra and Imo States 105 APPENDIX F: Sample Size of the Study for Anambra and Imo States 108 APPENDIX G: Sample Size of the Study for Anambra and Imo States 109

viii

LIST OF TABLES

1. Mean rating of respondents on the extent to which decentralization of power in communities has promoted citizens’ participation in the states 67

2. t-test analysis of significant difference between the mean ratings of respondents in Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which decentralization of power in community has promoted citizens’ participation in the state 68

3. Mean rating of respondents regarding the extent to which good leadership in communities has helped in improving citizens’ participation in the states. 69

4. t-test analysis of significant difference between the mean ratings of respondents in Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which good leadership in communities has helped in improving citizens’ participation in the states 70

5. Mean rating of respondents regarding the extent to which identification of community needs has promoted citizens’ participation in the states 71

6. t-test analysis of significant difference between the mean ratings of respondents in Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which identification of community needs has promoted citizens’ participation in the states 72

7. Mean rating of respondents regarding the extent to which respect for people’s culture has promoted citizens’ participation in the states 73

8. t-test analysis of significant difference between the mean ratings of respondents in Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which respect for people’s culture has promoted citizens’ participation in the states 74

9. Mean rating of respondents regarding the extent to which adequate funding has promoted citizens’ participation in the states 75

10. t-test analysis of significant difference between the mean ratings of respondents in Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which adequate funding in communities has promoted citizens’ participation in the states 76

11. Mean rating of respondents regarding the extent to which need selection has promoted citizens’ participation in the states 77

12. t-test analysis of significant difference between the mean ratings of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which need selection has promoted citizens’ participation in the states. 78

Abstract

The main purpose of this study was to ascertain the extent to which motivational initiatives promote citizens’ participation in community development activities in Anambra and Imo States of Nigeria. Six research questions and six null hypotheses were raised to guide the study. The study adopted descriptive survey research design. The population of the study was 2, 357 respondents made up of members of registered Community Based Organizations (CBOs) in Anambra and Imo States. A sample of 853 respondents was drawn from the population using multi-stage proportionate sampling technique. Data collection instrument was self-structured questionnaire titled, ‘Questionnaire on Motivational Initiatives for Citizens’ Participation in Community Development Activities(QMICPCDA). The instrument was face validated by three experts, two in Community Development unit of Department of Adult Education & Extra-Mural Studies and one in Measurement and Evaluation Unit of Department of Science Education both from University of Nigeria, Nsukka. An overall reliability index of 0.91 was obtained using the Cronbach Coefficient Alpha. The null hypotheses were tested using t-test at 0.05 level of significant. Weighted mean and Standard Deviation were used in analyzing the collected data. Copies of the instrument were administered to the respondents through direct delivery technique. Data collected from respondents were analyzed using frequency counts, mean ratings were used for other six research questions. Result of findings indicated that to a high extent, decentralization of power in communities, good leadership, identification of needs, respect for people’s culture, adequate funding and need selection has assisted citizens’ participation in communities in Anambra and Imo States. The findings further revealed that significant differences were not found in decentralization of power, good leadership and need selection in the communities of Anambra and Imo States. However, significant difference was found in the mean ratings of respondents from the two states regarding the extent to which identification of needs, adequate funding and respect for peoples’ culture has assisted citizens’ participation in the communities in Anambra and Imo States. Based on the findings of the study, recommendations were made that government and community leaders should encourage decentralization of power that is, power should be transferred from higher to local level to empower communities to work together, define and resolve their problems.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Motivation is a combination of goals towards which human behaviour is directed, the process through which those goals are pursued and achieved and social factors involved (Jones,

Jennifer & Hill, 2000). An individual is motivated through certain motivational factors that directs and sustains behaviour. According to them motivation is the force that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviour of human beings (Jones, Jennifer & Hill, 2000). Hornby

(2006:345) defined motivation as eagerness and willingness to do something without needing to be told or forced to do it ”. Motivation is a critical component of participation, it is important in getting citizens' to engage in development activities (Bernstein, 2011).

There are two types of motivation, extrinsic and intrinsic (Reeve and Jang, 2006).

Extrinsic is determined by the individual ’s outside surrounding and specific tasks. Intrinsic motivation can be found within the individual since the task can be viewed as valuable.

Therefore, when applying the effect that motivation has on the development process, it is clear that people participate better based on the perceived value of the task, subject matter, personal goals, financial incentives and wide array of different factors. As a gardener must know or should have sought to know which soil is more suitable to the plant and when and how much water should be required by plant, so must a community leader know how a citizen participates, how the factors like motivation facilitates the development process (Margolis &

McCabe, 2006),

Motivation is vital in any development, it is viewed by (Cole,2001) as a process in which people choose between alternative forms of behaviour in order to achieve personal goals. He further stated that motivational initiatives are conditions by which organizational and personal goals are harmonized. This implies that motivational initiatives are drives towards the successful

1 2 attainment of community development programmes. Motivation is viewed by (Johnson &

Thompson, 2007) as the force or condition within the organism that impels it to act or respond.

Presumably, organisms are motivated by physiological needs such as hunger or thirst. These needs generate drives that have the tendency to behave in a manner likely to reduce the needs.

Motivational initiatives in this study are those variables such as decentralization of power in community development, good leadership, identification of community needs, respect for people ’s culture, adequate funding, and need selection that are capable of promoting community development activities. They constitute vital elements in deciding the level of participation of adults in community development programmes (Beard, 2003).

However, within the context of this study, motivational initiatives for citizens' participation are psychological features that arouse within individuals in the community to act, control, sustain and achieve their desirable goals (Cole, 2001). These features include reward, praise, bonus, and recognition among others which trigger off action by individuals in the community for community progress. Thus, Nwizu (1997) submits that an individual exerts some energy towards attainment of a goal when the individual is said to be motivated. Obeta,

Omeje & Omeje (2003) added that motivation is a process by which the learners' internal energies are directed towards bringing the entire populace into the sphere of citizens' participation in order to create a more equitable and livable environment both in urban and rural areas.

Consequently, Felix (2003) stipulated the importance of motivational initiatives as thus:

Participation and inclusion: where all members are involved in the planning and implementation stage.

A holistic approach: Which acknowledges the interdependency that exists between groups within communities at the local, national and international levels.

Diversity: Diversity within the communities is acknowledged and built upon to ensure new approaches that can be integrated into the culture of the community. 3

Responsiveness: Community development approaches have to be dynamic to respond to the differing needs of communities as they arise.

Sustainability: Building community capacity has sustainable qualities between the groups and organization; develop the ability and responsibilities to maintain community ‘owned ’ initiatives.

Operational definition of motivational initiatives simply means the ability to decide and act on your own without waiting for somebody to tell you what to do. For motivational initiatives to be meaningful, they have to be citizens'participation.

Citizens' participation, as a concept, describes the involvement of community members in the affairs or activities that are designed to enhance the development of the community. As

Anyanwu (1986) noted, citizens' participation implies a right to something. In the case of community development, it implies the involvement of community. Citizens' participation implies much more than involvement. It calls forth other features, namely democracy or democratic participation, self-helps, and education. The idea of citizens' participation is based on the tested tradition of free enterprise and the rights of the community members. When we strive towards effecting a change for the well-being of community members, the point must always be remembered that the individual has his inherent and legal right to humane treatment.

The ability to solicit his support and participation are the primary ingredients of the free enterprise and thereby democratic participation. Democracy is based on these percept, namely free-will and self-help. Democracy in community development implies development of the people, by the people and for the people (Anyanwu, 1981). This is the democratic rule that marks the philosophy of development.

Citizens' participation is a process which provides individuals an opportunity to influence public decisions. It has long been a component of the democratic decision-making process

(Smith, 2006). Citizens' participation in community development, as an approach to development strategy has been in practice since the 1970s. International health agencies were the first to begin to promote and finance it on an international scale. Citizens' participation is an educational empowering process in which people, in partnership with those able to assist them, 4 identify their needs and assume responsibility to plan, manage, control, and assess the collective actions that are necessary based on shared interest on what one can do best (Egenti, 2002).

Citizens' participation emphasized total control by the community members and lesser degree of government imposition of projects on the people (community), by allowing the community to do the work among themselves without external assistance.

In addition, citizens' participation utilizes the skills and capabilities of individuals in a community for decision making and influencing the institutions and programmes that affect them (Smith, 2006). Citizens' participation makes people to respond to development programmes (Abiona, 2003). He sees citizens' participation as a process of giving information on development programmes that could in turn elicit the desired awareness in community members for effective community development process. It aids people ’s wisdom and give power to the people to solve their problem and use resources available at their disposal. These resources could be physical cash, material and non material resources. The material resources include things like money, raw materials, equipment etc while the non materials include a combination of time, knowledge, popularity, social status, official position, power, influence, almost all of which are built around the human elements (Igbuzor, 2005).

Citizens' participation in development is viewed by (Osuji, 2004) as the engagement by community members in all the various decision-making processes in project implementation.

Citizens' participation is not just all about getting people involved in decision-making process. It also involves the ability to understand and share in the experiences of other people even when those experiences were failures, for there is usually a lesson to learn from other peoples ’ situation. The principle of citizens' participation implies that the workers have to supply the necessary and needed stimulus for the success of the project (Anyanwu, 2002). Accordingly, citizens' participation in development has assumed centre stage as an important condition for achieving accelerated and sustainable development. It has also become a central element in people-centered development strategy (Denscombe, 2010). Consequently, many development 5 practitioners and agencies have emphasized the need to secure active support and participation of the citizens' involved in the development process. The World Bank (2005) asserts that this era was largely dominated by efforts towards promoting citizens' participation in community development. This led to a fundamental shift in attitudes and methodologies. Typically, this led to the breakdown of the top-down non-participatory practice in community development.

Consequent upon this, from the 1990s, several major international agencies, such as Food and

Agricultural Organization (FAO), World Bank, United Nations International Children ’s

Emergency Fund (UNICEF), United Nation ’s Development Programme (UNDP) as well as numerous other Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) began to champion the cause of citizens participation in the development processes. Operational definition of citizens' participation is a tool to help your community make better decisions. For citizens' participation to be meaningful, they have to be community development.

The most popular definition of community development came from the United Nations which summarizes community development as the process by which the efforts of the people themselves are united with those of governmental authorities to improve the economic, social and cultural conditions of communities to integrate these communities into the life of the nation and to enable them to contribute fully to national progress. Presently, this definition is universally accepted. The term community development is described by (O ’Mara-Eves, 2013) as a way of working underpinned by a commitment to equity, social justice and participation that enables people to strengthen networks and to identify common concerns and support people in taking action related to the networks. It respects community – defined priorities, recognizes community assets as well as problems, gives priorities to motivational initiatives and is a key mechanism for enabling meaningful participation in the community development

Community development according to Combat Poverty(2000) is a process whereby those who are marginalized and excluded are enabled to gain self-confidence to join with others and to participate in actions to change their situation and tackle the problem that face their 6 community. Lee(2003) argued that this definition is based on a broad understanding of citizenship that regards people as having a right to influence and participate in the decisions that affect them and to have their experiences and views listened to and acted on. Community development is potentially a means whereby people can achieve this right. This refers to participation in decision-making and collective action, leading to an agenda of social inclusion and amelioration of poverty.

Community development is both an occupation (such as a community development worker in a local authority) and a way of working with communities. Community Development

Exchange (2010) affirmed that the key purpose of community development is to build communities based on justice, equality and mutual respect. It involves changing the relationship between ordinary people in positions of power, so that everyone can take part in the issues that affect their lives. It starts from the principle that within any community there is a wealth of knowledge and experience which if used in creative ways can be channeled into collective action to achieve the communities desired goals.

The essence of community development is well captured in the Budapest Declaration

(2004) which emphasized on strengthening civil society, empowerment and an agenda of social change. In this context, community development is a way of strengthening civil society by prioritizing the action of communities and their perspectives in the development of social, economic and environmental policy. It seeks the empowerment of local communities, taken to mean both geographical communities, communities of interest or identity and communities organizing around specific themes or policy initiatives. It strengthens the capacity of people as active citizens' through their community groups, organizations and networks, and motivations of citizens' and agencies(communities, government and non-governmental) to work in dialogue with citizens' to shape and determine change in their communities. It plays a crucial role in supporting active democratic life by promoting the autonomous voice of disadvantaged and vulnerable communities. American Heritage Dictionary Internet (2004) asserted that community 7 development includes activities that increase the positive outcomes possible within a community by linking individuals and organizations working towards common goals. It also includes long term process whereby people who are marginalized or living in poverty work together to identify their needs, create change, exert more influence in the decision which affect their lives and work together to improve the quality of their lives and community in which they live and the society of which they are part of.

Community development also includes the process of improving the social, economic and cultural conditions of a village or small town, and a variety of activities done within or on behalf of a community to add to or enhance it in some ways. It may include housing, construction, developing corporation or rehabilitation of structure. Based on the fore-going, community development is aimed at the improvement of persons either as individual, group or society at large and their living situation. It deals with both material and non-material living for the whole community relaying on their resources, initiative and participation. Operational definition of community development is a process whereby community members come together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems.

Community development has been a universal concept applied to national programmes for development. The concept and practice of community development has never been a new phenomenon in Nigeria specifically or in the world generally. Onwuamalem (2003) stated that the history of community development in Nigeria is traceable to the days of Eastern Nigeria as shown by the fact that mutual co-operation existed among families and groups. He further revealed that it received some encouragement from Chadwick, an administrative officer in the former Eastern Nigeria who activated communities in Udi, Enugu State to build schools, roads, churches, market to mention but few. During this time, the people were short in a film captured

“Day Break in Udi ”. This film was shown around in every village and town of the Eastern

Region of Nigeria, which yielded positive results in that almost every community embarked on one form self help project or the other. 8

It was on this basis that community development was said to have been practiced first in

Udi through West Africa Lots (2004) noted that if nothing else has come out at community development projects since the second world war, the realization that traditional societies have self-help mechanisms that existed before the concept of community development was discovered by the Western world should not be apparent. For many decades, people had gathered themselves together to construct town halls, palaces, market squares, roads and other infrastructure facilities in their community so as to make life sweet and enjoyable. What is being said is that the concept of community development as self-help activities has been with us since time immemorial.

Community development covers all forms of developmental activities in a community.

It aimed at bringing about improvements in the life of people through changes in the condition of their community (Anyanwu, 1999). It is a complex or composite process through which the people are educated. This means that the people must be stimulated to a point at which they become desirous of better things, and sustain the urge to attain such better things. In the process, the people must be free to achieve their own betterment. This is the process of community development on which the objectives lies. Community development is the education and motivation of the people for self-reliance or self-help. This is done by raising the awareness or moral of the people to the extent that they become desirous and willing to bring about better standard of living for themselves through or depending on their own efforts. It therefore involves an attitudinal orientation which will make the people know that they need to, and can improve on their present standard of living. In this process people learn to appreciate that community development means self-development by the community as a whole (Anyanwu,

1992).

Community development seeks to help the people establish and maintain cooperative and harmonious relationship in their community. It also operates by stimulating and motivating people to action aimed at bringing about desirable change for better living among members of a 9 community. The success of the community depends on the willing cooperative efforts of the people. The process create in the people the desire and urge to achieve success. It bring the people together and promotes healthy communication and interaction among the people.

Harmonious relationship begins to evolve from the willingness of the people to cooperate in a participatory process, and new ideas are easily diffused into the people (Anyanwu, 1992). The author also aimed at bringing about gradual and self-chosen changes in the life of the community. It enables people to identify what is good for them through the assessment of their needs. The people therefore, must be able to choose their own programme based on their felt needs and decide at a pace favourable on how to achieve the goal of the programme. In other words, the people should be able to set their own goals, and decide also the way and manner they feel such goals can best be achieved (Anyanwu, 1992).

In addition, it aimed at securing the active participation of the people in every community programme that is designed to raise their standard of living and promote their development in every form. Omoruyi (2001) noted that community development was first used in 1948 at the Cambridge Conference on African Administration that was organized by the

British Colonial Office. Universally, community development is a process by which the efforts of the people themselves are united with those of governmental authorities to improve the economic, social and cultural conditions of communities, to integrate these communities into the life of the nation, and to enable them contribute fully to national progress (United Nation cited in

Godschalk, 1973). This means that it is a process which seeks to empower individuals and groups of people by providing these groups with the skills needed to effect change in their own communities. These skills are often concentrated around building political power through the formation of large social groups working for a common agenda. According to Anyanwu (1999), community development marks the stage in the life of a community at which the people plan and act together for the satisfaction of their felt-needs. 10

Community development activities are programmes or projects that are either tangible or in-tangible directed towards improving the living conditions of members in the community.

