Nona Arte 2.Pmd

Capa de Lian Huan Hua Bao número 2, de 1975.

4 9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 2o. semestre/2012 Lianhuanhua

Prof. Dr. John A. Lent ( Temple University

Lianhuanhua (illustrated the verbal and visual to tell stories, story books) were probably the an often-given criterion for comics, closest Chinese equivalent to and they resemble other pre- comic books until contemporary twentieth century drawings labeled times. They have been compared comics, e.g. those of Töpffer. to the Big Little books (Inge 2004) Lianhuanhua have a long and Classics Illustrated comics history, appearing under various popular in the United States in mid- names by region: tuhua shu twentieth century. Yet, though there (picture book) or xiao shu (little are similarities, they are different book) in Shanghai, yayashu from these and other western- and (children’s book) in Wuhan, and Japanese-style comic books. gongzaishu (kids’ book) in First of all, lianhuanhua Guangdong (Zhong 2004: 107). (also known as xiaorenshu, or little Their origin is hard to pinpoint, man’s books) are only palm size some researchers dating their (five inches long, three and a half precursors to Han Dynasty stone inches wide, and one-fourth inch carvings and murals. (see Jie, thick). They are formatted 2004; Jiang 2000; Chen 1996; differently, containing one Huang 1981) More likely, they illustration per page that carries a came out of the late nineteenth and paragraph description usually at early twentieth centuries. Kuiyi the bottom; seldom do they use Shen (1997: 3) attributed the balloons. For much of their long introduction of lithography to China history, lianhuanhua had purposes as the stimulus for development of and messages that deviated from an embryonic form of lianhuanhua, those of western comics; they were claiming an illustrated narrative used to support social and political about the Korean rebellion in a movements and to educate and 1884 Dianshizai Pictorial may mobilize readers. And, as such, have been the first. However, this they were under stricter control story was not published as a than western comics. separate “book”; the first example The justifications for of that format appeared in 1916, including lianhuanhua with comic when the newspaper Caobao books might be that they combine bound its single-page pictorial into

9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 5 an album. (Huang and Wang Andrews (1997: 18) made 1993: 17-18) Because of the connections between the spread of popularity of these news and lianhuanhua in the 1920s and the current events albums, Shanghai ready availability of western publishers competed to find publications in Chinese cities, painters to draw them. Content claiming the “appearance of changed when, in 1918, a few lianhuanhua was part of the small publishers hired painters to Chinese response to and adoption draw illustrated story books of a of new forms of publishing from the famous Peking opera then playing West.” Hwang (1978: 53) said in Shanghai. many foreign comics [strips] were Other opera-based story translated into Chinese at the time, books followed, usually drawn and that, “Before long, original coarsely, as Shen (2001: 101) Chinese comics [lianhuanhua] explained: modeled after the foreign ones The backgrounds in the were rolling off the press of paintings were simply copied specialized publishing houses.” from the stage sets, and (see also, Nebiolo 1973) images of the figures were During China’s Republican also exact copies of the period (1911-49), stories came opera, keeping all the from popular drama, traditional traditional symbolism of the fiction, and movies; those based on objects, gestures, and make- current running dramas or films up. The reason for this might were often drawn and printed the be because a major concern night of the opening performance of these small publishers was and made available the next time. They tried to keep the morning. Artists were self-taught or publications following the started out as apprentices to schedules of the masters who took full credit. performances, so the (Andrews 1997: 18-19) cartoonists they An elaborate distribution commissioned were asked to draw at least ten pieces every system spurred readership of lianhuanhua in the 1920s and day. 1930s. Because the small books were considered vulgar by By the 1920s, novels and intellectuals,1 most book stores did current social events became not stock them. Instead, publishers regular themes, probably the first sold lianhuanhua to street booth such title being Xue Rengui vendors (usually on Beigongyili

1 But, early on, lianhuanhua had its zhengdong (Xue Rengui Going on Street in Shanghai), who, in turn, defenders. In about 1932, leading an Eastern Expedition), drawn by rented them to low-income literary figure Lu Xun (Zhou Shuren) Liu Boliang, whose style became readers. Nightly, the vendors went wrote an article, “‘Lianhuantuhua’ bianhu” (In Defense of “Comic Strips”), the standard. The term to the small publishers to buy the followed quickly by “Lianhuantuhua lianhuanhua tuhua was first used two new volumes of each comic xiaoshuo” (Comic Strip Novels) by major novelist, critic, and editor Mao Dun in 1925, to describe a World Book serial issued every day in two (Shen Yanbing). Both articles published Company publication. (A Ying thousand copies press runs. Once in Wenxue yuebao saw merits in 1957: 21). Later, the “tu” was twenty-four volumes of a serial lianhuanhua and visual culture generally. (see, Macdonald 2011) dropped. appeared, publishers bound them

