Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age and ,[24] Rakhigarhi in , , being civilisation (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 the largest Indus Valley Civilization site with 350-hectare BCE, pre-Harappan cultures starting c.7500 BCE[3][4]) (3.5 km2) area.[3][25][26][27] in northwest Indian subcontinent (including present day The is not directly attested and its af- , northwest India[5]) and also in some regions [6][1] filiation is uncertain since the is still unde- in northeast . Along with Ancient Egypt ciphered. A relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo- and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early civilisa- Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of tions of the Old World, and the most widespread among [28][29] [7] 2 [8] scholars, while others suggest an Austroasiatic lan- them, covering an area of 1.25 million km . It flour- guage related to Munda.[30] ished in the basins of the , one of the major rivers of Asia, and the now dried up ,[9][10] which once coursed through northwest India and eastern Pakistan [6] together with its tributaries flowed along a 1 Discovery and history of excava- channel, presently identified as that of the Ghaggar-Hakra tion River on the basis of various scientific studies.[11][12][13] Due to the spread of the civilization along both the river valleys, some scholars use the term Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation.[14][15] At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a pop- ulation of over five million.[16] Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin). The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non- residential buildings.[17] The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harap- pan Civilization, after , the first of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s, in what was then the Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, with the Great Bath in the province of British India, and is now in Pakistan.[18] The front discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards, Mohenjo- Daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of In- dia in the British Raj.[19] Excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important break- throughs occurring as recently as 1999.[20] There were earlier and later cultures, often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan, and pre-Harappan cultures, in the same area of the Harappan Civilization. The Harappan civilisa- tion is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from these cultures. in Haryana, India may be the oldest pre-Harappan site, dating back to 7570-6200 BCE.[3][21] By 1999, over 1,056 cities and settlements had been found, of which 96 have been excavated,[22] mainly in the general region of the Indus and the Sarasvati River[23]and Early Harappan Period, c. 3300–2600 BCE their tributaries. Among the settlements were the ma- jor urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro (UNESCO The ruins of Harappa were first described in 1842 by World Heritage Site), , Ganeriwala in Cholistan Charles Masson in his Narrative of Various Journeys

1 2 2 CHRONOLOGY

called Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well-burnt bricks, and, “convinced that there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted”, the city of Brah- minabad was reduced to ballast.[32] A few months later, further north, John’s brother William Brunton’s “section of the line ran near another ruined city, bricks from which had already been used by villagers in the nearby village of Harappa at the same site. These bricks now provided bal- last along 93 miles (150 km) of the railroad track running from Karachi to Lahore”.[32] In 1872–75 Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappan seal (with an erroneous identification as Brahmi letters).[33] It was half a century later, in 1912, that more Harappan seals were discovered by J. Fleet, Mature Harappan Period, c. 2600–1900 BCE prompting an excavation campaign under Sir John Hu- bert Marshall in 1921–22 and resulting in the discov- ery of the civilisation at Harappa by Sir John Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats, and at Mohenjo-daro by Rakhal Das Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay, and Sir John Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo-Daro had been excavated, but excavations con- tinued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the independence in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein. Following the independence, the bulk of the archaeolog- ical finds were inherited by Pakistan where most of the IVC was based, and excavations from this time include Late Harappan Period, c. 1900–1300 BCE those led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler in 1949, archaeolog- ical adviser to the Government of Pakistan. Outposts of the Indus Valley civilisation were excavated as far west as Sutkagan Dor in Baluchistan, as far north as at on the Amu Darya (the river’s ancient name was Oxus) in current Afghanistan, as far east as at , , India and as far south as at , in modern day Surat, , India.[34] In 2010, heavy floods hit Haryana in India and dam- aged the archaeological site of Jognakhera, where ancient copper smelting furnaces were found dating back almost 5,000 years. The Indus Valley Civilization site was hit by almost 10 feet of water as the link canal Skull of Indus Valley inhabitants, Indian Museum overflowed.[35]

in Balochistan, Afghanistan, and the Punjab, where lo- cals talked of an ancient city extending “thirteen cosses" 2 Chronology (about 25 miles), but no archaeological interest would at- tach to this for nearly a century.[note 1] Main article: Periodization of the Indus Valley Civiliza- In 1856, General Alexander Cunningham, later direc- tion tor general of the archaeological survey of northern In- dia, visited Harappa where the British engineers John The mature phase of the Harappan civilisation lasted and William Brunton were laying the East Indian Rail- from c. 2600 to 1900 BCE. With the inclusion of the pre- way Company line connecting the cities of Karachi and decessor and successor cultures — Early Harappan and Lahore. John wrote: “I was much exercised in my mind Late Harappan, respectively — the entire Indus Valley how we were to get ballast for the line of the railway”. Civilization may be taken to have lasted from the 33rd They were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, to the 14th centuries BCE. The early Harappan cultures 3