Some of the tangible projects include construction of roads, markets, hospitals, industry, water supply and others while the in-tangible projects include human capacity development through their exposure to trainers in rural areas (Oyebamiji & Adekola, 2008). Community development emphasizes self-help by the citizens and also initiates a people-directed process that is based upon their perception of their needs.

Community sponsored projects have played a significant role in the socio-economic development of various parts of Nigeria, Anambra and Imo states inclusive. These projects have provided social services in the rural areas. Community projects which have been playing a significant role in alleviating poverty at the grassroots level will continue to provide amenities which the government is unable to provide as quickly as they are needed by the people (Olaleye,

2004). There is need to identify and encourage the various factors that enhance participation in community development projects. This will aid the development of the various communities and consequently reduce the rural-urban migration rate to the barest minimum in Nigeria

(Okafor, 2000). Anyanwu (2002) sees community development as a conscious and deliberate effort aimed at helping communities recognize their needs and assume increasing responsibilities for solving their problems thereby increasing their capacities to participate fully in the life of the nation. Community-Based Organization (CBOs) helps to identifies the needs of the community for good participation to bring about positive change in the community.

Economically, Anambra and Imo states have several resources, they embacked on:

Example Anambra state economy is characterized by primary production activities in agriculture, industry and a great deal of commercial activities. The state is also endowed with natural resources like unharnessed iron deposits, crude oil, limestone, coal and clay (Anambra

State Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy, 2014). It also has many other resources in terms of agro-based activities like fishery and farming, as well as land mapped out 11 pasturing and animal husbandry. Even at that, there are communities that develop their areas more than the others. Such as: Njikoka, Dunukofia, Anocha, Idemili North, Idemili South,

Awka North and South Local Government Areas of Anambra state. This indicates that there may obviously be some motivational initiatives for citizens' participation which lead the communities to do better than others.

While Imo state on the other hand is rich in natural resources including unharnessed crude oil, natural gas, lead and zinc ( Wikipedia, 2010). Economically, expoitable flora like the iroko, mahogany, obeche, bambo, rubber tree and oil palm predominate. However, with a high population density and over farming the soil has been degraded and much of the native vegetation is disappearing (Wikipedia, 2010). This deforestation has triggered soil erosion which is compounded by heavy seasonal rainfall that has led to the destruction of houses and road

(Wikipedia 2010).Still on this,there are communities that develop their areas more than the others such as: Owerri, Onuimo, Mbaitolu, Ahiazu Mbaise and Ikeduru Local Government of

Imo state among others. This indicates That there may obviously be some motivation need for more citizens' participation which lead the communities to do better than the others.

In Anambra and Imo states of Nigeria several projects have been identified as abandoned, spread across various local government and communities in the state. The communities in Anambra and Imo States of Nigeria are noted for embarking on different community development projects in the form of self-help. Over the last two decades the implementation of the different community development projects has been possible through motivational initiatives that have been applied in the various communities. As a result, lots of investments are employed into the projects. Even though some successes have been reported, with yet more is expected because there are still lots of abandoned projects.

In Anambra State, uncompleted/abandoned projects include; cattle market at Aguaba new layout since 2004, roofing and renovation of Irunese primary school Ebenebe since 2005, two bore-hole projects at Amansean since 2002, maternal and Child health care project at Oba- 12

Ofemili since 2003, Nnam bridge linking Ugbenu and Ugbene communities all in Awka North local government area, bore-hole project in Alor in Idemili south local government since 2000, bore-hole project in Umuoji in Idemili north local government since 2002, transformer project in

Abatete community in Idemili north local government since 2001, development town hall in

Nimo in Njikoka local government area since 2004, community town hall in Ukpo in Dunukofia local government since 2006.

In Imo State abandoned projects are community health centre in Egbu Owerri north,

Umuayalu to Mpama road in Owerri north, development town hall in Mbaitolu local government area, community roads of Umuagwu in Owerri West were neglected since 2006, transformer project in Arondizugo of Onuimo local government area, roads project in Ofeuzo that leads to Nekede, all in Owerri West Local Government Area since 2006, development town hall in Ofekala, in Mbaitolu local government area. Other projects abandoned include Afor

Egbu market, Umuocham and Umuzi in Owerri North local government areas. In Owerri West local government area, Umuguma development primary school was abandoned since 2000.

Renovation of Isiuzo primary school and community secondary school was also abandoned since June 2010 all in Owerri North local government area of Imo State. Also health center in

Egbu in Owerri North Local Government Area was abandoned, their gurters, Owerri-Umuahia roads was also abandoned.

Also, these projects are abandoned as a result of inadequate decentralization of power on the part of the government, leaders or both, or maybe as a result of poor leadership or maybe inadequate needs assessments were not done before starting up those project in the first instance, or maybe as a result of cultural practices, inadequate funding or still inadequate involvement of the citizens. Therefore, this study is set out to determining the motivational initiatives for citizens ’ participation in community development activities in Anambra and Imo States of

Nigeria that will help then addresses the issues about their abandoned projects. 13

In Anambra State, several projects have been completed in some areas, such as rural water supply at Adazi in Anaocha local government, community town hall in Umunnachi in

Dunukofia local government area among others. In Imo State several project have been completed such as community health centre in Mbaise of Ahiazu local government, development town hall in Egbu of Owerri north local government, Bux culvert at Umuayalu to

Isiuzo road all in Owerri north local government areas but the are yet others to be completed.

Generally, these self-help projects are propelled by citizens' participation rather than government driven (Igboegbunam, 2003). However in the two states in Nigeria, the bottom-top method of citizens' participation in community development projects is not yet fully appreciated.

In states where this situation obtains, the people tend to look up to the government to do everything for them. Such communities generally have many abandoned projects. Hence

Paarlberg, (2004) was bold to state that abandoned projects in a community generally indicate absence of citizens' participation.

However, laudable projects meant to benefit the generality of the people in the communities have witnessed problems emanating from abandoned projects, faulty planning and implementation. This in effect, distorted the aims and objectives of such programmes. Also, the failure of some agents of change to assist in identifying what constitutes the felt needs of the people and plan adequately for them posed another major obstacle to successful implementation of community development programmes. Usually, a well laid out and articulated plan for genuine development was mapped out only to be marred by some intrinsic factors which caused lapses and weakness in the mode of operation.

Based on review of literature and the researcher's personal experiences, lack of appropriate motivational initiatives in community development programmes, such as: poor decentralization of power, poor leadership, inadequate identification of needs, inadequate cultural practices, inadequate funding and needs selection posed a major obstacle to successful implementation of community development programmes. 14

Obviously therefore views that observed by the researcher that the motivational initiatives of the people for citizens' participation in community is investigated in Anambra and

Imo states of Nigeria. The importance of citizens participation in Anambra and Imo States has been acknowledged and documented such that citizens participation is viewed from the perspective of benefits or gains and costs to be born, (Economic Empowerment Strategy, 2004).

It is therefore seen that the citizen can bring about change by expressing his/her desire, either individually or through a community group. Also, the individual learns how to make desired changes, how to understand and appreciate the individual needs and interest of all community groups, how to resolve conflicting interest for the general welfare of the group and to understand group dynamics as it applies to mixed groups (Cooks, 2003). This is so because it is seen that development should be capable of increasing the level of economic, social and human development indices, in short in the total growth in human capabilities and potentials. It is, therefore, important that the role that citizens' participation plays in community development projects is analyzed to be able to pinpoint the contribution of participation on these project and the motivational factors needed. Development principles today, advocate citizens' participation in development projects because it has long been seen and recognized as an effective means of assisting people to mobilize their numerous and untapped resources available within them towards improving their community. Citizens' participation in community development ensures the achievement of development objective. It is also a recognized way of making amenities and services available and accessible to the beneficiaries (Anyanwu, 2002).

In Anambra state, prior to the time of this study, private individuals were solely involved in community development activities. These individuals take up project identified as felt need of the people by sponsoring and making available necessary resources needed to improve the quality of life of the people. On completion, these projects are awarded to the community for the good of all. 15

In terms of educational backwardness, these individuals who are entrepreneurs award scholarship to teeming youths desiring to further education to acquire requisite qualification needed to improve the community. The idea behind this is that education is concerned as a vehicle for the promotion of development

Similarly, in Imo state, indigenes are prominently farmers and civil servants among other economic activities. In the bid to enhance the welfare of the community, social groups and organizations are found where the needs of the communities are identified. In an effort to execute these projects, communities levy themselves so as to achieve the desired result. This state jointly take up these community development activities, using the principles of felt need and self reliance, before seeking the assistance of external bodies. Some of these projects are construction of market, maintenance of roads and award of scholarship to deserving citizens.

However, there are cases of completed, uncomplete and/or abandoned development projects in many communities within Anambra and Imo States. Probably because power was decentralized, good leadership, identification of community needs, respect for peoples cultures, adequate funding and need selection. Then abandoned project in Anambra and Imo state posses a threat to community development. There is therefore the need to ascertain the extent to which these motivational initiatives have helped in community development projects. It is against this background that the researcher carried out this study.

Statement of the Problem

For any meaningful development to take place, the roles of the community leader, government and non governmental agencies in planning for and motivating the people for good participation in community development activities cannot easily be discarded or played down. It has been acknowledged that the main focus of community development is centered on the voluntary effort of the people to take effectively and concerted the pace of development in their areas. To achieve this, both government and the people must be well informed of some factors 16 relating to processes, the intricacies/patterns involved in community development activities. The customs of the people, sources of funds, leadership, decentralization of power, identification of needs and selection of needs have bearing on the level of participation by the people in community development activities. Since no development can take place in a vacuum, the influence of the above factors on the level of participation is of crucial importance.

The central problem of this study therefore, rest on considering those factors that could determine the level of active participation in community development activities by the people of the two states.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to ascertain the motivational initiatives in citizens' participation in community development activities in Anambra and Imo States of Nigeria. The specific purposes of the study are to:

1. determine the extent to which decentralization of power in community development

promoted in citizens' participation in community development in Anambra and Imo

States respectively.

2. find out the extent to which good leadership has helped in moving citizens' participation

in community development in Anambra and Imo States respectively.

3. determine the extent to which identification of needs promoted citizens' participation in

community development in both states respectively.

4 ascertain the extent to which respect for people's culture promoted citizens' participation

in community development in the two states;

5. find out the extent to which adequate funding promoted citizens' participation in

community development in the two states;

6. ascertain the extent to which need selection of community promoted citizens'

participation in community development in the two states.

Significance of the Study

The findings of the study will be of immense benefits to communities, leaders, researchers, government and non-governmental agencies. The findings of the study will be of significant benefit to the communities since decentralization of power in community 18 development will equip them with leadership skills capable of improving the welfare of the communities.

The findings of the study will be of significant benefit to researchers as it would provide them with needed information and theories that will enable them to critically review and update policies relating to community development activities in Anambra and Imo States. The study stands to benefit future researchers in similar areas as information obtained serve as data base for future researches. Furthermore, the findings of the study will be significant to government since it provided them with needed information on how best to carry out development projects in the communities. It will also exposed them to the need to involve the direct stakeholders of projects in its planning and implementation stage. The recognition of the participation of beneficiaries of project by government will enhance their decision making process especially in their award of project to people.

The finding of the study will be of benefit to non-governmental agencies such as the community-based organizations (CBOs) since it will expose them on the need to actively participate in the identification of need in the community so as to bring about positive change in the community. By involving them in project execution, the use of inferior materials by the executors will be discouraged.

Research Questions

The following research questions guided the study:

1. To what extent has decentralization of power in community development promoted in

citizens' participation in communities in Anambra and Imo States?

2. To what extent has good leadership has helped in improving citizens' participation in

Anambra and Imo States? 19

3. To what extent has identification of needs in communities promoted citizens'

participation in Anambra and Imo States?

4. To what extent has respect for people's culture in the communities helped citizens'

participation in community development of the two states?

5. To what extent has adequate funding of community development promoted citizens'

participation in community development in Anambra and Imo States?

6. To what extent has need selection in community development promoted citizens'

participation in community development in the two States?

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were formulated to guide this study and tested at 0.05

level of significance:

H0 1: There is no significant difference between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra

and Imo States regarding the extent to which decentralization of power in communities

promoted citizens' participation in the two states.

H0 2: There is no significant difference between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra

and Imo States regarding the extent to which good leadership promoted citizens'

participation in community development in the two states.

H0 3: There is no significant difference between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra

and Imo States regarding the extent to which identification of needs in the communities

promoted citizens' participation in the two states.

H0 4: There is no significant difference between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra

and Imo States regarding the extent to which respect for people's culture in the

communities promoted citizens' participation in the two states. 20

H0 5: There is no significant difference between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra

and Imo States regarding the extent to which adequate funding promoted citizens'

participation in community development in the two states.

H0 6: There is no significant difference between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra

and Imo States regarding the extent to which need selection promoted citizens'

participation in community development in the two states.

Scope of the Study

The study focused on motivational initiatives for promotion of citizens' participation in community development activities in Anambra and Imo States of Nigeria. The study was restricted to only community based organizations in Anambra and Imo States of Nigeria. The study further focused on the extent to which motivational initiatives for citizens' participation promoted decentralization of power, good leadership, identification of needs, respect for people's culture, adequate funding and need selection in communities of Anambra and Imo

States of Nigeria.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reviewed the various literatures that are related to the study under the following sub-headings:

Conceptual Framework

Motivational Initiatives for Citizens’ Participation

Concept of Citizens’ Participation

Concept of Community Development

Theoretical Framework

Needs Theory (Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs)

Participatory Development Theory

Expectancy Theory

Review of Related Empirical Studies

Summary of Reviewed Literature

21 22

Conceptual Framework

Motivational Initiatives for Citizens’ Participation

Many contemporary authors have defined the concept of motivation. Motivation has been defined as the result of the interaction between the individual and the situation (Decenzo,

2001). Although, individuals may differ in their motivational drives, however, an individual’s motivation varies from situation to situation and from culture to culture. Lawler (1986) defined motivation as a conscious process that results from individual choice about what will and will not be in a given situation. Kreitner (1995) defined the phenomenon as a psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction. Motivation has been defined as; a predisposition to behave in a purposive manner to achieve specific, unmet needs (Buford, Bedeian and Linder,

1995); an internal drive to satisfy an unsatisfied need (Higgins, 1994); and the will to achieve

(Bedeian, 1993). Motivation is operationally defined as the inner force that drives individuals to accomplish personal and organizational goals. Motivation is a combination of goals towards which human behaviour is directed; the process through which those goals are pursued and achieved and the social factors involved (Huczynski and Buchanan, 2007). Motivation is a combination of needs, drives and incentives. Motivation is defined as the process that starts with physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive (Luthans, 1992). In addition Mullins (1999) says, “the underlying concept of motivation is some driving force within individuals by which they attempt to achieve some goal in order to fulfill some need or expectation”. Mullins also distinguishes between extrinsic motivation related to tangible rewards such as money; and intrinsic motivation related to psychological rewards such as the sense of challenge and achievement.

Motivation is described as a state that directs and sustains behaviour. Motivation is the force that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviour (Jones, Jennifer & Hill, 2000).

Hornby (2011) defined motivation as eagerness and willingness to do something without needing to be told or forced to do it. Therefore motivation is the force that initiates, guides and maintain goal oriented behaviours of human beings. Motivation is a critical component of 23 participation. Motivation is important in getting citizens’ to engage in development activities

(Bernstein, 2011).

The concept of motivation could be described based on the objectives, and characteristics of motivation. Example building of bore holes project within Anambra and Imo for supply of water by the people. The term motivation can be used in different ways, it refers to any sort of general drive or inclination to do something (Baumeister &Vohs, 2007). Motivation is categorized as either “extrinsic” (outside) or “intrinsic” (inside) (Mitchell and Daniels, 2003;

Sansone and Harackiewicz, 2000). Extrinsic motivation refers to the influence on motivation level of extrinsic motivation are praise, rewards, salary and so on. On the other hand, intrinsic motivation that comes from inside the person. Intrinsic motivation reflects the internal desire of a person to satisfy inner needs, and this desire arises from emotions. Examples of intrinsic motivation include challenging tasks, pride in making differences or professional growth that may result from performing a particular activity. Intrinsic motivation is usually considered to be the reason why external rewards (Huddy, 1992). In addition, motivation is what makes our behaviour more vigorous and energetic. Also, motivation is what activities and directs behaviour (Lahey, 2003).

Supporting the classfication of motivation into extrinsic and intrinsic (Reeve and Jang,

2006) opined that extrinsic motivation is determined by the individual’s outside surrounding and specific tasks while intrinsic motivation could be found within the individual since the task can be viewed as valuable. Therefore, when applying the effect that motivation has on the developement process, it is clear that people participate better based on the perceived value of the task, subject matter, personal goals, financial incentives and wide array of different factors.