6 9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 and put them in a box to be sold As movies became as old-style books. (Shen 1997: 5; popular in the late 1920s and early Huang and Wang 1993: 18-9) In 1930s, they, along with theatre, 1935, the publishers and street became the major sources for book stalls formed a comic book hurriedly-produced lianhuanhua exchange in the Taoyuanli district that appeased both movie patrons of Shanghai, where new and those who could not afford to lianhuanhua were brought by attend. Alongside the commercial publishers at two o’clock in the lianhuanhua prominent in the afternoon daily, from whence they 1930s were avant-garde would appear in street book booths lianhuanhua woodcuts, printed by by six o’clock. (Huang and Wang leftists in relatively small editions 1993: 115-9) with not much exposure. (Andrews Production in the 1920s 1997: 22) and 1930s was handled by a few During the Japanese war large and about twenty small (1937-45), both the Guomintang publishers, all dependent upon a (Nationalists) and Communists master-apprentice workforce. used serial pictures to instill Because speed was essential, the patriotism and to resist the commissioned masters were invaders. Hwang (1978: 53) said expected to finish works daily. In the Communists used lianhuanhua an assembly-line type of operation, for education and indoctrination; the master composed and drew the the Guomintang, for “didactic and main images, after which the patriotic purposes.” Among comics apprentices completed the details, in Guomintang areas were each person in charge of a specific translated foreign (especially aspect—clothes patterns, flora, American) versions, according to fauna, architecture, etc. (Shen Hwang. 1997: 5) Lianhuanhua remained an Quite famous among the important entertainment and masters were Zhu Runzhai, Zhou educational vehicle throughout the Yunfang, Shen Manyun, and Zhao 1940s; as the decade closed, in Hongben, called the “four famous Shanghai alone, more than 100 female roles” (Sida mingdan) of publishers and more than 2,000 lianhuanhua, a reference to Peking street stalls catered to opera. (Shen 2001: 105) Zhu, in a lianhuanhua. By that time, the brief career, completed more than distribution network had expanded thirty serials, mostly adopted from to Hong Kong, Singapore, and novels and historical romances. Indonesia. (Shen 2001: 108) Yet, Zhou, using western art styles and the heyday of lianhuanhua was yet modern themes, had many young to be. followers as well; one of his major That was to come after contributions was adapting Ye Liberation in 1949, when Qianyu’s famous newspaper comic lianhuanhua were made to fit Mao serial, Wang xiansheng, into a Zedong’s prescription for art that lianhuanhua. Shen was known for he delineated at the “Talks at the drawing opera and legendary Yenan Forum on Literature and Art” stories, while Zhao brought in 1942: artistic qualities are progressive works to lianhuanhua. always secondary to political uses,

9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 7 and art should be simple, The reorganization of readable, and up-beat to appeal lianhuanhua found favor among to illiterate masses. In 1950, Mao junior artists/writers who must have told then vice minister of publicity, felt exploited working in the old Zhou Yang, that because workshops and private publishing lianhuanhua had such broad outfits. appeal, a state publishing house By the mid-1950s, the re- to issue new books should be set training had paid off as drawings up. Accordingly, the Popular were more refined and more Pictures Press (Dazhong Tuhua Chinese. Andrews (1997: 26) wrote Chubanshe) was established; in of this transformation; “The artists 1951, it merged with People’s Art effectively limit any use of shading Press (Renmin Meishu or chiaroscuro, thus creating a Chubanshe) and began more Chinese flavor as well as a publishing Lianhuanhua Bao very clean image. Furthermore, (Lianhuanhua Pictorial) the same they adopt conventions of year. (Jie 2001: 25; Pan 2008: traditional illustration, but combine 702-3) them remarkably effectively with To prop up the realistic drawing.” lianhuanhua industry, in 1950, Significant revisions New Fourth Army cadres were concerning content occurred; sent to work as supervisors at themes concerning gods, ghosts, Shanghai lianhuanhua publishing kings, ministers, scholars, and houses. Radical changes were beauties gave way to “praising the made concerning artists and party, Chairman Mao, socialism, writers, who underwent “thought heroes of the new era, workers, reform and ideological peasants, and soldiers.” (Ma Ke indoctrination,” were retrained in 1963) Old themes were considered special art classes in 1951-2, and/ “superstitious and feudalistic, or were recruited from art schools. unsuitable for the education of the Artists were also relieved of the masses.” (Hwang 1978: 53) Post- responsibility of writing texts, a 1949 lianhuanhua fell into result of which, was that categories of those molding “the heroic image of the proletariat”; the artist was simply “dealing with Chinese Communist presented with a set of revolutionary history and captions for which pictures contemporary reconstruction were to be supplied. This campaigns”; recounting traditional was an attempt to folklore, and recording the history professionalize both of international Communist writing and drawing, movements. (Hwang 1978: 57, 59) potentially raising the Lianhuanhua became a qualitative level of each. At major propaganda arm of the party the same time, it may have and state in the 1950s and were to made state control of the be “strengthened in order to textual content more occupy the consciousness of the efficient. (Andrews 1997: youth.” (Jiang 2005: 33) That this 23) happened is visible in the growth

8 9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 in numbers of titles and total generation’s lack of spiritual circulations: 670 titles and 21 nutrition. Because art and literature million copies in 1952, to 2,300 policy was controlled by the “Gang titles and more than 100 million of Four,” lianhuanhua contents copies in 1957. (Chiang 1959) were what they ordered—sample Between 1949 and 1963, 12,700 operas (eight operas ordered by different titles with a combined Mao’s wife Jiang Qing), heroes’ circulation of 560 million appeared. stories, criticisms of Lin Biao and The situation drastically Confucius, the two class/two roads changed at the onset of the struggle, Red Little Guards and “Cultural Revolution” (1966-76), Red Guards, intellectual youth when the lianhuanhua of the going to the countryside, industrial seventeen-year period after learning from the Daqing oil wells, Liberation were criticized as being and farming learning from Dazhai feudalist, capitalist, and revisionist, (village) revolutionary struggle and many were burned as stories. (Jie 2004: 43) If a study “poisoned weeds,” their artists and situation was depicted, many of editors criticized, censored, and Mao’s books would be on sent to the countryside to be bookshelves and all those pictured reformed. An article in Shanghai in the lianhuanhua would be Art World Criticized Material holding Mao’s books. If a farm Collection No. 9 during the harvest was shown, many bags “Cultural Revolution” promoted and piles of grains and fertilizers lianhuanhua as important were visible, as were farming propaganda agents for Maoist machines, all neatly lined up. thought, but lamented that for “Cultural Revolution” seventeen years, their artists lianhuanhua both criticized party neglected the class struggle, and state enemies and praised spread “poisoned” ideas, and heroes of the Revolution to the pushed for the revival of capitalism extreme. Exemplifying their in China. The article reported that emphasis on messages of loyalty, in 1962, Minister of Culture Zhou humble self-sacrifice, and Yang gave the Shanghai Peoples attendance to duty, Moritz (1973: Art Press paper to print more than 9) cited Twenty-Four Tales of Filial 27 million copies of the Piety, a picture story book about a lianhuanhua, Sanguo Yanyi (Three young boy who lowers his body Kingdoms Stories), blamed for onto the ice to melt a hole in order spreading feudalism in China, as that his starving father can fish. well as in Hong Kong, India, Lianhuanhua came in two Macao, and elsewhere through versions—one illustrative and exportation. (Jie 2004: 37) “cartoonized,” used to criticize their For five years (1966-70), subjects; the other photographic, seldom were lianhuanhua meant to espouse the published, but then, on September achievements of heroes. (Jie 2004: 11, 1971, Chou Enlai called 42) All lianhuanhua started with a publishing leaders together and page of Mao’s words; though not told them to revive lianhuanhua as a rule, it became a custom or soon as possible to solve the next widely-used practice. Additionally,

