Capa de Lian Huan Hua Bao número 2, de 1975. 4 9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 2o. semestre/2012 Lianhuanhua Prof. Dr. John A. Lent ( Temple University Lianhuanhua (illustrated the verbal and visual to tell stories, story books) were probably the an often-given criterion for comics, closest Chinese equivalent to and they resemble other pre- comic books until contemporary twentieth century drawings labeled times. They have been compared comics, e.g. those of Töpffer. to the Big Little books (Inge 2004) Lianhuanhua have a long and Classics Illustrated comics history, appearing under various popular in the United States in mid- names by region: tuhua shu twentieth century. Yet, though there (picture book) or xiao shu (little are similarities, they are different book) in Shanghai, yayashu from these and other western- and (children’s book) in Wuhan, and Japanese-style comic books. gongzaishu (kids’ book) in First of all, lianhuanhua Guangdong (Zhong 2004: 107). (also known as xiaorenshu, or little Their origin is hard to pinpoint, man’s books) are only palm size some researchers dating their (five inches long, three and a half precursors to Han Dynasty stone inches wide, and one-fourth inch carvings and murals. (see Jie, thick). They are formatted 2004; Jiang 2000; Chen 1996; differently, containing one Huang 1981) More likely, they illustration per page that carries a came out of the late nineteenth and paragraph description usually at early twentieth centuries. Kuiyi the bottom; seldom do they use Shen (1997: 3) attributed the balloons. For much of their long introduction of lithography to China history, lianhuanhua had purposes as the stimulus for development of and messages that deviated from an embryonic form of lianhuanhua, those of western comics; they were claiming an illustrated narrative used to support social and political about the Korean rebellion in a movements and to educate and 1884 Dianshizai Pictorial may mobilize readers. And, as such, have been the first. However, this they were under stricter control story was not published as a than western comics. separate “book”; the first example The justifications for of that format appeared in 1916, including lianhuanhua with comic when the newspaper Caobao books might be that they combine bound its single-page pictorial into 9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 5 an album. (Huang and Wang Andrews (1997: 18) made 1993: 17-18) Because of the connections between the spread of popularity of these news and lianhuanhua in the 1920s and the current events albums, Shanghai ready availability of western publishers competed to find publications in Chinese cities, painters to draw them. Content claiming the “appearance of changed when, in 1918, a few lianhuanhua was part of the small publishers hired painters to Chinese response to and adoption draw illustrated story books of a of new forms of publishing from the famous Peking opera then playing West.” Hwang (1978: 53) said in Shanghai. many foreign comics [strips] were Other opera-based story translated into Chinese at the time, books followed, usually drawn and that, “Before long, original coarsely, as Shen (2001: 101) Chinese comics [lianhuanhua] explained: modeled after the foreign ones The backgrounds in the were rolling off the press of paintings were simply copied specialized publishing houses.” from the stage sets, and (see also, Nebiolo 1973) images of the figures were During China’s Republican also exact copies of the period (1911-49), stories came opera, keeping all the from popular drama, traditional traditional symbolism of the fiction, and movies; those based on objects, gestures, and make- current running dramas or films up. The reason for this might were often drawn and printed the be because a major concern night of the opening performance of these small publishers was and made available the next time. They tried to keep the morning. Artists were self-taught or publications following the started out as apprentices to schedules of the masters who took full credit. performances, so the (Andrews 1997: 18-19) cartoonists they An elaborate distribution commissioned were asked to draw at least ten pieces every system spurred readership of lianhuanhua in the 1920s and day. 1930s. Because the small books were considered vulgar by By the 1920s, novels and intellectuals,1 most book stores did current social events became not stock them. Instead, publishers regular themes, probably the first sold lianhuanhua to street booth such title being Xue Rengui vendors (usually on Beigongyili 1 But, early on, lianhuanhua had its zhengdong (Xue Rengui Going on Street in Shanghai), who, in turn, defenders. In about 1932, leading an Eastern Expedition), drawn by rented them to low-income