As a gardener must know or should have sought to know which soil is more suitable to the plant and when and how much water should be required by plant, so much a community leader must know how a citizen participate, how the factors like motivation facilitates the development process Margolis & McCabe, (2006). 24

Without motivation, particiaption in community development activities cannot be possible so it is necessary for community leaders to motivate their members.

Objectives and Benefits of Motivation

Motivation is very important for an organization/communities because of the benefits it provides by Felix (2003) namely;

1. Putting human resources into action: Every concern requires physical, financial and

human resource to accomplish the goals. It is through motivation that communities can

be utilized by making full use of their resources. This can be done by building

willingness to participates. This will help the communities in securing best possible

utilization of resources.

2. Improving level of efficiency of citizens’: The level of a subordinate or a citizen does

not only depend upon his qualifications and abilities. For getting best of his work

performance, the gap between ability and willingness has to be filled which helps in

improving the level of performance of subordinates. This will result into increase in

productivity, reducing cost of operations and improving overall efficiency.

3. Leading to achievement of organizational goals: The goals of an enterprise can be

achieved only when the following factors take place: There is best possible utilization of

resources, there is co-operative work environment, the citizens’ are goal-directed and

they act in a purposive manner. Goals can be achieved if co-ordination and co-operation

takes simultaneously which can be effectively done through motivation.

4. Building friendly relationship: Motivation is an important factors which brings

citizens’ satisfaction. This can be done by keeping into mind and framing an incentive

plan for the benefit of the citizens’. This could initiate the following things: Monetary

and non-monetary incentives, promotion opportunities for citizens’, disincentives of

inefficient citizens’, effective cooperation which brings stability. 25

5. Leading stability of workforce: Stability of workforce is very important from the point

of view of reputation and goodwill of a concern. The citizens’ can remain loyal to the

community only when they have a feeling of participation in the community.

[ Characteristic of motivated behaviours is that they vary from time to time, under the influence of both internal (biological) and external (social) controls (Pervin, 1983). For example, you wear clothes to keep warm, to look attractive, to display your exquisite taste, and to avoid arrest for indecent exposure. Exactly what clothing and how much clothing you wear depends on what you feel like doing, the today’s weather, and the people you expect to see

(Pervin, 1983). We have more than one motivation for most everything we do. Motivated behaviours vary from person to person as well as from situation to situation. People do not differ significantly in their search for food, still more in their motivation for sexual activity, self- esteem, and self-fulfillment –the needs near the top of Maslow’s hierarchy Knowles, (1984).

Incidentally for the benefit of motivation to the realized by the following motivational initiatives were analysed by the researcher.

1. Decentralization of power in community development is a process where the transfer of

power from local level to higher level will help to empower communities to work

together and solve their problems Oyono (2004) There are variations in the meaning,

purpose and forms attributed to the concept of decentralization by Hussein (2004). For

instance, concepts such as delegation, participation, divisionalization, decentralization

are associated with decentralization (Barle and Uys, 2002). Despite the variations there

tends to be a common agreement that decentralization is a generic concept for various

forms of structural arrangements in government and organization. As a process,

decentralization involves the transfer of authority and power to plan, make decisions and

manage resources, from higher to lower levels of government, in order to facilitate

efficient and effective service delivery (Smith, 2005). However, the major forms of

political and administrative decentralization that have been adopted by most developing 26

countries including South Africa decentralization and devolution (Maywood, 2006;

Tordoff, 2007).

Decentralization involves the transfer of workload and selected administrative or decision making authority and responsibility from the headquarters to lower field-level officials within central government ministries or public agencies (Sharma, 2005). Decentralization is a complex process. The process of attaining decentralization objectives, including the promotion of participatory approaches to development by local institutions largely depends on what is happening within the local government sector and at the national level.

Decentralization as defined earlier is a process that gives roots to democracy. It is a process where the transfer of power and resources to the local level will help to empower communities to work together to define and resolve their problems (Oyono, 2004). It entails gaining broad consensus on which level of government should do what creating institutional capacities of sub-national governments to raise revenues and deliver services and implementing mechanisms to make sub-national government accountable to citizens’ for taxing and spending decisions (Ebel, Robert, 2004). In this way, development results could filter down to the poor and uplift their living conditions. Through decentralization, local governments play developmental role where councils are supposed to provide leadership and define the kind of relationship municipalities need to build with communities, organizations, businesses and others who can contribute to the development of any given areas (Bennett, 2004).

There are some advantages of decentralization as propounded by Cheema and Rondinelli

(2003) and Smith (2005) as follows: That through decentralization, it will be possible to reduce the bureaucracy and red tape usually associated with highly centralized planning, particularly in developing countries where the concentration of power, authority and resources are generally the national capital, (Bellshaw, 2006). Furthermore, decentralization will enable officials to become more knowledgeable and sensitive to local problems and needs and to gain insight on possible implementation plans. Decentralization could further promote more flexible, innovative and creative management, district, regional or provincial government could be more innovative 27 relative to policies and programmes (Rakner, 2004). Finally, decentralization of operation gives room for flexibility planning for and executive community development programmes. Good decentralization of power in community development leads to good leadership.

Leadership is the kind of responsibility, which aims at achieving particular ends, by utilizing available resources (human and material) to make organization cohesive and coherent

(Burns, 2004). Good leadership is one key element in the success of a group and virtually anyone can learn to be an effective leader. Leaders are made, not born (Burns, 2004). In order to become a good leader, one must have the experience, knowledge, will-power, patience, and most importantly the skill to convince others. Leaders stand out as decision makers; the people accept and implement decisions (Burns, 2004). They are ‘movers’; they move the people towards effective participation. Every rural community has some interests and goals to be achieved. The leader is accepted by the community on the basis of his performance. This depends on his perception of community problems; while his capacity depends on what he does for the community. His success as a leader depends to a great extent, on the strength of the support he is enjoying from the entire members of his community. To be effective as a leader, it is important to know your group in terms of knowledge, ability, desire and willingness and be ready to adopt your style to suit the occasion (Hersey, 2004).

There are different types of leaders, such as: Telling leader; this leader “tells” the members what to do and does not worry too much about the feelings or relationships within the group. This is appropriate where members are new, inexperienced, lacking in confidence or need a lot of help and direction in order to get the job done. The leader should give clear directions and provide follow-up and feedback (Hersey, 2004).

The Selling Leaders: This leader often needs to “sell” or persuade the group to “buy” into a job. The group is a little more responsible or experienced, but direction and guidance by the leader is still needed at this level. The leader should explain the decisions and give a lot of opportunity for clarification. 28

The Participating Leader : The leader and the group members participate in making the decisions and carrying them out together. The group has the ability to do the job, but might lack the confidence to carry it out on their own. The leader puts more emphasis on the group relationship than on the task to be done. (Hersey, 2004). They encourage and compliment the members. The delegating leader; the leader trusts the group to decide and carry out the responsibility on its own. The members have the desire and are experienced and capable of doing the job. The members are responsible for directing their own affairs (Marcou, 2009).

The roles of community leaders are those important roles played by community leaders in community development activities (Aref, 2009). The socio-economic development of any rural community depends to a large extent on the quality of their leaders. An all-round development of the communities in under-developed countries cannot be brought about unless the leaders play an active role. The degree of their awareness and socio-political involvement is of more crucial importance to those of other members of the community. Leaders stand out as decision-makers. In this regard, they are the “movers”; they move the people towards effective participation. Griffin (1978) had declared that:

A community leader is an agent through which the process of development is initiated. The leader is an essential part of the mechanism of the community. All communities therefore have leaders who are trusted by members of their community (page 60)

These range from basic to social needs. The person who the rural community feels best represents that interest and can best explain it to others, is generally asked to help the community and lead it. (European Journal of Social Sciences, 2009).

Identification of Needs: Community development is the process by which a community undertakes, of its own free-will, to raise itself economically, socially and culturally, in order that the task of development may be accomplished voluntarily, the first essential is for the group to engage in work for which it feels the need (Anyanwu, 2002). Community development is a problem solving process by which the efforts of the people themselves are united with those of governmental authorities to improve the economic, social and cultural conditions of 29 communities, to integrate these communities into the life of the nations and to enable them to contribute fully to national progress (Anyanwu, 2002). There has been some intervention programmes both internationally and national, for instance, the cocoa plantation in some part of

Nigeria in the South-West took as its starting point, the hard fact that the farmers preferred to grow bananas on the land where they had planted cocoa trees because they thought, the bananas would bring them more money. It was however necessary to show them that they were wrong and to convince them in the first place that cocoa tree were as profitable as, or more profitable than banana on the same piece of ground as long as the trees were properly cared for, and secondly, that cocoa would increase the national income. In this way, their interest was aroused.

Onyeozu (2007) stressed on this when he declared: ‘Arousing the groups interest is as important in maintaining their enthusiasm and perseverance in the work they have undertaken together as it is in stirring them to action’. Adherence to the felt-need of the people at all times should however, be done with care. The inherent danger in this is the temptation on the part of the people to be passive and resign to fate in the decision-making process as well as the customs, religion, sources of power, bearing on the level of participation by the people in community development activities.

Culture is defined generally: as the way of life of a people or the way people live. It has to do with the language of a particular group, the way they obtain their food, build houses, make the clothes they wear, etc. It includes rules and regulations, that govern people’s behaviour in the society (Tuned, 2000). It also includes beliefs, religion, morality and the local products. Culture belongs to a group of people and its knowledge is passed on from parents to children by the process of socialization. What the individual learns varies from society to society. This is because different societies have different cultural patterns. There are two aspects of culture: material and non-material. The material aspect consists of the products of the society like houses, implements etc while non-material culture includes language, morals, religious values. Others are history, literature, way of dress, customs, traditions, respect for elders and constituted authority, respect for human life, and respect for public property. These 30 non-material aspects of our culture unfortunately also constitute some of the problem areas of the country (Tuned, 2000). There are as many cultural patterns in Nigeria as there are social groupings. These are the Hausa, Ibo, Yoruba, Fulani, Tiv, Birom, Efik, Edo and others which are traditionally regarded as the “major” tribes in Nigeria. We are aware that everyone of them attaches much importance to its own culture. What is regarded as very important in one culture may not receive the same recognition in another. For example patriarchy as is practiced in Igbo land and Nigeria gives men all ascendancy in inheritance, authority and decision making in and outside the home. Consequently, the male child is regarded and considered as being supervisor to the female child (Rowe, 2005). The male child from birth is socialized into believing he is supervisor to the girl child. Similarly, the girl child or woman grows with the impression and belief that she is inferior to the male child or man. The result was the systematic denial of the girl child/woman of equal opportunity to socialize, grow and develop and to participate in reaching decisions affecting them. Women were deprived of educational opportunities, denied the right to inheritance of their father’s property, intimidated with harmful traditional and cultural practices, and were denied of access to the factors of production such as land ownership and credit facilities. Not all Nigerian communities place importance on virginity, hardwork and honesty. How can we effect national unity out of this broad cultural diversity? Respect for one another’s culture can be a powerful source for social understanding and national integration.

Education can also play a very important role in bringing about social understanding. Inter- ethnic marriage, for instance, can help to foster ethnic unity if properly channeled to desired objectives. If a Fulani girl is married to a Tiv man, for example, it is likely that the two families will be brought closer in relationship. Cultural identities may likely be infused thus making them appreciate the value of each other’s way of life. It is no doubt, then, that the cultures of the diverse social groups in the country/community can help to foster national unity (Tunde,

2000).Within the context of this study, our culture can be promoted through the organization of cultural festivals whereby there will be cultural revival for citizens’ to participate in community development activities. For schools’ programme of activities such as drama, traditional dances 31 and music, a loyal resource person could be invited to the school. Our artifacts should be preserved instead of giving them away at cheap prices to foreign visitors and the mass media could be used to promote our culture either in the newspaper, the radio and television (Adamu,

Olatoye et al , 2009) as well as using them in fund raising to develop their community for action.

Community funding ; community development is the planned evolution of all aspects of community well-being (economic, social, environmental and cultural). It is a process whereby community members come together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems. The scope of community development can vary from small initiatives within a small group, to large initiatives that involve the whole community (Flo and Anne, 1999). Regardless of the scope of the activity, effective community development should be: A long term endeavour, well planned, holistic and integrated into the bigger picture, inclusive and equitable, initiated and supported by community members, of benefit to the community, and Grounded in experience that leads to best practice.

The primary outcome of community development is improved quality of life. Effective community development results in mutual benefit and shared responsibility among community members and recognizes: the connection between social, cultural, environmental and economic matters, the diversity of interests within a community; and its relationship to building capacity

(Flo & Anne, 1999).

Community development requires and helps to build community capacity to address issues and to take advantage of opportunities, to find common ground and to balance competing interest. It does not just happen – it requires both a conscious and a conscientious effort to do something (or many things) to improve the community, and funding community development.

Obtaining financial resources can be a major challenge for a community development initiative.

This is particularly true when you are beginning the process. As you move to concrete action it usually becomes easier to find and secure funding from local financial institutions, investors, government programs, foundations and private sector sponsors, or from community members 32 themselves. Fund-raising is increasingly becoming an area of valued experience and expertise.

Many organizations have an individual on staff or a volunteer with this expertise.

In some regions, municipal governments provide funding for community development initiatives. Some provincial and federal government departments have created community development services and/or economic development boards that manage resources to benefit community development. Funding is the act of providing resources, usually in form of money

(financing), or other values such as effort or time (sweat equity), for a project, a person, a business or any other private or public institutions. The process of soliciting and gathering fund is known as fund raising (Brewer, 2003).

There are different funding models, financing a community development initiative occasionally involves a variety of financial vehicles or sources of funds. Some groups require less money and can cover the cost through traditional fundraising. Others are of a larger scale and may require bank loans, government grants or some sort of external funding assistance.

Within the context of this study, adequate funding of community development projects ensures projects started should be fully completed by the citizens’ and ensures that all materials required for implementation are provided for effective citizens’ participation in community development activities.

Needs selection ; Need means to require something/somebody because they are essential or very important, not just because you would like to have them. A need is something you have to have and cannot do without. Example: food but may be perceived as a need by some people

(Butter and Robert, 2003). Need selection depends therefore, on circumstances prevailing in a particular community. Need varies from community to community. The needs of the people may come in terms of basic need and social needs. Basic needs like water supply, electricity, roads, markets, hospitals, industry, schools and for social needs like sports centre, hotels, amusement park, museum and so on. Ability of people to identify their needs that are of basic and non-basic, and work out strategies for actualizing those needs are vital. 33

Ugwuegbu (2006) stressed on the need to create awareness for the people so that they could realize that a particular need exists in their areas. Constituting the people into viable groups and making provision for general knowledge are vital factors that may further assist the people to identify and work for the realization of their needs. Though one can equally look at design of that need and planning, since design and planning are using interchangeable experiences, resources and points of view in terms of achieving desired objectives. Adekola

(2004) called them “the systematic application of forethought”, because of their nature, design and planning were very inclusive process. Design means to decide how something will look or work. Planning predicts what the future should look like. It is a process for accomplishing purposes. It is a blue print of business growth and a road map of development (Adekola, 2004).

It helps in deciding objectives both in quantitative and qualitative terms. It is setting of goals on the basis of objectives and keeping in the resources. Planning involves looking ahead and anticipating the future, making choices to achieve the objectives and formulating programmes of action to attain the objectives (Obadan, 2004). In addition, planning simply means what is to be done in future. In other words, it is a process of making decision in the present in order to bring about a series of desired changes in the future. Being futuristic, planning requires imagination and choice (Oyebamiji and Adekola, 2008). Finally, within the context of this study therefore, if all these needs are in place or at disposal to the citizens’, they will be motivated to participate in community development activities. For motivational initiatives to be meaningful, they have to be citizens’ participation.

Concept of Citizens’ Participation

A citizen is a person who is a member of a particular country, state, town, community and who has rights because of being born there or because of being given rights, or because of living in a particular town or city (Smith, 2005). A citizen has right to enjoy and have duties to perform in his community. A good citizen is the one who volunteers out of a sense of civic 34 responsibility and identification with the problems, yearnings and aspirations of the people as well as participate in finding solution to identified problems.

Participation is a concept that varies with its application and definition. The way participation is defined also depends on the context in which it occurs. For some, it is a matter of principle, for others, practice; for still others, an end in itself (World Bank, 2005). Participation has been defined as, a widening and redistribution of opportunities to take part in societal or community decision-making. Three main requirements have been suggested for this concept.

Firstly, there should be consultation with the masses; secondly, it requires active involvement of the people in decision-making; thirdly, it entails sharing the costs and benefits of development equitably (World Bank, 2005).