9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 9 some others published the words consisted of slogans used as of Marx, Lenin, Engels, or Stalin; criticism; their images drawn in an the content determined who was orderly fashion and appearing as to be quoted. When, in October quickly-drawn cartoons. (Moritz 1972, the Shanghai Peoples Press 1973: 9) published a film version Though rare in the first half lianhuanhua, A Fu, based on the of the “Cultural Revolution,” Vietnamese movie of the same lianhuanhua regained favor once title, Ho Chi Minh’s sayings the “Gang of Four” had complete appeared on the first page. (Jie control over them. Altogether, 2004: 42) 1,500 lianhuanhua titles with more Hwang (1978: 66-7) said than 700 million copies were the artists worked under strict printed during that decade; more guidelines that stipulated the use than a third of the titles came from of caption, not balloons (because Heilongjiang province and captions allow for more narrative Shanghai. information, while balloons are After Mao’s death in 1976, less aesthetic), the emphasis on lianhuanhua publishing was many close-ups of heroes/ reorganized once again. Exiled heroines, and the centering of the older artists returned to the studios, main character in the pictures. Jie joined by young draftsmen; room (2004: 44), describing the “three was made for freelance artists’ outstanding” principles of works; strident propaganda was lianhuanhua, said: all positive replaced by very subtle messages; characters must look outstanding; styles of art became more diverse, among positive characters, heroes and with Deng Xiaoping’s rule after must look outstanding; among 1979, rigid controls were heroes, the major hero must look abandoned. (Andrews 1997: 31) outstanding. Other rules required The popularity of the miniature portraying enemies of the masses books resulted in huge profits for with sinister looks, drawing scenes publishing houses between 1978 and minor characters to serve the and 1984; in 1983 alone, 2,100 main proletarian hero/heroine, and titles appeared, surmounting 630 employing graphic devices of million copies, or about one-fourth contrast to reflect the relationship of China’s total book production between the hero/heroine and the that year. (Jie 2004: 33, quoted in enemy. Colors were effectively Pan 2008: 706) The number rose used: enemy and ugly characters to 800 million the following year. were drawn in cold greys; heroes Prominent painter Wang were given bright colors. (Jie 2004: 45) Wei said it was an honor to draw One genre called “criticize lianhuanhua in the early 1980s, movement lianhuanhua,” reflected and it was profitable. He said for the status of a place or company’s his work with a drama troupe at the movement. These books used time, he was paid 39-41 yuan very serious words, mixing satire monthly, but he received 120 yuan of contemporary situations with to draw one lianhuanhua. ancient stories. Their language Discussing his lianhuanhua

10 9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 experiences, Wang Wei (interview, reader demands (Cao 2002; Yu 2012) recalled: 2000; Lin 1997; Hong 1995), and I used different styles (brush, the replacement of the pen, etching, etc.), depending government-secured distribution on the content. If I drew system with one for which ancient stories, I used brush publishing houses were and long lines. For war responsible. The market reforms stories, I used pen. Stories also affected bookstores which were given to us by the would not buy unprofitable or publishers. I did much marginal profit books without research on the subjects, government subsidy. (Xu 1999: 53, people’s dress, customs, etc. quoted in Pan 2008: 706-7) I’d design everything— State publication bureaus conceptualize, sketch, and attempted to save the industry by ink the story. A draft then regulating publishing houses and would be drawn for the the books’ quality, but to little avail. editor’s approval. He In 1987, total sales of lianhuanhua corrected the work, we would amounted to less than 80 million discuss it, and I would do a copies. (Jiang 1989: 8) Sales new version. The whole dropped considerably more in the process was taken very 1990s, and lianhuanhua began to seriously. All lianhuanhua be collectables, rather than rich artists were very serious; reading material. Collecting there were different values lianhuanhua for profit escalated, then. Every detail and style encouraging some renowned was carefully done; versions presses to republish old versions. were drawn over and over. In recent times, the line between lianhuanhua and comics Wang Wei (interview, blurred, leading to the coinage of 2012) showed how his the term “cartoon- lianhuanhua.” lianhuanhua (and the industry Pan (2008: 713) explained: generally) dwindled in circulation by the mid-1980s; in 1980, his first Several implications underlie title, 36 Strategies, sold 1.8 million the mixture of usage. First, it copies; a second, Xue Zhan shows the compromise of Shahe, in 1984, 850,000 copies, traditional lianhuanhua with and a third in 1985, 340,000 overseas comic art. Since the copies. He blamed the entry of tastes of Chinese children Japanese manga into China in and youth have been shaped 1984 as the main reason for the largely by imported cartoons lessened interest in lianhuanhua. or comic books lately, the But, others blamed the publishers tried to win back 1986-7 crash of the lianhuanhua readers by catering to their market on the widespread preferences. Second, it availability of television sets and signals the innovations within video-cassette players; the the lianhuanhua, which aims diminished quality of the books as at competing with the publishers and artists quickened imported cartoons or comic their production pace to meet books by learning from their