literary figure Lu Xun (Zhou Shuren) Liu Boliang, whose style became readers. Nightly, the vendors went wrote an article, “‘Lianhuantuhua’ bianhu” (In Defense of “Comic Strips”), the standard. The term to the small publishers to buy the followed quickly by “Lianhuantuhua lianhuanhua tuhua was first used two new volumes of each comic xiaoshuo” (Comic Strip Novels) by major novelist, critic, and editor Mao Dun in 1925, to describe a World Book serial issued every day in two (Shen Yanbing). Both articles published Company publication. (A Ying thousand copies press runs. Once in Wenxue yuebao saw merits in 1957: 21). Later, the “tu” was twenty-four volumes of a serial lianhuanhua and visual culture generally. (see, Macdonald 2011) dropped. appeared, publishers bound them 6 9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 and put them in a box to be sold As movies became as old-style books. (Shen 1997: 5; popular in the late 1920s and early Huang and Wang 1993: 18-9) In 1930s, they, along with theatre, 1935, the publishers and street became the major sources for book stalls formed a comic book hurriedly-produced lianhuanhua exchange in the Taoyuanli district that appeased both movie patrons of Shanghai, where new and those who could not afford to lianhuanhua were brought by attend. Alongside the commercial publishers at two o’clock in the lianhuanhua prominent in the afternoon daily, from whence they 1930s were avant-garde would appear in street book booths lianhuanhua woodcuts, printed by by six o’clock. (Huang and Wang leftists in relatively small editions 1993: 115-9) with not much exposure. (Andrews Production in the 1920s 1997: 22) and 1930s was handled by a few During the Japanese war large and about twenty small (1937-45), both the Guomintang publishers, all dependent upon a (Nationalists) and Communists master-apprentice workforce. used serial pictures to instill Because speed was essential, the patriotism and to resist the commissioned masters were invaders. Hwang (1978: 53) said expected to finish works daily. In the Communists used lianhuanhua an assembly-line type of operation, for education and indoctrination; the master composed and drew the the Guomintang, for “didactic and main images, after which the patriotic purposes.” Among comics apprentices completed the details, in Guomintang areas were each person in charge of a specific translated foreign (especially aspect—clothes patterns, flora, American) versions, according to fauna, architecture, etc. (Shen Hwang. 1997: 5) Lianhuanhua remained an Quite famous among the important entertainment and masters were Zhu Runzhai, Zhou educational vehicle throughout the Yunfang, Shen Manyun, and Zhao 1940s; as the decade closed, in Hongben, called the “four famous Shanghai alone, more than 100 female roles” (Sida mingdan) of publishers and more than 2,000 lianhuanhua, a reference to Peking street stalls catered to opera. (Shen 2001: 105) Zhu, in a lianhuanhua. By that time, the brief career, completed more than distribution network had expanded thirty serials, mostly adopted from to Hong Kong, Singapore, and novels and historical romances. Indonesia. (Shen 2001: 108) Yet, Zhou, using western art styles and the heyday of lianhuanhua was yet modern themes, had many young to be. followers as well; one of his major That was to come after contributions was adapting Ye Liberation in 1949, when Qianyu’s famous newspaper comic lianhuanhua were made to fit Mao serial, Wang xiansheng, into a Zedong’s prescription for art that lianhuanhua. Shen was known for he delineated at the “Talks at the drawing opera and legendary Yenan Forum on Literature and Art” stories, while Zhao brought in 1942: artistic qualities are progressive works to lianhuanhua. always secondary to political uses, 9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 7 and art should be simple, The reorganization of readable, and up-beat to appeal lianhuanhua found favor among to illiterate masses. In 1950, Mao junior artists/writers who must have told then vice minister of publicity, felt exploited working in the old Zhou Yang, that because workshops and private publishing lianhuanhua had such broad outfits. appeal, a state publishing house By the mid-1950s, the re- to issue new books should be set training had paid off as drawings up. Accordingly, the Popular were more refined and more Pictures Press (Dazhong Tuhua Chinese. Andrews (1997: 26) wrote Chubanshe) was established; in of this transformation; “The artists 1951, it merged with People’s Art effectively limit any use of shading Press (Renmin Meishu or chiaroscuro, thus creating a Chubanshe) and began more Chinese flavor as well as a publishing Lianhuanhua Bao very clean image. Furthermore, (Lianhuanhua Pictorial) the same they adopt conventions