Participation as a means to educate citizens’ and to increase their competence. It is a vehicle for influencing decisions that affect the lives of citizens’ and an avenue for transferring political power (Beard 2005). However, it can also be a method to co-opt dissent, a mechanism for ensuring the receptivity, sensitivity, and even accountability of social services to consumers.

Westergaard (2006) defined participation as “collective efforts to increase and exercise control over resources and institutions on the part of groups and movements of those hitherto excluded from control”. This definition points toward a mechanism for ensuring citizens’ participation.

The World Bank Learning Group on Participatory Development (2005) defines participation as

“a process through which stakeholders influence and share control over development initiatives, and the decisions and resources which affect them.

Participation is an empowering process in which people, in partnership with each other and those able to assist them, identify problems and needs, mobilize resources, and assume responsibility to plan, manage, control and access individuals and collective actions that they themselves decide upon” (Bretty 2003). As a process of empowerment, participation is concerned with “development of skills and abilities to enable the rural people to mange better, have a say in or negotiate with existing development system” (Oakely, 2007). As Eade and

Rowlands (2003) argue, powerlessness is a central element of poverty and any focus on poverty, 35 inequality, injustice, or exclusion involves analysis of and/or challenging/changing power and power relations. Participation as empowerment can therefore help to amplify unacknowledged voices by enabling the rural people to decide upon and take actions which they believe are essential to their development (Igbuzor, 2005).

Participation as “the means by which people, who are not elected or appointed officials of agencies and of government, influence decisions about programs and policies which affect their lives (Brager and Specht 2004). Participation of the people in institutions and system which govern their lives is a basic human right and also essential for realignment of political power in favour of disadvantaged groups and for social and economic development.” It is a channel for people to “ensure effective influence on the decision making process at all levels of social activity and social institutions (Geneletti, 2006). Furthermore, France (2008) defined participation as a “process of empowerment that helps to involve local people in the identification of problems, decision-making and implementation, which can contribute to sustainable development”. Skeffington (2003) explained participation from political consideration by sharing an action to formulate policies and proposal between government and citizens’.

In addition, the broad aim of participation in development is to actively involve people and communities in identifying problems, formulating plans and implementing decisions over their own lives (DFID, 2004). Participation is a good thing and it is important for many reasons

(Maxwel, 2009). It has some benefits for individuals of community:

(a) Awareness: Public participation also creates an awareness of the problem and possible

solutions among the people and thereby equips them as citizens’ to exercise, relevant to

development in a rational manner (Arora, 2006).

(b) Confidence: Participation not only many include increased confidence and self-esteem,

the chance to acquire new skills but also lead to greater satisfaction and improved quality

of life (Moriarty, 2006). Participation promotion aims at ensuring that decisions affecting

the community are taken by all community members. 36

make citizens’ feel that the decisions of the system of which they are a part are their

own. This process can induce increased popular enthusiasm for the implementation of

decisions (Arora, 2006).

(d) Planning: Participation offers new opportunities for creative thinking and innovative

planning and development participation is understood as giving a few influential people

a voice in local decision making and planning whereas the most needy and deprived,

who may be the majority of the community, are not even consulted, let alone given a part

in the process (Johnston, 2003).

(e) Effectiveness: Participation can help us target resources more effectively and efficiently

(Breuer, 2008). Participation promotes efficiency, effectiveness and equity in the total

process of development (Arora, 2006). Hence, involving communities in decision-

making will lead to better decisions being made, which are more appropriate and more

sustainable because they are owned by the people themselves (Breuer, 2008).

Participation can reduce the risk of project failure and the cost of the project.

(f) Government programmes: The technical assistance in planning and in carrying out

various programmes is provided by the government (Arora, 2006).

Participation is seen as a “means” of ensuring local people’s cooperation/collaboration with externally introduced programs or processes to facilitate the effective implementation of such initiatives and to achieve a set of objectives. Participation is an “end” to the empowerment of people to take greater responsibility for their development through their acquisition of skills, knowledge and experience (Hamilton, 2007). Participation is seen as a central element in any development strategy. The success of any development strategy depends on the positive involvement and actual participation of citizens’. In Africa, the importance of citizens’ participation is documented. According to the Institute for Labour Studies (1981), the Lagos

Plan of Action for Economic Development of Africa for the years 1980 – 2004, views participation in development as, the primary objective of socio-economic development, which 37 translates to improvement of life for the entire population of a nation. The attainment of these objectives requires full participation in all segments of the population for enrichment of life of a community.

Participation in development has come to stay as a mechanism for improving the lot of the people, especially the poor in the society (Okafor, 2003). Improvement of life should reflect in increase in the level of economic, social and human development indices – the growth of human capabilities and potentials. The ultimate concern of participatory development is to bring about change and redistribution of power and provide equal access to information and resources to the people. However, some studies had shown the inevitable presence of external agencies in projects, which seek to promote participation (Oakley, 2005). He maintained that the term participation in rural development implies all the bodies (government, non-governmental and the people), involved in programmes that are geared towards common goal of development. In this case, one will not rule out the role of motivation, which is the process of pooling, harnessing, actualizing and utilizing potential human resources for development.

One of the objectives of motivation of citizens’ for participation is to aid people to take part in matters affecting their welfare. It is meant to help change the attitude of the people from being apathetic. But it should be noted that basic to effective participation by the community is awareness creation in terms of the project objectives, priorities and service components (Okafor,

2003). Citizens’ participation is also fostered where there is adequate information communication. According to Oakley (2005), most development practitioners are of the view that the process of participation begins with the initiative taken by an external agency, nature, direction and success of the participatory development programme. In fact, it is assumed that citizens’ participation is a desired and necessary part of community development activities.

Operational definition of citizens’ participation is a process by which a citizen participate in the matters of his own community. Citizens’ participation is also defined as “a process in which individuals take part in decision making in institutions, programs and environments that affect them” (Heller, Price and Wandersman, 2004). Armitage (2004), defined citizens’ 38 participation as a process by which citizens’ act in response to public concern, voice their opinions about decisions that affect them, and take responsibility to bring changes to their community.

Citizens’ participation as defined by Oakley and Marsden (2003) is the process by which individuals, families, or communities assume responsibility for their own welfare and develop a capacity to contribute to their own and the community’s development. In the context of development, citizens’ participation refers to an active process whereby beneficiaries influence the direction and execution of development projects rather than merely receive a share of project benefits. This implies the need for people’s conscience to be sensitized towards active participation in community development projects. It has also become a tool for mobilizing new and additional resources, which hitherto would have been wasted or remain untapped.

Citizens’ participation is the process that can meaningfully help people to develop the community (Spiegel 2004). Hence, citizens’ participation is one of the essential elements for giving power to people to achieve development. According to Aref and Redzuan (2009), without citizens’ participation, there would be no accountability, no development and no program. Olaleye (2004) argues that citizens’ participation not only brings about progressive reduction of material deprivation and social inequalities, but also promotes the growth of human capabilities and potentials. UNDP (1999) asserts that, between the 1950s and 1960s, these initiatives gave rise to the concept of community development, which then emphasized the need to involve citizens’ in the efforts to develop their communities. UNDP (1999) further notes that community development during that era sought to build community-based organizations, which became vehicles through which the local people got actively involved in developing their communities.

Citizens’ participation can be facilitated by helping citizens’ find positive ways to respond when their way of life is threatened. Most people want to act responsibly, use these situations to help people find positive ways to deal with threatening predicaments. In addition, citizens’ participation in community projects does not usually occur by chance alone. It happens 39 because certain principles of organization are observed at an acceptable level to the participants.

Six major principles which enhance citizens’ participation were highlighted:

Perception of positive benefits to be gained by participation.

Availability of appropriate organizational structure for expressing their interest.

Perception of some aspects of their present way-of-life threatened.

Feel committed to be supportive of the activity.

Have better knowledge of an issue or situation.

Feel comfortable in the group.

Further, citizen participation can be improved by:

Stressing participation benefits

Helping citizens’ find positive ways to respond to threatening situations

Stressing obligations each of us has toward community improvement.

Providing citizens’ with better knowledge on issues and opportunities

Helping participants feel comfortable within the development group (Cook, 2004).

Citizens’ participation encompasses increasing citizens’ mobilisation and involvement in the community. According to Schmidt (2008) the primary goal of citizen participation is to increase citizen involvement in public decision-making. Anyanwu (2002) referred to citizens’ participation as an active process whereby beneficiaries influence the direction and execution of development projects rather than merely receiving a share of the project benefits. Thus, it can be said that citizens’ participation in rural development projects, entails their involvement in information and development of proposals, planning of programmes is an obvious strategy for programmes’ success. It is a powerful tool for mobilizing new and additional resources within the community (Anyanwu, 2002).

The principle of citizens’ participation, therefore, implies that the citizens’ have to supply the necessary and needed stimulus for programmes’ success. According to Paul (2006), the following serve as reasons why citizen’s participation becomes necessary in the implementation of development programmes. They are: 40

1. More will be accomplished.

2. Citizens’ participation has intrinsic value among the community members.

3. Citizens’ participation is a catalyst for further development.

4. Citizens’ participation leads to a sense of responsibility for the project.

5. It guarantees that a felt need is identified.

Consequently, in depth knowledge of objectives of citizens’ participation will provide a sense of direction to the community on ‘what is’ and ‘what ought to be’ in a given programme. For citizens’ participation to be meaningful, they have to be community development.

Concept of Community Development

The word ‘community’ is derived from the old French word communite which is further derived from the Latin word communitas (cum, “with/together” + munus, “gift”); it is a broad term for fellowship or organized society (Wikipedia, 2012). Wikipedia further noted that the term has two distinct communicative meanings; that is, it refers to a social unit larger than a small village that shares common value, and a group of interacting living organisms sharing a populated environment or helping each other. The use of the term ‘community’ as Batley

(2004) rightly observed had since the late nineteenth century remained to some extent associated with the hope and the wish of reviving once more the closer, warmer, more harmonious type of bonds between people vaguely attributed to past ages. Batley further observed that before the dawn of 1810, there was little social science literature concerning community. This therefore gave a number of definitions as geographical area. Some as a group of people living in a particular place, and others in terms of common life. Similarly, Imhabekhai (2009) explained that the term community may be defined as a group of people who live, and/or are traceable to a common ancestry, who have identical cultural beliefs and traits developed over a long period of time as a result of their day-to-day interactions/communication. This communication was echoed by as the ability of individuals in the world to communicate and interact through various technological means to make the globe itself a community. 41

Scholars have however identified remarkable features to be associated with the definition of community. These features as revealed by Akinpelu (1981) include: a social unit, an ecological or geographic unit, a legal, political or administrative unit, the equivalent of society, an ideal or mental entity and a process. This goes to show that community is not static, but entails the interaction of several elements whose geographic boundaries are a clear function of time, place and the context or issue under consideration. Thus, Oyebamiji and Adekola (2008) saw community as a consciously identified population with common needs and interests that may occupy a common physical space, engage in common activities and have some form of organization that provide for difference in functions, making it adaptive to its environment as a means of meeting common needs. Its components include individuals, groups, families and organizations within the population and the institutions it forms to meet its needs. In this definition, community is seen from three different perspectives; these include geographic communities that ranged from the local neighbourhood, village, town or city. This is succinctly referred to as communities by location. Communities by culture are also another aspect of this definition, which ranges from local clique, ethnic group, religious, multicultural to global community. It is also referred to as communities of need or identity. Community in terms of organization ranged from informal family, kinship networks, economic enterprise, professional associations, to small nation or international scale.

It could rightly be said that a community is created only and when a group of people delineates common problems (or needs), generates a set of common objectives and establishes among themselves a clear sense of identity. However, it must be borne in mind that while association is characterized by attaining a prescribed goal for the common good of all, community could be seen as an organic, natural set of relationships, a group in which membership is valued as an end in itself; which concerns itself with many significant aspects of the lives of members; which allows competing factors; whose members share commitment to a common purpose and procedures for handling conflict in the group; whose members share 42 responsibility for actions of the group; and whose members have an enduring and extensive personal contact with each other.

From the various views of community by scholars, one can rightly say that its definition is dynamic because it is fluid, running across every facet of human endeavour in a bid to satisfying the urge of that social entity. Within the context of this study therefore, a community is conceived as a group of persons within a social unit characterized with similar features aimed at achieving their individual desired goals. These goals are either inherent or overt in nature.

Scholars have viewed development from different perspectives. Prominent among the views is that development is a heterogeneous system whose structure is differentiated by Socio- economic and cultural factors such as race, religion, class, caste, profession, gender, language and sub-culture traditions. Development also depends on communities and their resources.

Hettne (1999) explained that development is conceived as a structural transformation which implies cultural, political, social and economic changes. It means that development should be seen as an open ended concept, having more problems with deepening understanding and constantly being redefined. Promoted by this, Openjuru (2004) noted that there is no universal framework of development for all societies. Thus, ‘third world’ societies should develop or adopt their own development alternatives in order to rescue their people from poverty, hunger, economic, political subordination, cultural and intellectual subjugation.

The concept of development is difficult to pin down, because of the changes of meaning that it has undergone in the last couple of decades (Akinpelu, 2002). Akinpelu maintained that it has evolved from referring solely to the quantitative provisions of some paraphernalia of development such as utilities and infrastructure (borehole water, electricity, schools, primary health, clinics, roads, bridges, cutters and recreational facilities) to the tools and materials development such as distribution of land and wealth, provision of credit, seeds and tools, and access to knowledge and skills for use. The second stage of its revolution was its use to characterize solely economic growth in terms of gross national and gross domestic products, and in terms of per capital incomes. 43

The ambiguous nature of the word development gave opportunity to scholars to view and describe it from different perspectives. This further buttresses the reason why Onyeozu (2007) agreed that it is a multi-dimensional process involving changes in structure, attitudes, and institutions as well as acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality and eradication of poverty. It is a positive change in the quality of infrastructure, social amenities, health and educational institutions, people’s welfare, attitudes and behaviours of people and general positive improvement in the quality of life of the people in a community. Rogers (1992) submits that development is not just a matter of planning or technical assistance, building of dams, providing of tractors to farmers, rather, it is about education and training geared at the heart of changing attitudes. He therefore concluded that development denotes the process of changing attitudes as well as providing the new knowledge and skills and understanding which development programmes use in what is properly meant by education and training. This presupposes that it is a result of man’s action to nature, an attempt to transform nature in order to improve his own condition. Throwing more light on this, Nyerere (1978) commented thus:

Development has to contribute to an enlargement of man’s ability in every way. In particular, it has to help men to decide for themselves in cooperation what development is. It must help men to think clearly; it must enable them to examine the possible alternative courses of action, to make a choice between these alternatives in keeping with their own purposes; and it must equip them with the ability to translate their decision into reality (Nyerere cited in Ezimah, 2004:38).

This goes to show that for any development to be meaningful, it has to be people- oriented. Consequent upon this, Anyanwu (1999) opined in his different explanations of what development stands for by insisting that in all cases, the emphasis is on people, because it is they who are stimulated, motivated, helped or encouraged to adopt new methods and to learn new skills, for their well-being. People must come together in a cooperative manner, since development results from their continued mutual support and complementary functions.

Chukwuezi (2009) rightly maintained that change in terms of development denotes change from condition of community dependency to that of self-reliance and a stage where decision-making is all encompassing. For development to be achieved in any community, it requires the 44 awareness of such developmental needs by the community. The decision on programmes of development should reflect the interest of the people. It should eradicate inequalities (poverty) and lead to satisfactory conventional behaviour on the side of the community. Within the content of this study, development must be people-oriented since it is the people that are encouraged or helped to adopt new methods for their well-being. Community development stemmed from the fact that lives in the community must be comfortable.

The concept of community is based on the meaning of community development; objectives of community development, principles of community development, and characteristics of community development.

The term community development was first used in 1948 at the Cambridge Conference on African Administration organized by the British Colonial Office (Omoruyi, 2001). Then it was taken to mean the same thing as mass education and was defined as a movement designed to promote better living for the whole community with the active participation and if possible on the initiative of the community but if this is not forth coming spontaneously by the use of techniques for arousing and stimulating it in order to secure its enthusiastic response to the movement (Omoruyi, 2001). Since then, the concept has been used in different context and for different purpose by different scholars.

Community development aimed at securing the active participation and co-operation of the people in every community programme is designed to raise their standard of living and promote their development in all its forms. It also described by O’Mara-Eves, Brunton,

McDavid, Oliver, Kavanagh, Samal, Matosevic, Harden and Thomas (2013) as a way of working underpinned by a commitment to equity, social justice and participation that enables people to strengthen networks and to identify common concerns and supports people in taking action related to the networks.