9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 11 artistic style and marketing their search, noticeable in the strategy. Lastly, the term immense popularity that manga/ “cartoon- lianhuanhua” anime-based cosplay attained disclosed the direction that throughout the country. the pictorial book industry Chew and Chen (2010: works toward in boosting the 173) believed that the pirated domestic market, i.e., while publication of more than six million learning from oversea copies of Saint Seiya in 1990-1, set counterparts, certain off the manga and anime boom in elements of the traditional China, mainly because it appealed lianhuanhua would be to young adults, as well as children. maintained. Development of a huge and fast- growing manga piracy industry at Manga and Xinmanhua that time resulted, according to The popularity of these authors, Japanese manga beginning in the Because copyrighted original 1980s has had much to do with manga publications were how artists, audiences, and the costly, inaccessible, and authorities have perceived comics. written in the Japanese Older cartoonists, most of whom language, they could not drew humor or political/social possibly satisfy the growing commentary cartoons for decades, demand of Chinese labeled manga style as “ugly” audiences. At the same time, (Liao, interview, 2002; Chen Japanese publishers did not Huiling, interview, 2009), have incentives to expand damaging, and non-relevant, operations, distribute having a pernicious effect upon the products, and glocalize Chinese style. (He Wei, interview, contents for any anime and 2001; Zheng Xinyao, interview, manga markets outside 2001) Younger artists, who grew Japan. Moreover, the Chinese up reading pirated manga, favored state was still unaware of the this drawing style because it potential social impact of appeared to be modern, was more anime and manga and hence action oriented, captured the did not try to regulate their changing culture trends in China, circulation in China. (Chew and sometimes provided and Chen 2010: 173) opportunities for international recognition through manga Pirated publishers, the competitions. most successful of which was Youth comics audiences Sichuan Xiwang Shudian (Sichuan also developed new tastes in the Hope Book Store), employed 1990s, looking to the West and various strategies to keep manga Japan for lifestyle, fashion, and prices low for young readers with entertainment models, as they little disposable income—dividing sought to develop their own books into less costly volumes and identities in an open market building a network of specialized economy and as the first pirated manga book stores and generation of the one-child policy. make-shift stalls across the Manga and anime loomed large in country. Sichuan Xiwang Shudian

12 9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 also published the comics them almost un-modified in their magazine Huashu Dawang (Comic own works. King), initially, consisting of the In 1993-4, Japanese latest pirated manga series, but manga publishers filed complaints soon after, including lianhuanhua with the Chinese government and locally-drawn manga-style relative to the piracy, results of comics (xinmanhua). The which were the forceful closure of popularity of the latter led to Sichuan Xiwang Shudian, the imitators, and the birth of the banning of Huashu Dawang, the xinmanhua genre, described by subduing of piracy for a while, and Chew and Chen (2010: 174-5) as the implementation of the 5155 a contrast to lianhuanhua because Project in 1995. Under the xinmanhua were drawn in the early auspices of the General period by, Administration of Press and Mainly manga fans, white- Publication, 5155 “constructed five collar workers, and students major comics publishers within without any education in the three years to publish fifteen series fine arts of professional of comic books and establish five training in the comic arts. comics magazines.” (Chew and These young artists took Chen 2010: 176-7) The most comic drawing as a part-time influential and longest-surviving of hobby; they were not the new comics magazines were organized into work units or Shaonian Manhua (Youth Comics) professional workshops…. and Beijing Katong (Beijing Because most of the Cartoon).2 All five magazines xinmanhua artists took benefited greatly from the already- popular manga as their established markets and talent models, they tended to pools inherited from the pirates produce fictional stories, love and their government affiliation fantasies, and fairy tale-like and funding, which allowed them contents; their drawing style to legally obtain copyrighted tended to be less realistic and manga. Though, in their initial more embellished than that of stage, the 5155 comics filled pages lianhuanhua. The images of with much manga content, they characters in xinmanhua also encouraged non-Japanese were as exaggerated as those manga styles and content made up of manga…. Xinmanhua’s of something other than “dull use of camera style motion historical stories of thousands of and filmic perspectives also years ago.” (“China Challenges…” distinguishes it from the static 1996: 4) lianhuanhua perspective. For example, Beijing Some artists, such as Katong featured stories such as Jiang Ling and Yao Feila, who “Chinese Ghost Woman,” developed their own localized “Handsome Boy,” who “cheats in manga styles, started out imitating the singing competition, but still manga to the smallest detail; a few gets the girl,” and “Nie Shuer,” 2 Two others were Katong Wang (King others even copied pictures from about a teenage, “accident-prone of Cartoon) and King of Popular Science original manga and incorporated martial-arts ingénue.” (“China Comics.

9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 13 Challenges…” 1996: 4) A favorite areas such as fashion illustration 1996 comic book was Soccer Boy, for styles and content. In some rare a sixty-part saga about a boy who instances, artists such as Zhao Jia, makes the national team under the Weng Ziyang, and Quan authoritarian guidance of a coach Yingsheng incorporated traditional determined to “overcome the Chinese painting into their comics. laziness and lack of discipline that All seemed to be going well: plagues the spoiled kids… growing popular xinmanhua series in the up in the era of China’s one-child five official magazines were being policy.” (Mufson 1996: A31) Soccer re-published as single comic Boy, the product of the books; some artists, such as Jiang government-favored Sichuan Ling, Xiao Yanfei, Hu Rong, and Children’s Publication Press, was Yao Feila, were winning awards in a reaction to government and China and abroad, and xinmanhua public outcries about the cultural styles were being made “more “malnutrition” resulting from technically mature, localized, and Chinese children’s digestion of diversified.” (Chew and Chen foreign comics. (Mufson 1996: 2010: 180) A32) And then, just as quickly The 5155 Project allowed as the 5155 Project had altered the authorities to exercise more Chinese comics generally for the control over content considered better, a series of circumstances harmful to Chinese morals and in 2000-1 steered them to other social norms. The prevalence of less than ideal directions. Among teenage love affairs and depictions these changes were the declining of sex in manga were especially interest in printed comics, the controversial and were often the drying up of the 5155 official subjects of media attention. magazines, the revival of pirated Though anti-pornography laws manga, and the ushering in of new carried severe penalties, from fines comics media, such as info- and imprisonment to the death magazines and the Internet. By penalty, the “distasteful” manga, 2000, the official magazines through underground and Internet struggled financially, as much of channels, continued to thrive well their revenue was siphoned off to into the first decade of the twenty- the sponsoring officials, leaving first century. Particularly of concern little for the artists, who drifted off were boys’ love (danmei, or male- to other employment. With male relationships) manga. (Liu dwindling staffs and the inability to 2009) meet payrolls, the official Xinmanhua in the late magazines were all gone by 2005. 1990s tried to distance themselves The revival of new strands of further from manga, replacing sex pirated manga was also blamed and violence with educational for the demise of the official values, resetting love stories in magazines. In the early 2000s, ancient, rather than contemporary, unauthorized copies of China, and encouraging non- copyrighted Chinese translations Japanese styles. Some xinmanhua of manga from Taiwan and Hong artists turned to Taiwanese and Kong found their way to the Hong Kong popular culture or other mainland. These comics, though