Community development is both an occupation (such as a community development worker in a local authority) and a way of working with communities. Community Development

Exchange (2010) affirmed that the key purpose of community development is to build 45 communities based on justice, equality and mutual respect. It involves changing the relationship between ordinary people in positions of power, so that everyone can take part in the issues that affect their lives. It starts from the principle that within any community there is a wealth of knowledge and experience which if used in creative ways can be channeled into collective action to achieve the communities’ desired goals. The essence of community development is well captured in the Budapest Declaration (2004) which emphasized on strengthening civil society, empowerment and an agenda of social change. In this context, community development is a way of strengthening civil society by prioritizing the action of communities and their perspectives in the development of social, economic and environmental policy. It seeks the empowerment of local communities, taken to mean both geographical communities, communities of interest or identity and communities organizing around specific themes or policy initiatives. It strengthens the capacity of people as active citizens’ through their community groups, organizations and network, and the capacity of institutions and agencies (Public, Private and Non-governmental) to work in dialogue with citizens’ to shape and determine change in their communities.

It plays a crucial role in supporting active democratic life by promoting the autonomous voice of disadvantaged and vulnerable communities. American Heritage Dictionary Internet

(2014:72) asserted that community development includes: activities that increase the positive outcomes possible within a community by linking individuals and organizations working towards common goals; a long-term process whereby people who are marginalized or living in poverty work together to identify their needs, create change, exert more influence in the decision which affect their lives and work together to improve the quality of their and community in which they live and the society of which they are part of; the process of improving the social, economic and cultural conditions of a village or small town, and a variety of activities done within or on behalf of a community to add to or enhance it in some ways. It may include housing, construction, developing cooperation or rehabilitation of structure. 46

In summary, community development aimed at the improvement of persons either as individual, group or society at large and their living situation. It deals with both material and non-material living for the whole community relaying on their resources, initiative and participation.

Community development is aimed at bringing about improvements in the life of people through changes in the condition of their community. In this process, Omoruyi (2001) stated that the people must be free to achieve their own objectives. Such objectives includes:

To educate and motivate people for self-reliance or self-help. This involves an attitudinal orientation which will make the people know that they need to and can improve on their present standard of living;

• To develop a responsible leadership. This means that community development provides a

forum for leadership training which enables the leader to acquire the necessary skills,

knowledge and character to handle such task;

• To inculcate in the people or members of a community a sense of citizens’hip and a spirit of

civic consciousness. This enables people to learn how to achieve their goals of development

through their own efforts supplemented by external or governmental assistance,

• To introduce and strengthen democracy at the grassroot level. Anyanwu (1999) noted that it

can be done through the creation of institutions designed to serve as instruments of local

participation, and

• To initiate in the people a self-generative, self sustaining and enduring process of growth.

This means that the community has to be able to find out its own problems through constant

practice and find solutions to such problems.

Community development creates opportunities to guarantee the people their basic human rights such as right to earn a living, the right to receive the rewards of one’s efforts through its objectives. These objectives include:

• To promote and develop socio-cultural and economic conditions of a particular community. 47

• To bring about an all round development in the field of industry, agriculture, among others.

• To develop the sense of self-dependence and self-reliance among the people.

• To make the villages self sufficient and to bring them to the main stream of national life by

fostering the spirit of nationalism (Preserve Article, 2011:32).

In this context, all these objectives are to be achieved by specific activities like developing the village and cottage industries, motivation of available mineral resources, forestry and water among others, giving guidance and assistance to the people by trained personnel, organizing co-operatives and making infrastructural arrangement like road, electrification and so on. Therefore, community development gives people new hopes and aspirations for better and peaceful living.

There are basic ingredients of community development. According to Chukwuezi

(2009) they include the principle of agreement by community members needs or felt-needs within the community, involvement of people in local participation, and co-operation within the community and with other bodies like the local authority, the state and national government or other concerned bodies. Supporting, Chukwuezi (2009) stated that the principles of community development include self-help, felt-need, citizen participation, self-growth, self-direction, and communication.

Self-help: This implies the improvement of people through their own effort largely to their own benefit without any assistance from other quarters. Agbo (2012) stated that self-help also enables the local people to explicit to their advantage, the resources which would, otherwise lie dormant and perpetuate the ignorance and poverty of their community.

Felt-need: This principle stresses that people must be able to identify what they want to do in order to bring about the desired development.

Citizen participation: This occurs in community development when the change agent and members of the community share in the formation and execution of the community. Also, strategy for Developing Capacity for Effective Decentralized Governance and Local Level

Services (2006) stated that in citizen participation, local communities hold the key to sustainable 48 development. This means that they have the capacity to take charge of their own development and hence their effective participation is indispensable. Participation should be motivated and concentrated at the lowest operational level.

Self-growth: This principle stresses that a community must be able through constant practice to diagnose its own problem and initiate action aimed at finding solution to the problems.

Self-direction: This principle implies that individual and community have the capacity to motivate themselves internally to carryout activities on their own initiative to achieve positive result for personal and community development.

Communication: It involves the process by which information, message or idea is transferred from one person to another. The goals of community development and cooperation efforts are better known and useful only when they are communicated.

It is worthy of note that strategy for Developing Capacity for Effective Decentralized

Governance and Local Levels Services (2006) identified common benefit, enhancing a cultural of transparency and accountability, autonomous management at local government level, and collaboration between sectors and partners as principles of community development.

Common Benefit: Communities should invest in projects which are productive and beneficial to a large proportion of the public employment and contribute to the improvement of the lies of the most deprived.

Enhancing a cultural of transparency and accountability. This principle stress that the community development policy promotes accountability between state, citizen and active oversight of all development programmes by communities at various levels.

Autonomous management at local government level : Local governments need to be given the space they need to manage their own community development programmes within the national framework.

Collaboration between sectors and partners: This will promote efficient integrated community development and co-ordinate monitoring of activities and outcomes. 49

In summary, principles of community development include: citizen participation, felt- need, self-growth, self-help common benefit collaboration between sectors and partners etc.

Therefore, in an organized society, motivation of citizens’ in any community development require the effective integration of these various principles.

On the characteristics of community development Chukwuezi (2009) stated that they include the following:

• Community development is a movement that promotes better living for the whole

community,

• It embraces the active participation of the entire members of the community,

• It is a process of education by which people of all ages and interest work together so as to

identify and solve their community problems,

• It makes use of the community resources,

• It also makes use of services and materials from government and non-governmental agencies

outside the community,

• It is a process of social action among the people of a particular community,

• It has core local leadership as the primary instrument of change, and

• It is a programme designed for the well-being of the people and community at large.

From the fore-going, therefore, it implies that there should be active participation of all community components in this process of capacity building in order to favour the creation of the conditions required for an increase in necessary resources. Community development denotes various strategies through which people co-ordinate actions of the members in order to usher in for the people social and economic developments. It means that an effective community development programme cannot occur without adequate motivation of the community members.

Motivational Initiatives

Decentralization Good Identification Respect for Funding in Needs of power in leadership of needs people’s the selection community culture community development

Citizens’ Participation

Community Development Activities

Fig. 2.2 : Schematic Representation of the Conceptual Framework for the study

From the figure above, it was shown that decentralization of power in community development, good leadership, identification of needs, respect for people’s culture, funding in the community and needs selection are motivational initiatives that enhance citizens’ participation in a community development. 51

Theoretical Framework

Self Actualization Need: Maslow emphasizes that the need for self-actualization is a healthy person’s prime motivation. Self-actualization means actualizing one’s potential, becoming everything one is capable of becoming. On the whole, an individual cannot satisfy any level unless needs below are satisfied. Maslow contends that the physiological needs are at the basic level from his point of view, the fulfillment of one need leads to the desire to satisfy yet another need. For example, Maslow, cited in Morris and Maito (1999:33) asserts that:

Satisfaction of the self-esteem needs leads to feelings of self-confidence, worth, strength, capability and adequacy of being useful and necessary in the world. However, the thwarting of these needs produces feelings of inferiority, weakness and helplessness.

For Maslow, the elements of independent thought, action, participation and self- directedness, self-esteem, capability and strength are very important in propelling motivation towards achievement.

Each hierarchy of need must be satisfied before the organism sets to satisfy the next higher needs as seen.

Needs for self Actualization Esteem Needs Love, Affection and Belongingness Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological or Survival Needs

Fig. 2.1: Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs Source: Knowles, (1984)

Physiology Needs : Most basic needs have to do with survival physically and physiologically.

Safety Needs: These are needs that have to do with safety and security of the individual. 52

Need for Belonging: This is the need to belong to a group and to have affection for others as well as others loving the individual.

Esteem Needs: These are needs of the individual to strive to attach worth to his personality.

Within the context of this study therefore, community development is the motivational initiatives that are crucial for successful initiation, execution and implementation strategies in community programme.

The theoretical framework is presented as highlighted below;

Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

Participatory development theory

Expectancy Theory

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Abraham Maslow propounded this theory in (1943). The theory states that the ultimate desire of all human beings is to be self-actualized. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory is that it provides both a theory of human motives by classifying basic needs to general behavior. As a theory of motives or needs, Maslow, like other writers (Langer, Murray, McClelland et al) proposed that human needs can be classified into different categories. Unlike others, however,

Maslow, proposed that this need categories are structured in a hierarchy of needs is as follows

(in ascending order of prepotency); the physiological needs, the safety needs, the belongingness or love needs, the esteem needs and the need for self-actualization.

In Maslow’s theory, the hierarchy of need to be satisfied to achieve the fulfillment of the self includes physiological need, safety need, belongingness, self-esteem need and the need for self actualization. Each hierarchy of need must be satisfied before the organism sets to satisfy the next higher needs. Maslow’s theory of need provides base for this study in their motivational initiatives being psychological in nature when given its rightful place on the citizen. It will help to encourage active participation of members of the community in realization of community development activities. In other words, the provision of basic needs by members of the 53 community will help in the active participation in planning and implementation of community development activities to achieve its sole objective.

This theory is related to this study because Maslow’s postulated that needs identification and satisfaction are vital tools that motivate individual to participate in a community development project. In the sense that if project cited in the communities are in line with citizen’s felt needs and aspiration, they will be motivated to participate in the execution of such project in their communities.

Participatory Development Theory

This theory was propounded by development scholars (Roodt, 2001; Pendirs, 1996;

Rahman, 1993). The theory states that for development to take place, the hearts, minds, will, and energy of the people must be involved in the process of their own development. This theory is used interchangeably by development theorists and practitioners as people-centred approach, bottom-up approach and evolutionary approach. It is the most effective way of achieving equitable social and human development. Silliloe (2002) submits that its emergence was to bring development practice nearer to the people as a result of dissatisfaction with an expert-led, top-down approach.

Commenting on the theory, Kothari (2001) noted that it is a development approach that includes the identification, collection, interpretation, analysis and representation of specific forms of local knowledge using mechanisms through the stakeholders, especially local communities, influence and share control over development initiatives, decisions and resources.

These mechanisms are crucial to how participatory development achieves the objectives of empowerment, efficiency and sustainability (Weekes – Vagliani, 1995). Burkey (1993) sees the theory to encourage the involvement of all stakeholders in the process of development. The main essence of participatory development theory is the active involvement of people in making decisions about implementation of processes programmes and projects, which affect them. This theory sees participation as the exercise of people’s power in thinking, acting, and controlling 54 their action in a collaborative framework. It is a process which focuses on community’s involvement in their own growth using available resources and grinding the future development of their own community.

Obviously, the idea behind participatory development theory is that the participation and involvement of benefiting groups, develop and strengthen the capabilities of such groups in development initiatives. This development initiative as relates to the study is the motivational initiatives for citizens’ participation. This theory deals with involvement of citizens’ as well as different related parties in various development stages, especially in planning, implementation, monitoring, identification and motivation. Throughout participatory identification and monitoring, people assess the impact of participation in project interventions (Karl, 2000) and they could also be the source of information if any previous development efforts were implemented. To further buttress the importance of citizen’s involvement in their project,

Narayan (1995) carried out a study on communities’ involvement in 121 community projects in

49 countries implemented by the World Bank. The study showed that participation has contributed to project effectiveness and encouraged a sense of empowerment. It further revealed that people’s involvement in stages prior to implementation greatly influence their commitment to the project (Narayan, 1995). No wonder, the theory was seen by UNDP (2004) as emphasizing the inherent capacities and knowledge system of local people; while Edwards

(1993) saw it as equipping the people with skills, confidence, information and opportunities.

Commenting on the adverse effect of development projects being controlled by external influences, such as donors and/or implementing agencies, Bagadion and Korton (1991) maintain that these agencies usually have norms; procedures, policies and attitudes which offer little support to build people’s capabilities, as such may fail to achieve their desired aim of empowering communities (Neefjes, 2000). This is true as Schneider and Libercier (1993) observed that development agencies are seen to be responsible for the persistent problem of limited participation which is due to the way they operate and staffing that make genuine participatory approaches difficult or even impossible to apply. Stiglitz (2002) however, 55 maintains that when people believe to have had true participation in any decision that affects them, they will be willing to accept outcomes, even if it adversely affects them. In contrast to that, if decisions are imposed on them by outsiders or even the government, they are likely going to reject them sooner or later. Hence, participatory development theory recognizes the power in the knowledge of the people and that experts can only be facilitators of development processes.

Within the context of this study, this developmental theory is relevant in that it establishes the power of the citizen in the sustainability of the community project by actively involving them in the planning and implementation of the project, at the same time recognizing the facilitating roles of motivational initiatives of citizens’ participation in community development activities in the actualization of its stated objectives.

Expectancy Theory

Victor Vroom (1964) founded expectancy theory. According to this theory, behaviour is a function of the expectances one has and the value of the goal toward which one is working.

Also that, when more than one behaviour is possible, the behaviour one chooses will be the one with the largest combination of expected success and value. Expectancy theories hold that people are goal-oriented beings. That, the behaviours they perform in response to their beliefs and values are undertaken to achieve some end.

Expectations in expectancy-value theory are the same as beliefs. Expectancy-value theory therefore suggests that people orient themselves to the world according to their beliefs

(expectations) and evaluations. Behavioural intentions or attitudes are therefore seen in expectancy theory as:

A function of beliefs (expectancy) – the perceived probability that one possesses a particular consequence.

Evaluation – the degree to affect positively or negatively an attribute or behavioural outcome.

Expectancy – value theory focuses on expectancies for success, and sense of control over outcomes. Throwing more light on expectancy theory we are motivated by both needs and 56 desires. We tend to be pushed into action to satisfy our needs or drawn into action by expectation of satisfaction of our desires. Drive theory contends our behaviour is directed by needs to avoid or relieve adverse conditions, it says the behavior undertaken will be influenced by previous experiences.

This theory is related to this study on motivational initiatives for citizens’ participation in community development because the expectancy theory of motivation is based on the belief that peoples’ efforts to achieve depends on the expectation of rewards. People will be motivated to do something based on whether they think that they will be successful and rewarded.

Review of Related Empirical Studies

In this study, some empirical studies that are relevant were reviewed.

In a study carried out by Dimelu and Olaitan(2010), on motivational initiatives for encouraging citizens’ to engage in large farm production in Abia State, Nigeria. The design of the study was survey research design. Population for the study was 55 respondents. Mean and standard deviation were used to analyzed the data. Findings were made that motivational initiatives could be provided for encouraging citizens’ to engage in large scale production in the state. The findings of this study was in conformity with Dimelu and Olaitan on motivational initiatives for enhancing skill empowerment of citizens’ in Niger Delta State that motivational initiatives could be provided by government and community. The findings also encourage community farmers in the state through funding, provision of improved crop varieties, improved breeds of animals, all promoted citizens participation in community development in the states.

This study is related to the present study because it ascertain the motivational initiatives for citizens’ participation in community development. In recommendation, government should provide enough equipments to encourage communities for good participation.

On a study carried out by Tordoff (2011), on importance of decentralization of governmental sector in South Africa. The design of the study was survey research design. The population for the study was 60,000 respondents involved in various communities in the states, 57 while the sample size of 20,000 was chosen using systematic sampling technique. The results of findings showed that decentralization of power was conceived as an important factor in the success of development. The findings also indicated that the success of partcipation was seen by spelling out stakeholder’s involvement and responsibilities at the outset of state projects. This was affirmed by 70% of the respondents who submitted that decentralization has an impact on the quality of the local and state projects, and lack of contribution by the government affects the quality of the projects negatively. The study recommended among other things the use of decentralization as an essential way of ensuring more effective participation. Decentralization enables officials to become knowledgeable and needs to gain insight on possible implementation plans.

This study is related to the present study because it examined the importance of decentralization in governmental sectors as a means of empowerment. In recommendation, the government should transfer power and resources to the local level so as to help to empower communities to work together to define and resolve their problems.

On a study carried out by Butter & Roberts (2007), on hierarchy of needs assessment approach on perspective for identifying gaps and areas of need in Ondo and Ogun State, Nigeria,

The design of the study was descriptive survey. The total population used was 500 respondents.

A sample of 250 respondents was drawn using multi-stage sampling techniques. The data were collected using structured questionnaire and interview. The data were analysed using Statistical

Package for Social Sciences(SPSS) and integration analysis. The findings showed that there is need to indentify the areas of need of people and encourage them on the various areas that enhance citizens’ participation, so as to ensure effective development projects. The findings also revealed that there is significant relationship between citizens’ derived benefits and their participation in community development through self-help projects. It is therefore, recommended that citizens’ need should be involved in every stage of the life-cycle of a project, so as to ensure utilization, sustainability and benefit deviation. Beside, the development agent should find out the felt needs of the community before embarking any project on them. 58

This is related to the present study because it ascertained the needs assessments of people as one of the motivational initiatives for citizens’ participation in community development.

Mohammed (2003), carried out a study on the problems and prospects of inadequate funding of community projects in Taima and Sembeh of Southern Sierra Leone. The design of the study was a case study research design. The total population used for the study was 1000 community members, funding agencies and private contractors. The study used a sample of 100

(90 community members, 7 funding agencies and 3 private contractors. The instruments used for data collection were structured questions that contained 60 structural question, checklists and key informant interviews. Variant ranges and relations were used as a major tools for statiscal analysis. The study revealed that participation in projects did not reflect the demographic, socio- economic and vulnerability profile of the population largely drawn from the benefiting communities, and that the communities in Sembeh and Taima lacked adequate knowledge of the intricacies of direct financing. The recommendations made based on the findings of the study included that, “a participatory monitoring strategy should be designed to replace the usual practice in the country where monitoring belongs to the sphere of experts alone; and that communities should be empowered to devise strategies that compensate for the weak legal systems and inadequate legal remedies for malpractices in direct community financing in the country.

This study is related to the present study because it ascertain adequate funding as one of the motivational initiatives for citizens’ participation in community development.

Summary of Reviewed Literature

Literature of this study was summarized bearing the areas of review in mind. This includes the conceptual and theoretical frameworks and review of related empirical studies.

Motivation was reviewed as a concept aimed at achieving expected goal. Motivational initiatives for citizens’ participation are variables that arouse the community to act on participate with view to achieve their desirable goals. The concept of citizen was reviewed and connotes involvement as a mark of good citizen in a community. Participation was stating the different definitions by scholars the way view participation. The study reviewed the concept of citizens’ participation and is a vital force in the process involved in community development efforts. It is crucial because it brings an insight into the identification of community resources, the implementation of development programmes and maintains the existing structures and encourages collectivism.

It has become a central element in people-centered development strategy (Denscombe, 2010).

Effective citizens’ participation is a wheel which will drive these goals. The study also reviewed the concept of community development. Development on the other hand, has a multi- dimensional facet comprising the enhancement of both individuals as well as other socio- cultural, political and economic factors. It is a structural transformation of every aspect of human endeavor, such that it must not be linked to a particular definition.

Community development is now being seen as a powerful tool for mobilizing and integrating people into contributing meaningfully to the growth of their areas in particular, and the nation in general. This awareness has led many communities to embark on activities that could transform their local and rural environment into urban and better developed settings. It could equally generate the people’s interest in communal living and socio-economic ventures.

With regards to the theoretical framework, several motivational theories were reviewed in the study. The rationale behind these reviews was to ascertain the appropriate theory that should be employed in the cause of motivational initiatives for citizens’ participation in communities. These theories are also unique in their nature, but its appropriateness to establish a standard in the study becomes paramount. For instance, Abraham Maslow’s theory used in this study centered on the citizen; will help to encourage citizens’ to search, identify their needs and involve in active participation of members of the community in realization of community 60 development activities. Therefore, the participatory development theory was identified as appropriate theory in this study. This theory recognizes the active involvement of the beneficiaries in the planning and implementation of the project. For the sustainability and long lasting of a project, the researcher sees this theory as adequate and appropriate in identifying community related projects hence was adopted in the study. Finally, expectancy theory focuses on expectancies refer to beliefs about how one will perform on different task or activities over outcomes.

Empirical works on motivational initiatives encouraging citizens’ participation and related studies by various researchers were also reviewed in the study. The reviewed studies are relevant to this study because they are motivational in nature and addressed other projects that are related to the present study. However, they differ from this study in terms of location, design and utility being motivated;

Findings had shown that in most communities where these projects were abandoned government have not really involved citizens’ participation. Therefore, this study is set out to ascertain motivational initiatives for citizens’ participation in community development activities in Anambra and Imo States of Nigeria. This is the gap this study tends to fill.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHOD

This chapter is concerned with the procedure that was used for data collection and analysis. It was discussed under the following subheadings: design of the study, area of the study, population of the study, sample and sampling technique, instrument for data collection, validation of the instrument, reliability of the instrument, procedure for data collection and method of data analysis.

Design of the Study

The design used for this study is a descriptive survey research design. Descriptive survey research, according to Ali (2006), is a descriptive study which seeks or uses the data obtained from a sample in an investigation to document, describe, and explain what is in existent or non-existent, or the present state of a phenomenon being investigated. The design is considered most appropriate for the study as the researcher used the information obtained from the sample of registered community based organizations in Anambra and Imo states to described the extent to which motivational initiatives has assisted in the citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo States respectively.

Area of the Study

This study was carried out in Anambra and Imo States of Nigeria. Anambra states is one of the 36 states created from the then south –Eastern Region of Nigeria. The State is bounded on the West by Delta State, on the South by Imo and Rivers States, on the East by Enugu State and on the North by Kogi State. Onitsha and Nnewi are the biggest commercial and industrial cities, respectively. There are 21 local government areas in the state with Awka as its captial. The major occupations of the people are trading, driving and farming.

Imo on the other hand was created on Febuary 3rd, 1976 out the former East Central

State. It is named after Imo river which takes its course from the Okigwe/Akwa upland.The

61 62 main cities in Imo state are Owerri, Orlu, and Okigwe. Owerri as its capital. There are 27 local government areas. It shares boundaries with Abia in the east, River Niger and Delta in the west,

Anambra State in the north and River state in the south. The local language is Igbo and

Christianity is the predominant religion. The major occupations in the state are farming, singing and dancing.

The choice of these two states are made for this study because they share similar characteristics in the area of socio-economic, cultural and community developmental programmes. Also the justification for choosing the two states, is because both believe in self- help projects to enhance development in various communities of the state. Citizens’ particiation is the process that can meaningfully help people to develop their communities. It implies much more involvement of citizens to participate in community development in their communities.

The researcher observed that the people of Anambra and Imo are hardworking, industrous and high level of cooporation exist among them.

Populatoin of the Study

The population for this study is 2,357 respondents made up of 1,327 respondents from

Anambra State and 1,030 respondents from Imo State. These respondents belong to various

Community Based Organizations (CBOs) in Anambra and Imo States. The breakdown of the population shows that there are 45 respondents in Njikoka L.G.A. in Anambra, 46 respondents in Dunukofia, 72 respondents in Awka south, 78 respondents in Awka north, 101 respondents in

Anaocha, 81 respondents in Idemili south, and 107 respondents in Idemili north local government areas are 1, 327 respondents in Anambra state from Ministry of Finance and Rural

Development (2014). In Imo state they are 26 respondents in Owerri Municipal, 66 in respondents Owerri north, 72 respondents in Owerri west, 26 respondents in Onuimo, 47 respondents in Ikeduru, 38 respondents in Mbaitolu, and 48 respondents in Ahiazu Mbaise local government areas are 1,030 respondents from Ministry of Information and Community

Development (2014) (See Appendices C:100, D: 102 and E: 104, for detailed information). 63

Sample and Sampling Techniques

A total sample size of 853 respondents were used for the study. This is made up of 530 respondents from Anambra and 323 respondents from Imo State. The multi-stage proportionate sampling procedure was adopted in selecting the respondents for the study. This procedure was adopted for the study because the sample selection was carried out in various state. The first stage involved selecting 40 percent of the respondents from each local government area of the two states. The researcher further selected 40% of the towns from the selected local government areas. This also gave a total of 7 and 7 towns in Anambra and Imo states respectively. Also 40 percent of the Community Based Organization (CBOs) members were then selected from each

CBO, The justification for the choice of the various percentages was in line with Nwana’s

(1981) who suggested that if a population is in in hundreds, a 40 percent of the population or more could serve as a good sample. But if the population is in many hundreds, a 20 percent sample is a good representative, if the population is a few thousands, a 10 percent sample will be appropriate; and if the population is in several thousands, a 5 percent of population or less will serve as a good sample. The choice of this technique was because they are most likely to provide the needed information for the study (See appendix F:107, & G:108 for detailed information on the distribution of the sample size of the study).

Instrument for Data Collection

The major instrument that was used for data collection was a structured questionnaire titled, ‘Questionnaire on Motivational Initiatives for Citizens’ Participation in Community

Development Activities in Anambra and Imo States of Nigeria (QMICPCDA). This instrument was developed by the researcher. The questionnaire is meant to elicit information on the extent of motivational initiatives for citizens’ participation in the two states. It has thirty items that are grouped into six research questions formulated for the study. Research question 1 with 5 items was on decentralization of power in community development projects and promotion of citizens’ participation in community development. Research question 2 with 5 items was on good 64 leadership in community development and promotion of citizens’ participation in community development. Research question 3 with 5 items was on identification of needs of the communities development and promotion of citizens’ participation in the two states. Research question 4 with 5 items was on the respect for people’s culture in community development and promotion of citizens’ participation in the two states. Research question 5 with 5 items was on adequate funding in community development and promotion of citizens’ participation in community development. Finally, research question 6 with 5 items was on need selection in community development and promotion of citizens’ participation in the two states. The response options for all the research questions are:

Very High Extent (VHE) = 4 points

High Extent (HE) = 3 points

Low Extent (LE) = 2 points

Very Low Extent = 1 point

Total =10/4 = 2.50

Mean scores of 2.50 was the benchmark for acceptance level. Therefore, any

mean score of 2.50 or above was accepted while any mean score below 2.50 was

rejected.

Validation of the Instrument

The instrument was face validated by one expert in measurement and evaluation and two experts in the Department of Adult Education and Extra-Mural Studies, all in the Faculty of

Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. They made corrections on the phrasing of the items, the adequacy of language for comprehension of the respondents, its relevance to the problem of the study and the objectives of the study, the use of tenses as well as clarity of words. As a result their comments were used in the modification of the instrument as shown in the

(Appendix B: 97-98).

Reliability of the Instrument

The researcher administered the questionnaire to a sample size of 36 adult citizens’ (men and women) randomly drawn from two local government areas not used for the study, namely; communities in Onitsha North Local Government Area of Anambra State and Ihube communities in Okigwe Local Government Area of Imo State. However, they have similar characteristics with the study area in terms of historical and socio-cultural backgrounds such as adherence to belief, religion, values, norms and social ceremonies. The ideas was to test the degree of internal consistency, level of understanding and minimize possible errors.

In calculating the reliability of the instrument, Cronbach Alpha formula was used to test the internal consistency. The coefficient: research question 1(.67), research question 2(.59), research question 3(.61), research question 4(.57), research question 5(.67) and research question 6(.60), while the general coefficient alpha was .91 which was considered high enough to prove that the instrument was reliable.

Procedure for Data Collection

The researcher administered 853 copies of the questionnaire to the respondents during their monthly meeting days. These meetings were held once a week for Community based

Organizations (CBOs). It was administered through direct delivery of technique. The administration and collection of the instrument were done with the help of four formally trained research assistants by the researcher. The researcher briefed the research assistants on the bases of command of English language and the local language (for the illiterate citizens’), knowledge of the local people and their ways of life as well as relevant knowledge of the study. Also, the research assistants were briefed on how to handle their jobs in the area of interpreting the questionnaire items to the non-literate respondents and gathering the data. A briefed letter of introduction explaining the purpose of the questionnaire was attached to each copy of the questionnaire. On-the-spot delivery and retrieval technique were employed to ensure high return 66 rate of the questionnaire. The administration and collection of the instrument was carried out within one month (4 weeks).

Method of Data Analysis

The data collected from the respondents were analyzed using weighted mean for the six research questions. The real limit of numbers was the decision rule for all the research questions.

This was classified under the following level of extent.

Classification Value

Very High Extent (VHE) 3.50 – 4.00 High Extent (HE) 2.50- 3.49 Low Extent (LE) 1.50 – 2.49 Very Low Extent (VLE) 1.00 – 1.49 The inferential statistics of t-test was employed to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. A null hypothesis was regarded as accepted if the t-calculated was less than the t-critical at 0.05 level of significance, but rejected if the t-calculated was greater than the t- critical at 0.05 level of significance.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

In this chapter, the data collected are presented and analyzed using the tools already mapped out in the previous chapter. The data are organized according to the research questions asked and the hypotheses that were postulated.

Research Question 1

To what extent has decentralization of power in community development promoted citizens’ participation in communities in Anambra and Imo States?

Table 1: Mean ratings of respondents on the extent to which decentralization of power in community development promoted citizens’ participation in communities in Anambra and Imo States

S/N Items Anambra Imo (n = 323 ) Decision (n = 530) X X 1. Widening opportunities for 2.81 2.70 x High Extent citizens’ participation in xx High Extent the community. 2. Widening opportunities for 2.75 2.77 x High Extent citizens’ to learn in the area xx High Extent of community development activities 3. Heightening opportunities 2.71 2.81 x High Extent to satisfy citizens’ felt xx High Extent needs 4. Reducing community 2.76 2.85 x High Extent conflicts as many citizens’ xx High Extent become engaged in community development activities 5. Leading to faster 2.66 2.84 X High Extent development of xx High Extent communities to decentralize functions and mode of operation Grand Mean 2.74 2.79 x High Extent xx High Extent x represents Anambra State, xx represents Imo State

Table 1 indicated that items 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 with mean scores of (2.81, 2.70), (2.75,

2.77), (2.71, 2.81), (2.76, 2.85) and (2.66, 2.84) respectively for respondents from Anambra and

Imo state were rated to a high extent. The grand mean of 2.74 for Anambra and 2.79 for Imo is

67 68 an indication that to a high extent, decentralization of power in community development promoted citizens’ participation in communities in Anambra and Imo States.

In summary, the table showed that decentralization of powers promoted citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo States.

Hypothesis 1

There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of respondents from

Anambra and Imo States on the extent to which decentralization of power in community promotedassisted citizens’ participation in communities in Anambra and Imo States.

Table 2: t-test analysis of significant difference between the mean ratings of respondents in Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which decentralization of power in community has promoted citizens’ participation in communities in the states

State No. of X S.D df t-cal t-crit Decision Respondents Anambra 530 2.74 .29 851 .54 1.96 Accepted Imo 323 2.79 .28

Table 2 showed a total grand mean (2.77) and the standard deviation (0.29). The calculated t-value (.54) is less than the critical t-value (1.96) at .05 level of significance, hence the acceptance of the null hypothesis. This implies that significant difference was not found between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which decentralization of power in communities promoted citizens’ participation in Anambra and Imo States.

Research Question 2

To what extent has good leadership in community development promoted citizens’ participation in Anambra and Imo States?

Table 3: Mean ratings of respondents regarding the extent to which good leadership in communities promoted citizens’ participation in Anambra and Imo States.

S/N Items Anambra Imo Decision (n = 530) (n = 323) X X 1. Reducing community 2.65 2.75 x High Extent tension and conflicts during xx High Extent citizens’ participation in community development projects in the community 2. Leading to citizens’ 2.96 2.79 x High Extent participation in the xx High Extent community development projects 3. Promoting cooperation and 2.75 2.79 x High Extent unity during citizens’ xx High Extent participation in community development projects in the community 4. Adequate mobilization 2.88 2.82 x High Extent policies ensures success in xx High Extent the community development activities. 5. Providing focus in 2.81 2.84 x High Extent community development xx High Extent projects and reduces community tension and conflicts in the community Grand mean 2.81 2.80 x High Extent xx High Extent

Respondents in table 3 indicated that items 1,2,3,4 and 5 with mean scores of (2.65,

2.75), (2.96, 2.79), (2.75, 2.79), (2.88, 2.82) and (2.81, 2.84) respectively for respondents from

Anambra and Imo State were rated to a high extent. The grand mean of 2.81 for Anambra and

2.80 for Imo is an indication that to a high extent, good leadership community development promoted citizens’ participation in Anambra and Imo States.

In summary, the table showed that good leadership promoted for citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo States.

Hypothesis 2

There is no significant difference between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States on the extent to which good leadership in the communities promoted citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo States.