14 9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 half the size of standard comics the major location for xinmanhua published in China, were content, though in limited amounts. sometimes five times the price Manyou (Comic Fans), which because of their higher quality. In devoted more of its space to 2002, a new version of pirated xinmanhwa than did other info- comics appeared, described by magazines such as Dongman Chew and Chen (2010: 181) as, Shidai (Animation and Comic This version minimized the Times) and Xinganxian (Comics original pages and then and Ani’s Reports), attracted many printed four pages on a 32- of the artists who previously fold page. These so-called si- published in the official magazines. pin-yi (four pages in one Because of its concentration on page) pirated books were of xinmanhua, Manyou gained state low quality, because the financial support in 2008 and was pictures were greatly the lone survival of the first group minimized and the words of info-magazines. Chew and were barely readable. The Chen (2010: 184-5) wrote, reading system was The commercialized nature of problematic because on each Comic Fans has influenced page, the lines read right to the direction of xinmanhua left, but the four pages read development. The magazine left to right. It was so targeted female teenagers confusing that the pirate and published comic styles publishers had to mark the and contents that catered to correct reading order on each this particular market. As a page of all manga. result, a large portion of the Despite their poor quality, xinmanhua works carried in the magazine either the prices of the pirated manga resembled Japanese shôjo skyrocketed. At the same time, manga or followed the most with more readers moving to the recent fad in the Japanese digital arena, pirated anime prices manga scene. fell sharply and replaced pirated manga. As the bottom fell out of In addition to info- the pirated manga market, the magazines, the Internet was the whole printed comics industry other new vehicle for comics plummeted in China. dissemination in the 2000s. No While all of this was doubt, the Internet played a major happening, new platforms for role in the decreased sales of xinmanhua were ushered in, such printed comics in China, but it also as info-magazines. Begun in 1998, helped xinmanhua to survive, the semi-legal info-magazines through oekaki bulletin board collected materials on manga and systems that allow budding anime from Japanese print cartoonists to create, using magazines and the Internet and computer graphics, and then post translated the information into their works; online forums that Chinese. Chew and Chen (2010: accommodate comics and anima- 183) reported that between 1998 tion fans, and sites that provide and 2006, info-magazines were space for alternative comics.

9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 15 Both online and in printed phone numbers of convenience xinmanhua, a common theme of stores,” some of which deliver. young cartoonists is the upheaval Some of them print their work in of Chinese society caused by so- book form, but, because most of called “modernization.” One such what they do is considered popular online work in the late unsuitable by the state and not 2000s was Liu Gang’s “Suicide commercial enough for investors, Rabbit,” that portrayed with “gentle it goes largely unnoticed. humor the million little abuses However, there have been suffered by Chinese people as commercial successes among their society endures a bumpy recent Chinese comic books, such transformation.” (Cody 2007) as Zheng Jun’s two volume Another strip by Luo Yonghao, graphic novel Tibetan Rock Dog published online and in a literary (2009) and the comics of Quan magazine, followed a fly character Yingsheng. A rock star himself, trapped in a glass bottle trying to Zheng Jun fashioned a story about escape, an allusion to the dilemma a dog that grew up in a Buddhist of Chinese people trying to follow temple in Tibet and the hardships their heart, truth, and honesty, he faced pursuing his dream of instead of the increasingly being a rock star in Beijing. The materialistic Chinese society. As book sold more than 100,000 another example, Benjamin Le copies and was spun off into a Soir’s comic books (One, Orange, movie, dolls, and other Remember, Savior, etc.), published merchandise. (“Tibetan Rock Dog in Chinese and French, dealt with Rocks on” 2009) suicide, mental disturbance, Quan Yingsheng, founder madness, and the belief that and head of Beijing Heavycomics materialism and money are not the Culture & Media Co. Ltd. (founded best paths to happiness. 1999), has succeeded with a Some of this type of fare diverse mix of comics. One of the comes out of self-publishing two largest of several hundred collectives producing underground comics companies in China (the comics (e.g. Cult Youth or Special other being Shenjie Comics in Comics). Coco Wang, a Chinese Tianjin), Beijing Heavycomics cartoonist living in England,3 bring out manga, xinmanhua, and described these collectives as manhua, the latter distinctly consisting of artists who make a Chinese in story and aesthetic modest living working in the game/ qualities. Perhaps most unique of animation industry and spending the young artist’s endeavors is the most of their free time simply application of traditional water and drawing comics and having fun ink painting to comic books such exchanging and criticizing one as Cheng ji si han (Genghis Khan), another’s works. Coco (quoted in Chan lai chan qu (Buddhahood 3 Coco Wang draws memoir/diary-type comics (tu wen), popular among Gravett 2008) said these young Twines), Qi gain an zai (Beggar Chinese cartoonists in recent years. Two people stay in their rooms for long Boy), and Geshaer Wang (King of other Chinese cartoonists working out of England whose works are published in periods doing comics because Gesar). Quan (interview, 2011) China are Yishan Li, author of about a they have “computers, DVDs, said he intertwines comics and half dozen comic books, and Rain (Ru online games, internet, take-away traditional painting to disprove An), known for Ethereal Wings, Midnight Ink, and Silent Rainbow. menus (of many restaurants), people’s perception that “if you