Table 4: t-test analysis of significant difference between the mean rating of respondents in Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which good leadership in the communities promoted citizens’ participation in community development in the two states of Anambra and Imo. State No. of Respondents X SD df t-cal t-crit Decision Anambra 530 2.81 .33 851 .57 1.96 Accepted Imo 323 2.80 .34

Data on table 4 revealed that the mean score for respondents in Anambra was 2.81, while that of Imo was 2.80. The total grand mean (2.81) and standard deviation (0.34). The table further showed that the calculated t-value (.57) is less than the t-critical value (1.96) at .05 level of significance, hence the acceptance of the null hypothesis. This means that significant difference was not found between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which good leadership promoted citizens’ participation in community development in the two states.

Research Question 3: To what extent has identification of needs in the communities promoted citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo States?

Table 5: Mean ratings of respondents on the extent to which identification of needs promoted citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo States.

S/N Items Anambra Imo Decision (n = 530) (n = 323) X X 1. Attracting their cooperation and 2.90 2.75 x High Extent support in the community xx High Extent 2. Reducing community conflict and 2.78 2.83 x High Extent increases participation xx High Extent 3. Leading to citizens’ participation to 2.94 2.72 x High Extent ensure effective participation xx High Extent 4. Ensuring successful completion of 2.88 2.76 x High Extent community development projects xx High Extent 5. Promoting unity in the community 2.72 2.78 x High Extent and ensures greater participation xx High Extent Grand mean 2.85 2.77 x High Extent xx High Extent * Represents Anambra State xx Represents Imo State

Respondents in table 5 indicated that items 1,2,3,4 and 5 with corresponding mean scores of (2.90, 2.75), (2.78, 2.83), (2.94, 2.72), (2.88, 2.76) and (2.72, 2.78) respectively were rated high extent for both respondents in the two states. The grand mean of 2.85 and 2.77 for both

Anambra and Imo States showed that to a high extent, the identification of needs promoted citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo States.

In summary, the table showed that identification of needs promoted for citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo States,

Hypothesis 3

There is no significant difference between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States on the extent to which identification of needs in community promoted citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo States.

Table 6: t-test analysis of significant difference between the mean rating of respondents in Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which identification of needs promoted citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo States.

State No. of X S.D df t-cal t-crit Decision Respondents Anambra 530 2.84 .33 .851 3.18 1.96 Rejected Imo 323 2.77 .35

Table 6 showed that sum total grand mean (2.81) and standard deviation (0.34). The t- calculated (3.18) is greater than the t-critical (1.96) at .05 level of significance, hence, the rejection of the null hypothesis. This implies that significant difference was found between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which identification of needs in their communities promoted citizens’ participation in community development of their two states.

Research Question 4

To what extent has respect for people’s culture in the communities promoted citizens’ participation in community development in the two state of Anambra and Imo?

Table 7: Mean ratings of respondents regarding the extent to which respect for people’s culture promoted citizens’ participation in community development in the two states of Anambra and Imo

S/N Items Anambra Imo Decision (h = 530) (n = 323) X X 1. Helping to carry the citizens’ along 2.89 2.63 x High Extent with community culture to ensure xx High Extent effective development 2. Reducing community conflicts and 3.18 2.87 x Very High Extent provides cooperation and unity in xx High Extent community development projects 3. Promoting citizens’ participation 2.82 2.81 x High Extent and ensures success in community xx High Extent development projects 4. Leading to general acceptance of 2.86 2.90 x High Extent community development projects xx High Extent 5. Promotes collective efforts by all the 2.88 2.93 x High Extent citizens’ in community development xx High Extent projects Grand mean 2.93 2.83 x High Extent xx High Extent

Data in table 7 showed that items 1,3,4 and 5 have mean scores of(2.89, 2.63), (2.82,

2.81), (2.86, 2.90) and (2.88, 2.93) respectively which indicate to high extent for Anambra and

Imo States. Item 2 only have mean score of very high extent (3.18) for Anambra and high extent

(2.87) for Imo State. With the grand mean of 2.93 for Anambra and 2.83 for Imo, the table shows that to a high extent, respect for people’s culture promoted citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo States.

Hypothesis 4

There is no significant difference between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which respect for people’s culture promoted citizens’ participation in community development in the two states.

Table 8: t-test analysis of significant difference between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which respect for people’s culture promoted citizens’ participation in Anambra and Imo States

State No. of X S.D df tcal tcrit Decision Respondents Anambra 530 2.93 .34 851 4.13 1.96 Rejected Imo 323 2.83 .34

Table 7 showed that total grand mean (2.88) and standard deviation (0.34). The t- calculated (4.13) is greater than the t-critical (1.96) at .05 level of significance, hence, the rejection of the null hypothesis. This implies that significant difference was found between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which respect for people’s culture in communities promoted citizens’ participation in the two states.

Research Question 5: To what extent has adequate funding promoted citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo States?

Table 9: Mean ratings of respondents regarding the extent to which adequate funding promoted citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo States.

S/N Items Anambra Imo Decision (n = 530) (n = 323) X X 1. Adequate funding of community 3.08 2.96 x Very High Extent development projects ensures projects xx High Extent started are fully completed in the community 2. The confidence that community 2.93 2.94 x High Extent development projects will not be xx High Extent abandoned 3. Citizens’ are paid for every service 3.02 2.87 x Very High Extent rendered xx High Extent 4. All materials required for 2.84 2.78 x High Extent implementation are provided xx High Extent 5. Conflicts associated with fund raising 2.95 2.77 x High Extent for community development project is xx High Extent reduced. Grand mean 2.96 2.86 x High Extent xx High Extent

Data in table 8 indicated that items 2,4 and 5 with mean scores of (2.93, 2.94), (2.84,

2.78) and (2.95, 2.77) respectively for respondents from Anambra and Imo States were rated to a high extent, while items 1 and 3 have the mean scores of Very High extent (3.08) for Anambra and High extent (2.96) for Imo. Item 3 have the mean score of Very High extent (3.02) for

Anambra and High extent (2.87) for Imo. The grand mean of 2.96 for Anambra and 2.86 for Imo is an indication that to a high extent, adequate funding promoted citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo States.

In summary, the table showed that adequate funding promoted for citizens’ participation promoted in community development in Anambra and Imo States.

Hypothesis 5

There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of respondents from

Anambra and Imo states regarding the extent to which adequate funding promoted citizens’ participation in the two states.

Table 10: t-test analysis of significant difference between the mean rating of respondents in Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which adequate funding promoted citizens’ participation in the two states.

State No. of X SD df t-cal t-crit Decision Respondents Anambra 530 2.96 .33 851 4.22 1.96 Rejected Imo 323 2.86 .33

Data on table 8 revealed that the mean score for respondents in Anambra was 2.96, while that of Imo was 2.86. The total grand mean (2.91) and standard deviation (0.33). The table further showed that the calculated t-value (4.22) is greater than the t-critical value (1.96) at .05 level of significance, hence the rejection of the null hypothesis. This means that significant difference was found between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which adequate funding promoted citizens’ participation in the two states.

Research Question 6: To what extent has need selection promoted citizens’ participation in community development in the two states?

Table 11: Mean ratings of respondents on the extent to which need selection promoted citizens’ participation in community development in the two states of Anambra and Imo. S/N Items Anambra Imo Decision (n = 530) (n = 323) X X 1. Giving citizens’ confidence 2.78 3.02 x High Extent that such projects will be xx Very High Extent successful. 2. Ensuring that community 2.79 2.76 x High Extent development projects satisfy xx High Extent the needs of the citizens’. 3. Facilitating smooth execution 2.99 2.89 x High Extent of community development xx High Extent projects. 4. Leading to motivation to 3.08 3.00 x Very High Extent embark communities to copy. xx Very High Extent 5. Setting an example for other 3.02 2.88 x Very High Extent communities to copy. xx High Extent Grand mean 2.93 2.91 x High Extent xx High Extent Respondents in table 9 showed that items 2, and 3 have mean scores of high extent

(2.79, 2.76) and (2.99, 2.89) for both states. Items 1,4 and 5 have mean scores of very high extent (3.02) for Imo and high extent (2.78) for Anambra. Item 4 have mean score of very high extent (3.08, 3.00) for both states. Item 5 have mean score of very high extent (3.02) for

Anambra and high extent (2.88) for Imo state. The grand mean of 2.93 and 2.91 for both respondents showed that to a high extent need selection promoted citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo States.

In summary, the table showed that need selection promoted citizens’ participation which promoted in community development because need varies from state to state or community to community

Hypothesis 6

There is no significant difference between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which need selection promoted citizens’ participation in community development in the two states.

Table 12: t-test analysis of significant difference between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which selection of need promoted citizens’ participation in community development in the two states

State No. of X S.D df t-cal t-crit Decision Respondents Anambra 530 2.93 .32 851 1.04 1.96 Accepted Imo 323 2.91 .32

Table 9 reveals that the total grand mean (2.92) and standard deviation (0.32). The t- calculated (1.04) was less than t-critical (1.96) at .05 level of significance, hence, the acceptance of the null hypothesis. This means that significant difference was not found between the mean rating of respondents in Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which selection of need promoted citizens’ participation in community development in the two states because needs varies from state to state.

Summary of Major Findings

The major findings of this study are summarized as follows:

1. Decentralization of power in communities promoted citizens’ participation of

communities in Anambra and Imo States to a high extent.

2. Good leadership in the community development promoted citizens’ participation of

communities in Anambra and Imo States to a high extent.

3. Identification of needs promoted citizens’ participation of communities in Anambra and

Imo States to a high extent.

4. The extent to which respect for people’s culture promoted citizens’ participation of

communities in Anambra and Imo States to a high extent.

5. Adequate funding promoted citizens’ participation in communities in Anambra and Imo

States to a high extent.

6. Need selection promoted citizens’ participation in communities in Anambra and Imo

States to a high extent.

7. Significant difference was not found between the mean rating of respondents from

Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which decentralization of power in

communities promoted citizens’ participation in Anambra and Imo States.

8. Significant difference was not found between the mean rating of respondents from

Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which good leadership in the

communities promoted citizens’ participation of communities in the two states.

9. Significant difference was found between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra

and Imo States regarding the extent to which identification of needs promoted citizens’

participation of communities in the two states.

10. Significant difference was found in the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and

Imo States regarding the extent to which respect for people’s culture promoted citizens’

participation of communities in the two states. 80

11. Significant difference was found in the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and

Imo States regarding the extent to which adequate funding in the communities promoted

citizens’ participation in the two states.

12. Significant difference was not found between the mean rating of respondents from

Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which selection of need promoted

citizens’ participation in communities in the two states.

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter presents the discussion of the findings, conclusion, implications of the study, recommendations, limitation of the study and finally, suggestions for further research.

Discussion of Findings

The findings of the study were discussed under the following sub-headings:

Through decentralization, local governments play developmental roles where councils are supposed to provide leadership and define the kind of relationship municipalities are supposed to build with communities, organizations, and others who can promoted citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo states to a high extent because through decentralization of power in the community. Information from both qualitative and quantitative data indicated that decentralization of power in the communities used for this study has paved way for community development. The finding is in line with Hussein (2004) who stipulated that decentralization of power from higher to local level help to empower communities to work together, to define and resolve their problems.

The first hypothesis (H0 1) was accepted meaning that there was no significant difference between the mean rating of respondents in Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which decentralization of power in community promoted citizens’ participation in the states.

Item one showed that the calculated t-value (.54) is less than the critical t-value (1.96), the null hypothesis was accepted. So, the hypothesis showed that significant difference was not found in the mean ratings of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which decentralization of power in communities promoted citizens’ participation in the states.

Findings on research question two indicated that good leadership promoted citizens’ participation in Anambra and Imo State to a high extent. Information from both qualitative and quantitative data indicated that there is reduced tension in the presence of good leader. This is not surprising because good leadership promotes unity and cooporation which are indices of

81 82 development, hence, Marcoux, (2009) affirmed that the socio-economic development of any rural community depends to a large extent on the quality of their leaders.

The second hypothesis (H0 2) was accepted meaning that there was no significant difference between the mean rating of respondents in Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which good leadership has helped in improving citizens’ participation in the two states.

Item two showed that the calculated t-value (.57) is less that the t-critical value (1.96), the null hypothesis was accepted. So, the hypothesis indicated that significant difference was not found in the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which good leadership promoted citizens’ participation in the two states.

Findings on research question three indicated that identification of needs in the communities promoted citizens’ participation in the two states to a high extent. Both qualitative and quantitative data revealed that community development is a process by which the efforts of the people themselves are united with those of government authorities to improve the economic, social, and cultural conditions of communities, to integrate these communities into the life of the nation, and to enable them contribute fully to national progress (United Nations, 2004 cited in

Godschalk, 1973). This means that it is a process which seeks to empower individuals and groups of people by providing those groups with the skills needed to effect change in their own communities. This finding is supported by Gilberts (2006) who stipulated that arousing the groups interest is as important in maintaining their enthusiasm and perseverance in the work they have undertaken together as it is stirring them to action.

The third hypothesis revealed that significant difference was found in the mean ratings of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which identification of needs promoted citizens’ participation of communities in both states, since the calculated t-value

(3.18) is greater than the critical t-value 1.96, the null hypothesis was not accepted.

Findings on research question four indicated that respect for people’s culture promoted citizens’ participation in Anambra and Imo States to a high extent. Information generated from both qualitative and quantitative data showed that respect for people’s culture deals with values, 83 attitude, behavior, believe and assumptions people share among themselves and about the natural environment in which they live. This finding is supported by Adamu, Olatoye, et al

(2009) who stipulated that respect for community culture can be promoted through the organization of cultural festivals where there will be cultural revival.

The fourth hypothesis showed that significant difference was found in the mean ratings of respondent from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which respect for people’s culture promoted citizens’ participation of communities in the states. The findings of the study showed that t-calculated (8.07) is greater than the t-critical (1.96) the null hypothesis was rejected. So, the hypothesis showed that significant difference were found between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which respect for people’s culture promoted citizens’ participation in the two states.

Findings on research question five indicated that adequate funding promoted citizens’ participation in communities in Anambra and Imo States to a high extent. Both qualitative and quantitative data indicated that conflicts associated with fund raising in communities is reduced.

This is not surprising because the confidence that community projects will not be abandoned.

Brewer (2003) supporting the finding affirmed that adequate funding in communities ensures projects started should be fully completed by the citizens’ for effective participation in the two states.

The fifth hypothesis (H0 5) was found in the mean ratings of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which adequate funding promoted citizens’ participation in the communities in the states. Since the calculated t-value (4.22) is greater than the t-critical value (1.96), the null hypothesis was rejected. So, the hypothesis showed that significant difference was found between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which adequate funding in communities promoted citizens’ participation in the two states.

Findings on research question six revealed that need selection promoted citizens’ participation in communities in Anambra and Imo States to a high extent. Both qualitative and 84 quantitative data showed that it has enhanced their opportunities to identify their felt needs. The finding is in line with Hamilton (2007) who stipulated that needs selection depends on circumstances prevailing in a particular community. Thus, need varies from community to community.

Findings of the study showed that significant difference was not found in the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which selection of need promoted citizens’ participation in communities in the States. Since the calculated t-value (1.04) is less than the critical t-value (1.96), null hypothesis was accepted. So the hypothesis showed that significant difference was not found between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which need selection promoted citizens’ participation in the two states

Conclusion

This study examined motivational initiatives for citizens’ participation in community development activities in Anambra and Imo States. In view of the findings of this work, the following conclusions were drawn. Decentralization of power in communities of Anambra and

Imo States was to a high extent is because decentralization of powers in the community promoted citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo states. It was further revealed that good leadership in the communities of Anambra and Imo States to a high extent is because good leadership promoted citizens, participation in community development in

Anambra and Imo States. The study also showed that to a high extent, identification of needs promoted citizens’ participation in community development in Anambra and Imo States. To a high extent, Adequate funding to high extent promoted citizens’ participation in communities of

Anambra and Imo States. Respect for people’s culture to a high extent promoted citizens’ participation in communities of Anambra and Imo States. The study also showed that to a high extent, need selection promoted citizens’ participation in communities of Anambra and Imo

States. Hence, need selection varies from communities to communities and state by state. 85

Significant difference was not found between the mean rating of respondents from

Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which decentralization of power in communities promoted citizens’ participation in the two states. Significant difference was not found between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which good leadership promoted citizens’ participation in the two states. The study further revealed that significant difference was found between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and

Imo States regarding the extent to which identification of needs promoted citizens’ participation in the communities in the two states. Similarly, significant difference was found in the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which respect for people’s culture promoted citizens’ participation in the communities in the two states.

Significant difference was found between the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and

Imo States regarding the extent to which adequate funding promoted citizens’ participation in

Anambra and Imo States. The study also indicated that significant difference was not found in the mean rating of respondents from Anambra and Imo States regarding the extent to which selection of need promoted citizens’ participation in the two states.

Implications of the Study for Adult Education

Findings on decentralization of power showed that it promoted citizens’ participation to a high extent on the communities of Anambra and Imo States because through decentralization of power in the community development is a process where the transfer of power from higher to local level will help to empower communities to work together and sole their problems Oyono

(2004). These findings have implication for adults education with administrative skills/leadership skills that will enhance equal participation of citizens’ at community level. This have implications for adult education since it will help in the promotion of democracy which is capable of creating an enabling environment.

Findings on good leadership will carry every adult citizens in the planning and implementation process. Thus, it has implication for adult education, in that community leaders 86 are provided with necessary skills and knowledge needed to effectively govern the community.

This knowledge and skills provided to leaders are made possible through their continuous exposure to planning and implementation process which adult education offers.

Findings on indentification of needs and need selection of communities of Anambra and

Imo States, the study showed that motivational initiatives promoted citizens’ participation to a high extent. This findings has implication for adult education since it provides citizens’ with the opportunity to identify their needs and work toward enhancing their standard of living. Basic needs of the citizens’ should be embedded in adult education curriculum for citizens to better understanding of their needs.

Findings on respect for people’s culture showed that it promoted citizens’ particition to a high extent on the communities of Anambra and Imo States. This have implication to adult education since culture is a way of life of people, government should not undermined peoples’ culture in otherwords, government should embark on community development project that promotes peoples culture, this will enhance citizens’ participation. Its implication to adult education is that peoples culture should be taken into consideration when developing adult education curriculum and programmes.

The findings on adequate funding promoted citizens’ participation to a high extent in the two states. Thus, it has implication for adult education because ctitizens are provided with adequate knowledge on the effective utilizaiton of fund in execution of projects in the community. This will also reduce abandonment of projects.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made:

1. Both the governemnt and community leaders should encourage decentralization of

power, that is, power should be transferred from higher to local level to empower

communities to work together, define and resolve their problems. 87

2. Community leaders and government should ensure that there is need for good leadership

at community level , this will help to promote citizens’ participation.

3. Before any project is sited in a community, both the government and community leaders

should identifies area of needs of the citizens’ to promote citizens’ particiaption.

4. Both the government and community leaders should recognize the existing culture of the

people when determining project to be sited in the community.

5. Both the government and community leaders should make provision of adequate fund of

community project in order to avoid abandonment of projects.

Limitations of the Study

The aim for this study was set out has been accomplished in the course of carrying out the study, the limitation encountered is that some respondents were reluctant in filling the questionnaire, as such could not adequately complete the questionnaire. This led to delay in the administration and collection of the questionnaire before the analysis was done.

Suggestions for Further Studies The findings of the study made the researcher to suggest that further research be carried out in the following areas:

1. Assessment of the contributions of motivational initiatives in the attainment of

sustainable community development projects in other states of Nigeria.

2. Investigation into factors inhibiting effective citizens’ participation in communities in the

Eastern states of Nigeria.

3. Ascertaining the extent to which motivational initiatives promote citizens’ participation

in communities in Anambra and Imo States of Nigeria.

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APPENDIX A

Department of Adult Education & Extra-Mural Studies, Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Dear Respondent,

LETTER OF INTRODUCTION

I am a Post Graduate Student of the above Department conducting a research on the topic, “Motivational Initiatives for Citizens’ Participation in Community

Development Activities in Anambra and Imo States, Nigeria”.

Your prompt response in filling this questionnaire will highly be appreciated and the information provided will strictly be used for the purpose of the study only.

Eze, Caroline Ngozi Researcher

APPENDIX B

Instruction: Tick the option that most represent your opinion on each item of the questionnaire. VHE (Very High Extent) (4-points) HE (High Extent) (3-points) LE (Low Extent) (2-points) VLE (Very Low Extent) (1-point)

A. Indicate the extent decentralization of power promoted VHE HE LE VLE S/No citizens’ participation in community development activities in your community. 1. Widening opportunities for citizens’ participation in the community. 2. Widening opportunities for citizens’ to learn in the area of community development activities 3. Heightening opportunities to satisfy citizens’ felt needs 4. Reducing comm. unity conflicts as many citizens’ become engaged in community development activities 5. Leading to faster development of communities to decentralize functions and mode of operation

B. Indicate the extent good leadership promoted citizens’ VHE HE LE VLE participation in community development activities in your community. 1. Reducing community tension and conflicts during citizens’ participation in community development projects in the community 2. Leading to citizens’ participation in the community development projects 3. Promoting cooperation and unity during citizens’ participation in community development projects in the community 4. Adequate mobilization policies ensures success in the community development activities. 5. Providing focus in community development projects and reduces community tension and conflicts in the community

C. Indicate the extent identification of needs promoted VHE HE LE VLE citizens’ participation in community development activities in your community. 1. Attracting their cooperation and support in the community 2. Reducing community conflict and increases participation 3. Leading to citizens’ participation to ensure effective participation 100

4. Ensuring successful completion of community development projects 5. Promoting unity in the community and ensures greater participation

D. Indicate the extent to which respect for people’s culture VHE HE LE VLE promoted citizens’ participation in community development activities in your community. 1. Helping to carry the citizens’ along with community culture to ensure effective development 2. Reducing community conflicts and provides cooperation and unity in community development projects 3. Promoting citizens’ participation and ensures success in community development projects 4. Leading to general acceptance of community development projects 5. Promotes collective efforts by all the citizens’ in community development projects

E. Indicate the extent adequate funding promoted citizens’ VHE HE LE VLE participation in community development activities in your community. 1. Adequate funding of community development projects ensures projects started are fully completed in the community 2. The confidence that community development projects will not be abandoned 3. Citizens’ are paid for every service rendered 4. All materials required for implementation are provided 5. Conflicts associated with fund raising for community development project is reduced.

F. Indicate the extent need selection promoted citizens’ VHE HE LE VLE participation in community development activities in your community. 1. Giving citizens’ confidence that such projects will be successful. 2. Ensuring that community development projects satisfy the needs of the citizens’. 3. Facilitating smooth execution of community development projects. 4. Leading to motivation to embark communities to copy. 5. Setting an example for other communities to copy.

101

APPENDIX C

INFORMATION ON THE POPULATION OF THE STUDY FOR ANAMBRA STATE

S/N Name of Town L.G.A. No. of Members of CBOs. 1. Abagana Njikoka 19 2. Nimo “ 19 3. Abba “ 19 4. Enugwu_Ukwu “ 19 5. Enugwu_Agidi “ 18 6. Nawfia “ 18 7. Ifitedunu Dunukofia 20 8. Ukpo “ 20 9. Ukwulu “ 19 10. NAWGU “ 19 11. Umunachi “ 19 12. Umudioka “ 19 13. Nneni Anaocha 28 14. Agulu “ 28 15. Adazi Ani “ 28 16. Adazi Enu “ 28 17. Adazi Nnukwu “ 28 18. Ichida “ 29 19. Obeledu “ 30 20. Nri “ 27 21. Akwueze “ 20 22. Awka Awka South 20 23. Amawbia “ 20 24. Nibo “ 20 25. Nise “ 20 26. Umuawulu “ 20 27. Isi Agu “ 20 28. Okpuno “ 20 29. Mba-Ukwu “ 20 30. Umudioka Awka “ 32 31. Achalla Awka North 33 32. Ebenebe “ 34 33. Amansea “ 32 34. Amanuke “ 33 35. Mgbakwu “ 32 36. Isuaniocha “ 30 37. Ojoto Idemili South 29 38. Oba “ 30 39. Nnobi “ 29 40. Nnokwa “ 28 41. Alor “ 28 42. Awka-Etiti “ 28 43. Akwa ukwu “ 25 44. Ogidi Idemili North 24 45. Nkpor “ 28 102

46. Umuoji “ 23 47. Abatete “ 22 48. Uke “ 25 49. Eziowelle “ 24 50. Abacha “ 26 51. Obosi “ 24 52. Ideani “ 23 53. Orukwu “ 24 Total 1,327

103

APPENDIX D

INFORMATION ON THE POPULATION OF THE STUDY FOR IMO STATE

S/N Name of Town L.G.A. No. of Members of CBOs. 1 Ama Awom Owerri Municipal 20 2 Umu Odu “ 14 3 Umu Onyeche “ 12 4 Umu Ororonjo “ 10 5 Umu Oyima “ 9 6 Egbu Owerri North 20 7 Ishiuzo “ 16 8 Mpama “ 15 9 Ofeuzo “ 20 10 Umuayalu “ 11 11 Umuofor “ 14 12 Emekuku “ 12 13 Akalovo “ 15 14 Awaka “ 10 15 Azara Owele “ 16 16 Azara Egbelu “ 12 17 Azeogba “ 12 18 Okwu-Emeke “ 16 19 Ugboegbulu “ 12 20 Ubowala “ 20 21 Umuadu “ 10 22 Umuakuru “ 10 23 Umuocham “ 10 24 Umuzi “ 20 25 Umuguma Owerri West 10 26 Avu “ 9 27 Okuku “ 8 28 Oforola “ 20 29 Obinze “ 10 30 Nekede “ 10 31 Ihiagwa “ 9 32 Eziobodo “ 10 33 Okolochi “ 10 34 Emeabiam “ 10 35 Umuokpor “ 10 36 Irete “ 10 37 Orogwe “ 10 38 Amakohia “ 10 38 Ndegwu “ 10 39 Ohii “ 10 40 Okwere Onuimo 20 41 Umuna “ 20 42 Okwe “ 18 43 Arondizuogu “ 20 44 Atta Ikeduru 20 104

45 Amaimo “ 20 46 Amuzi “ 20 47 Ugiri-ike “ 20 48 Ukwu “ 15 49 Akabo “ 15 50 Ngugo “ 15 51 Inishi “ 15 52 Iho “ 15 53 Ofekata Mbaitolu 20 54 Odumara “ 15 55 Ifekala “ 15 56 Ahaba “ 15 57 Amaku “ 15 58 Ubaha “ 15 59 Amaukwu “ 15 60 Okwuu “ 20 61 Ezima “ 17 62 Agunaeze Ahiazu Mbaise 20 63 Amuzi “ 20 64 Oru “ 15 65 Lude “ 15 66 Nnaambia “ 15 67 Obodo Ahira “ 15 68 Ogbe “ 20 69 Otuli “ 15 Total 1,030

105

APPENDIX E

STATISTICS OF REGISTERED COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATIONS IN ANAMBRA AND IMO STATES

S/No Name of Organisation L.G.A. No. of Members 1. Abagana Development Union Njikoka 27 2. Nimo Brotherhood Society “ 20 3. Abba Improvement Union “ 14 4. Enugwu-ukwu Town Development Union “ 20 5. Agidi Brotherly Union “ 16 6. Nawfia Development Union “ 15 7. Ifitedunu Progressive Union Dunukofia 21 8. Ukpo Development Organisation “ 21 9. Ukwulu Improvement Union “ 15 10. Nawgu Development Union “ 20 11. Umunachi Progressive Union “ 20 12. Umudioka Improvement Association “ 19 13. Nneni Development Union Anaocha 17 14. Agulu Brotherly Union “ 25 15. Adazi Ani Development Union “ 29 16. Adazi Enu Pgoressive Union “ 20 17. Adazi Nnukwu Town Development Union “ 21 18. Ichida Progressive Union “ 32 19. Obeledu Development Union “ 27 20. Nri Improvement Union “ 39 21. Akwueze Town Development Union “ 43 22. Awka Progressive Union Awka South 27 23. Amawbia Town Union “ 16 24. Nibo Improvement Union “ 21 25. Nise Development Union “ 26 26. Umuawulu Development Union “ 13 27. Isi Agu Improvement Union “ 22 28. Okpuno Development Union “ 19 29. Mba-Ukwu Development Organisation “ 16 30. Umudioka Awka Progressive Union “ 20 31. Achalla Progressive Union “ 25 32. Ebenebe Development Union “ 41 33. Anabsea Progressive Union “ 35 34. Amanuke Development Organisation “ 31 106

35. Mgbakwu Development Union “ 24 36. Isuaniocha Improvement Union Idemili South 40 37. Ojoto Progressive Union “ 32 38. Oba Development Union “ 21 39. Nnobi Welfare Association “ 21 40. Nnokwa Progressive Union “ 28 41. Alor People’s Convention “ 34 42. Awka-Etiti Improvement Union “ 39 43. Akwakwu Improvement Union “ 27 44. Ogidi Progressive Union Idemili North 30 45. Nkpor Development Union “ 40 46. Umuoji Improvement Union “ 18 47. Abatete Development Union “ 34 48. Uke Development Union “ 29 49. Eziowelle improvement union “ 23 50. Abacha Progressive Union “ 25 51. Obosi Improvement Union “ 19 52. Ideani Development Organisation “ 26 53. Orukwu Development Union “ 24 54. Ama Awom Improvement Union Owerri Municipal 20 55. Umuodu Progressive Union “ 14 56. Umu Onyeche brotherly Union “ 12 57. Umu Ororonjo Development Union “ 10 58. Umu Oyima Town Development Union “ 9 59. Egbu Progressive Union Owerri North 20 60. Ishiuzo Development Union “ 20 61. Mpama Improvement Union “ 16 62. Ofeuzo Progressive Union “ 15 63. Umuayalu Development Union “ 20 64. Umuofor Improvement Union “ 11 65. Emekuku Town Union “ 14 66. Akalove Progressive Union “ 12 67. Awaka brotherhood Society “ 15 68. Azaraowala Town Union “ 10 69. Azaraegbelu Progressive Union “ 16 70. Azeogba Development Union “ 12 71. Okwu-Emeke Town Union “ 12 72. Ugboegbulu Development Union “ 16 73. Ubowala Improvement Union “ 12 74. Umuadu Progressive Union “ 20 107

75. Umuakuru Town Union “ 10 76. Umuocham Development Union “ 10 77. Umuzi Progressive Union “ 10 78. Umuguma Improvement Union “ 20 79. Avu Development Union “ 10 80. Okuku Town Union “ 9 81. Oforola Improvement Union “ 8 82. Obinze Progressive Union “ 13 83. Nnekede Development Union “ 20 84. Ihiagwa Progressive Union “ 10 85. Eziobodo Improvement Union “ 10 86. Okolochi Brotherly Union “ 9 87. Emeabiam Progressive Union “ 10 88. Umuokpor Development Union “ 10 89. Irete Improvement Union “ 10 90. Orogwe Progressive Union “ 10 91. Amakohia Development Union “ 10 92. Ndegwu Improvement Union “ 10 93. Ohii Progressive Union “ 10 Total “ 2,357

Source of Population Data 1: Ministries of Rural Development, Anambra State, and Imo States (June, 2014). Ministry of Information and Community Development, Imo State (June, 2014). State Agency for Community and Social Development Projects, Anambra and Imo States (June, 2014).

108

APPENDIX F

SAMPLE SIZE OF THE STUDY FOR ANAMBRA AND IMO STATES

S/N Name of Town Local government Area No of CBOs members 1 Abagana Njikoka 45 2 Ifitedunu Dunukafia 46 3 Awka Awka South 72 4 Achalla Awka North 78 5 Nneni Anaocha 101 6 Ojoto Idemili South 81 7 Ogidi Idemili North 107 530

8 Ama Awom Owerri Muncipal 26 9 Egbu Owerri North 66 10 Umuguma Owerri West 72 11 Okwere Onuimo 26 12 Atta Ikeduru 47 13 Odumara Mbaitolu 38 14 Agunaeze Ahiazu Mbaise 48 323 Total 853

109

APPENDIX G

SAMPLE SIZE OF THE STUDY FOR ANAMBRA AND IMO STATES

40% of the total population in Njikoka Local Government Area =

= = 44.5 = 45

40% of the total population in Dunukofia Local Government Area =

= = 46.4 = 46

40% of the total population in Awka South Local Government Area =

= = 72

40% of the total population in Idemili South Local Government Area =

= = 80.8 = 81

40% of the total population in Idemili North Local Government Area =

= = 107.2 = 107

40% of the total population in Awka North Local Government Area =

= = 78.4 = 78

40% of the total population in Anaocha Local Government Area =

= = 101.2 = 101

40% of the total population in Owerri Municipal Local Government Area =

= = 26

40% of the total population in Owerri North Local Government Area =

= = 66.4 = 66

40% of the total population in Owerri West Local Government Area =

= = 72.4 = 72

40% of the total population in Onuimo Local Government Area =

= = 26 = 26 110

40% of the total population in Ikeduru Local Government Area =

= = 46.8 = 47

40% of the total population in Mbaitolu Local Government Area =

= = 38 = 38

40% of the total population in Ahiazu Mbaise Local Government Area =

= = 48 = 48

Total respondents were = 45+46+72+81+107+78+101+26+66+72+26+47+38+48 = 853

Sample size = 853