16 9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 draw comics, you cannot draw as cities had established their own an artist.” Working on the principle production bases with preferential of “reducing the manga and policies, and many animation/ switching attention to the Chinese comics extravaganzas, such as style,” Quan (interview, 2011) has festivals, competitions, and published a long line of comic conferences, had taken place. By books based on themes of Chinese 2012, at least one hundred annual adventure, history, love, sports, festivals existed, along with detective, etc. Many are multi- museums, centers, theme parks, volume collections. Quan’s water thousands of studios, and and ink comics fare better hundreds of educational and financially than those he does in training programs. Most of the manga style. Because there are emphasis of these state-backed many small publishers printing projects was placed on animation. manga-style books in China and Though the quantity of the comics the international manga market is and animation was more than already glutted, Beijing sufficient, the quality of work often Heavycomics has little room for suffered because of rushed jobs, expansion in this field. On the other over-emphasis on software, and hand, the company’s water and ink lack of good storytelling comic books, because of their techniques. uniqueness and the small pool of Despite this preferential highly-skilled artists who can draw treatment, China’s comic book them, have become popular in industry still lags behind some of China and anticipate increased its Asian neighbors; it has been international sales. (see Lent and described by cartoonist Ru An as Xu 2012) “a teenager; it’s young, but Overall, Chinese comic pretending to be old. But it must books needed a boost when the [mature] quickly and catch up to the government got heavily involved others [Japan and South Korea].” again in the mid-2000s, partly as a (quoted in Cha 2007) reaction against the prevalence of foreign works and as a potentially Humor/Cartoon Magazines and important investment. Economists Comic Strips and national leaders, perhaps following the South Korea example Pictorial newspapers and a decade earlier, propped up magazines dating from the late comics and animation as the third nineteenth century played vital pillar of the economy. During the roles in the creation of a comics 11th Five-Year Projection for Social tradition in China. The first pictorial and Economic Development magazine was Ying Huan Pictorial (2006-10), the comics and (1877-80), edited by a Britisher; it animation sector was listed as a was followed by about a dozen key cultural industry to be others during the latter years of the developed at the national level. The Qing Dynasty. The pictorials, as development had already begun by well as most of the seventy 2006, when more than twenty newspapers and magazines that provinces made comics and appeared in China between 1875 animation a new industry, nine and 1911, often carried “funnies,”

9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 17 “burlesques,” “current pictures,” and spur them to work in and “emblems,” all forms of comic concerted efforts to create a art. unified government; second, Standing out among the to let westerners understand cartoonists of the 1911 revolution Chinese culture and customs, period was Qian Binghe, who and thus, raise the positions worked for the daily Minquan of China in the world; and huabao (Civil Rights Pictorial), but third, to promote the new also contributed cartoons to other morality and practices and periodicals. He was particularly discard the old. noted for a comic strip published in Minquan huabao and Minguo A prolific cartoonist who xinwen (Republic News) for the created more than 1,000 cartoons year 1913. Entitled “A Hundred for various periodicals in the Appearances of the Old Gibbon,” 1910s, Shen also did most of the the strip poked fun at President cartoons in Shanghai Puck. and would-be emperor Yuan A second cartoon/comics Shikai, using the rebus of gibbon magazine came out of the (yuan in Chinese) to do so. (Shen Shanghai Manhuahui (Shanghai 2001: 109) Comic and Cartoon Society), Two claims have been started in 1927. The following year, made for the first humor or cartoon this group of young cartoonists magazine in China, both named brought out Shanghai Manhua Puck. Writing in 1877, Parton (Shanghai Sketch), which also reported on an English-language published paintings, photographs, humor monthly, Puck, published in and essays. The editors stated in Shanghai in the 1870s. For the the inaugural issue, that “we don’t most part, the British ridiculed want to be a guard-dog of the old themselves in Puck, although morality in order to curse evil, and occasionally, they had a chuckle don’t have interest in praising about Chinese ceremonies. vanity fair either… Our effort is to (Parton 1877: 196) Likely more express our feelings about the deserving to be called the first was great and colorful life in Shanghai.” Shanghai Puck (also Bochen huaji Less political, Shanghai Manhua huabao, or Bochen’s Comic concentrated on comic strips, the Pictorial), because it was published most famous being “Wang by a Chinese cartoonist and xiansheng” (Mr. Wang), drawn by carried the word “comic” in its title. Ye Qianyu (Ye Lunqi). The bilingual (Chinese and “Wang xiansheng” was a English) monthly was started in four- to eight-panel strip built 1918 by Shen Bochen and issued around a “triangular-headed, more than 10,000 copies of each middle-class philistine, proud of its only four numbers. Shen possessor of all the typical (1918: 2, quoted in Shen 2001: Chinese vices.” (Chen 1938: 312) 109) gave his magazine’s Dealing with the sensations of responsibilities as: modern urban life (luxury, gluttony, first, to give advice and deceit, pleasure seeking) coupled warning to both governments with accompanying social of the south and the north, problems (conformism, gambling,

18 9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 hunger for social success, and lack the successor to Time Cartoon of education and culture), the strip when the latter was suspended in was the first to feature a “true 1936 because of its political comic strip hero” in China. (Shen stance, and Manhua shenghuo 2001: 113) Ye had a keen sense was the new version of the monthly of characterization, which he Cartoon Life, closed by the mentioned when later government in 1935 because of its remembering the launch of his leftist viewpoints. (Lent 1994: 285) career: “Although I was motivated Manhua shenghuo also closed more by need than artistic after three months because of fulfillment, I learned how to pick out government charges that it that tell-tale trait that gives life to a advocated class struggle, opposed character and—how to make my the government, and promoted the audience laugh or cry over it.” (“55 Bolshevik Revolution. Years…” 1982: 26) Considered the cartoon When Shanghai Manhua magazine of highest quality was ceased publishing in 1930, “Wang Modern Sketch, edited by Lu xiansheng” moved to Shidai Shaofei, which was noted for its huabao (Modern Miscellany), use of several color pages and for which Ye edited. Ye spread the publishing the cartoons of more strip around after 1932. For Tuhua than one hundred Chinese chenbao (Picture Morning News), cartoonists. (see, Wang 1935: 3) he did the series “Wang xiansheng A major cartoonist at the time, Jack biezhuan” (Another Story of Mr. Chen, gave the circulation of some Wang) and later drew “Story of Mr. cartoon magazines as high as Wang in the South” for Guangzhou 40,000. He said they were meant and “Story of Mr. Wang in the primarily for men, because they North” for Tientsin. Tuhua chenbao indulged in some “Elizabethan kept the series alive for 182 issues. coarseness,” explaining, “There is (Xie 1991: 88) necessarily a certain amount of Cartoon magazines eroticism, influenced to a great thrived in the mid-1930s; about extent by such journals as the twenty published in Shanghai American Esquire, but with an alone. Besides those already element of quite Chinese mentioned, they included Modern abandon.” (Chen 1938: 311) Sketch, Manhua shenghuo Most of the second (Comics and Life), Duli manhua generation master cartoonists (Oriental Puck), Manhuajie (Comic (those born in the 1910s and early Circle), Independent Cartoons, 1920s) started their careers on Zhongguo Manhua (China these humor magazines while they Cartoon) and Time Cartoon, the were still teenagers or college latter published as a reaction to students. (Huang, interview, 2001) Japan’s invasion of Manchuria in Among them were Chen Huiling, 1931, which it described as a Ding Cong, Mai Fei, Te Wei, and “tragic farce.” (quoted in Chen Liao Bingxiong. Describing 1938: 308) Some magazines were cartooning for those magazines reincarnations of titles forced to and dailies in the 1930s and 1940s close for various reasons. For as “a hungry situation,” Liao example, Manhuajie started up as Bingxiong (interview, 2002) said:

9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 19 I found this Shanghai cartoon theory and technique to the new magazine (Time Cartoon) in a field through scores of books and bookstore and starting countless drawings. In fact, the sending cartoons to it. I term manhua ( a direct translation became a Shanghai of the Japanese manga) was first cartoonist after that. They and applied to his work by Zheng other periodicals could not Zhenduo, when his “Zikai manhua” pay. I was very poor, could not appeared in the impressive literary afford to take the bus. I walked journal, Wenxuezhoubao (Literary to the newspaper to hand in Review) in 1925. Feng is credited my works, and I seldom got with giving cartoons much needed payment. What payments respect, because he contributed there were, were very small. regularly to prestigious literary My hope was to get some journals and influential dailies of money so I kept sending the 1920s. His “Zikai manhua” was cartoons. extremely popular because of its portrayal of “lovable, mischievous Mai Fei (interview, 2006), children” in an original style that whose first cartoon appeared in combined the traditional Chinese Zhongguo Manhua in 1935, said brush technique with he was a second year art student contemporary social settings, at the time and became “famous” humor, and religious messages. among fellow students because he (Hung 1990: 46-7) He also was published. introduced an important new genre Other outlets for into modern Chinese image cartoonists were provided by major literature with his literary comic journals such as Dongfang zazhi strips based on the best modern (Eastern Miscellany), Lun yu Chinese literature. In the 1930s, he (Analects), and Yuzhou feng moved from idyllic children’s (Cosmos Wind), magazines which cartoons to social cartoons, increased their solicitation of although his works were not cartoons, and newspapers which “ephemerally political” like those of added special cartoon/comics his contemporaries. sections. (Hung 1990: 42) The Zhang Leping is credited supplements that appeared in with creating China’s most Chinese dailies by the 1930s important and longest lasting occasionally included a children’s comic strip, “Sanmao” (Three page. These were particularly Hairs), started in 1935 in the daily common in North China, starting Xiaochenbao (Small Morning with Tientsin’s Social Welfare in Paper) in Shanghai. In its pre- 1929. All such supplements World War II version, “Sanmao” included cartoons and strips. was strictly for humor and (Cheng 1931: 103-4) entertainment. (Bi and Huang Among trend-setting artists 1983: 258) Social inequities whose comic strips and cartoons started to appear when the strip appeared in these publications of was revived in 1945 after an eight- the 1920s and 1930s, Feng Zikai year lapse. Published in and Zhang Leping must be singled Shanghai’s Shenbao (Shen out. Feng Zikai contributed much Newspaper), this version satirizes

20 9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 greed among high officials, while walked along in old Shanghai, showing Sanmao as a brave- then ruled by the reactionary beyond-belief soldier (in one nationalist government. Some instance, single-handedly were so exploited by defeating an entire platoon), who landlords and capitalists that often was the butt of elder soldiers’ they had no clothes and food anger—a kid at the bottom of the and died of illness and pecking order. Called Sanmao starvation. Others became Congjunji (Sanmao Joins the cannon fodder, forced into the Army), these strips were brutally army by the reactionary graphic at times, showing Nationalist clique. Still others bayoneted victims, a severed were killed indiscriminately by hand, a splotch of blood were once reactionary American stood a fellow soldier, etc. As devils…. Every family has Zhang (1983) himself countless such tragedies to acknowledged, Sanmao’ tell! (1913, quoted in Farquhar ingenuous soldiering was often 1995: 149) absurd. In one strip, Sanmao manages to lift his heavy gun and Throughout these pre- kill four enemy soldiers with one Liberation strips, Sanmao was bullet. screamed at, kicked, scolded, Sanmao Congjunji was a slapped, and imprisoned, and bridge from the “for fun” strips of though he was compassionate and the 1930s and more serious and well meaning, he always seemed socially penetrating ones to do the wrong thing and he never beginning in 1947. Farquhar fit in. He is seen sleeping on the (1995: 151) said several traits street blanketed by newspapers common to the later series and dreaming of being part of a Sanmao Liulangji (The family with food, a bed, and a Wanderings of Sanmao), loving mother; shivering from cold beginning in the newspaper as he watches a wealthy woman Dagongbao (Dagong Newspaper) and her dog, both in fur coats, pass in 1947, were evident in the post- by, or thinking up survival World War II strips, such as their schemes. In one episode, he contemporary, controversial, and hangs a sign around his neck educational nature and their advertising that he was for sale for sympathetic concern for the 10,000 yuan. Meanwhile, in a shop masses. She said a fourth nearby, a child’s doll was characteristic added to The advertised as costing 100,000 Wanderings of Sanmao was a yuan. “clear differentiation of class” Most “Sanmao” strips were (152), where Sanmao is reprinted many times as representative of the oppressed. collections, particularly The Zhang Leping discussed the Wanderings of Sanmao, which, motivation of the strip starting in after 1949, were used to contrast 1947, writing, the wretchedness of pre-Liberation [In 1948 and 1949], you could with the uplifted living conditions see homeless children in under Mao. The post-liberation every street and alley you “Sanmao” series lost their spark,

9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 21 serving as educational and Ribao (Front Daily); the cartoon rhetorical tools “to draw a symbolic supplement published fifty-two line for children between old and times. new China.” (Farquhar 1995: 154) Describing the conditions Sanmao now was shown as a under which Xingqi Manhua bright, studious boy and as a existed, Mai Fei (interview, 2006) teacher, imploring friends not to said: smoke, be selfish, or show off. When we did Xingqi Manhua, (see, Peng 1980:2) there was no electricity some “Sanmao” remains China’s days, so we could not use the most popular comic strip after more printing machine. We took than 77 years, still featured in films, photographs and when there stage shows, and new book were rainy days, we could not compilations in China and abroad photograph either. So, we (some pirated versions). Merchan- sometimes had to cut dise carries Sanmao’s name and woodcuts. I know how to do image, including toys, clothing, them. Our writer Ye Gong shoes, and souvenirs. Though wrote articles to fill empty there are occasional comic strips spaces around woodcut in some newspapers and maga- cartoons. We printed in zines today, none comes anywhere daytime and were never near to “Sanmao” in social impact delayed; we worked day and and entertainment value. night. Cartoon and humor magazines and the strips they Between 1946 and 1949, contained continued to be a vital a number of influential cartoonists part of China’s publishing would who had fled China during the war until the beginning of the twenty- returned and started new first century. In the initial stage of magazines to offset the the war with Japan, cartoon Guomintang Party’s restrictions on magazines were used for already existing newspapers. propaganda and resistance These magazines became the purposes, the chief of them being outlets for cartoonists to ridicule Kangzhan Manhua (Anti-War the civil war between the Cartoon). It and Xingqi Manhua Guomintang and Communist (Weekly Cartoon) were brought out parties, dictatorship, persecutions under trying circumstances by a by the Guomintang, inflation, and cartoon propaganda brigade that national traitors. roamed parts of China warning After 1949, cartoons and about the Japanese invaders and cartoon magazines were not as building morale among the plentiful as previously; some of the Chinese. Kangzhan Manhua was problems cartoonists lampooned termed the “national authorized had been obliterated by the cartoon journal at the time” by Communists. One cartoon brigade deputy leader Mai Fei magazine wrote, “The crazy (interview, 2006). Mai Fei was also dictator [Chiang Kai-shek] and his in charge of the other brigade shameless greedy running dogs periodical, Xingqi Manhua, a one- have offered us innumerous page, weekly section of Qianxian subjects for cartoon drawing,” but

22 9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 they were no longer around. (Shi the magazine was more market 1989: 14) Under Mao Zedong, oriented, selling mainly at cartoons and cartoon magazines newsstands, less artistically were tasked with invoking hatred motivated, and more concentrated for enemies of the state, refraining on news and politics than other from ridiculing life in the new cartoon magazines that China, and singing the praise of the emphasize “humor and funny correct line. things.” From 1949 through the Whereas other Cultural Revolution (1976), cartoon newspapers and magazines pay and humor magazines had an cartoonists according to their rank “unfortunate history,” according to in the profession, Satire and Xu Pengfei (interview, 2001), Humor compensates them by the former editor of Satire and Humor. quality of their work, thus, amateur Only one cartoon magazine, cartoonists have been known to Manhua, published in Shanghai by receive page one space. Xu the China Artists Association and (interview, 2001) said cartoonists edited by Mi Gu, lasted as long as are asked to draw on specific ten years, closing in 1959, because topics—timely themes, of “so many political movements, government policy, and, especially the bad economic situation, low the common people’s concerns. quality work, and poor paper.” Every issue includes a page of (Jiang, interview, 2002) comic strips, very popular with The longest-running readers. Though an appendage of cartoon magazine in Chinese the government newspaper, Satire history is Satire and Humor, and Humor has “no limitations, as founded in 1979, by Hua Junwu, we can control everything Jiang Fan, Ying Tao, Miao Di, and ourselves,” Xu (interview, 2001) Jiang Yousheng as a supplement said. of the national newspaper, Renmin Another important cartoon Ribao (People’s Daily). Jiang magazine published in Shanghai Yousheng (interview, 2002) said in the 1990s was World of Cartoon, Satire and Humor was established a sixteen-page periodical started because, “During the Cultural in 1985 by animator Ah Da. It died Revolution, no one could draw in 1999. Originally, World of satire. After that, there were many Cartoon was meant for cartoonists cartoons on the ‘Gang of Four’ but and cartoon lovers, but when it was no place to publish them.” At its revived as a page in Xinmin beginning, Satire and Humor had Evening News in 2000, the appeal a circulation of 1.3 million. Xu was to all types of readers, (interview, 2001) said that in the according to its editor, Zheng early years, people queued to Xinyao. (interview, 2001) make sure they received a copy. In recent years, other In 2001, the sixteen-page Satire cartoon magazines have and Humor printed 300,000 copies appeared, mainly as commercial every two weeks. (Xu, interview, ventures. (Wang Fuyang, 2001) By 2005, it was made into a interview, 2001) Some, such as weekly with a circulation of Zhongguo Manhua and Cartoon 110,000. Xu (interview, 2005) said Monthly, replaced front cover

9ª Arte (| São Paulo, vol. 1, n. 2, 5-24, 2o. semestre/2012 23 cartoons with photographs of enough deliberation on preserving entertainment personalities and what is distinctly Chinese. With local cartoons with manga. huge government interest in and The comics, whether in support of comics and animation book, strip, or cartoon magazine for the past few years, quantity has format, have been following the replaced quality and path of so many aspects of commercialization has ruled over Chinese culture—the old is rapidly artistic considerations in many ( giving way to the new, with not instances. Detective Di Renji, de Quan Yingsheng

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