while smaller isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Gujarat. Coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor[40] in Western Baluchis- tan to [41] in Gujarat. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortughai in north- ern Afghanistan,[42] in the Gomal River valley in north- western Pakistan,[43] at Manda,Jammu on the Beas River near Jammu,[44] India, and at Alamgirpur on the Hindon River, only 28 km from Delhi.[45] Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast,[46] for example, Balakot,[47] and on islands, for example, Dholavira.[48] There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel in Pakistan and the seasonal Ghag- gar River in India. Many Indus Valley sites have been discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds.[49] Among them are: Rupar, Rakhigarhi, , , and Ganwariwala.[50] According to J. G. Shaffer and D. A. Lichtenstein,[51] the Harappan Civilization “is a fusion of the Bagor, Hakra, and Koti Dij traditions or 'ethnic groups’ in the Ghaggar-Hakra valley on the borders of India and Pakistan”.[49] According to some archaeologists, more than 500 Harap- pan sites have been discovered along the dried up river Indus Valley pottery, 2500–1900 BC beds of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries,[52] in contrast to only about 100 along the Indus and its [53] are preceded by the (c.7000-3300 BCE), with tributaries; consequently, in their opinion, the appella- Bhirrana even dating back to 7570-6200 BCE, according tion Indus Ghaggar-Hakra civilisation or Indus-Saraswati to a December 2014 report by the Archaeological Survey civilisation is justified. However, these politically inspired of India.[3][4] arguments are disputed by other archaeologists who state that the Ghaggar-Hakra desert area has been left un- Two terms are employed for the periodisation of the touched by settlements and agriculture since the end of [36][37] IVC: Phases and Eras. The Early Harappan, Ma- the Indus period and hence shows more sites than those ture Harappan, and Late Harappan phases are also called found in the alluvium of the Indus valley; second, that the Regionalisation, Integration, and Localisation eras, the number of Harappan sites along the Ghaggar-Hakra respectively, with the Regionalization era reaching back river beds has been exaggerated and that the Ghaggar- to the Neolithic Mehrgarh II period, the discovery of Hakra, when it existed, was a tributary of the Indus, so which “changed the entire concept of the Indus civiliza- the new nomenclature is redundant.[54] “Harappan Civi- tion”, according to Ahmad Hasan Dani, professor emer- lization” remains the correct one, according to the com- itus at Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad. “There we mon archaeological usage of naming a civilisation after have the whole sequence, right from the beginning of set- its first findspot. tled village life.”[38]

3 Geography 4 Early Harappan

The Indus Valley Civilization encompassed most of Pak- The Early Harappan Ravi Phase, named after the nearby istan and parts of northwestern India, and Afghanistan, Ravi River, lasted from circa 3300 BCE until 2800 BCE. extending from Pakistani Balochistan in the west to Uttar It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar- Pradesh in the east, northeastern Afghanistan to the north Hakra River Valley to the west, and predates the and Maharashtra to the south.[39] The geography of the Phase (2800–2600 BCE, Harappan 2), named after a site Indus Valley put the civilisations that arose there in a in northern , Pakistan, near Mohenjo Daro. The earliest examples of the Indus script date to the 3rd mil- highly similar situation to those in Egypt and Peru, with [55][56] rich agricultural lands being surrounded by highlands, lennium BC. desert, and ocean. Recently, Indus sites have been dis- Latest discoveries from Bhirrana, Haryana, in India since covered in Pakistan’s northwestern Frontier Province as 2012 onwards, by archaeologist K. N. Dikshit indicate well. Other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan that Hakra ware from this area dates from as early as 7500 4 5 MATURE HARAPPAN

the general region of the Indus Rivers and their tribu- taries.

5.1 Cities

Computer-aided reconstruction of coastal Harappan settlement at Sokhta Koh near Pasni, Pakistan

A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban cul- Ceremonial vessel, Harappan, 2600–2450 BC. LACMA ture is evident in the Indus Valley Civilization making them the first urban centres in the region. The qual- ity of municipal town planning suggests the knowledge BCE, [2][4][1] which makes Bhirrana the oldest site in In- of urban planning and efficient municipal governments dus Valley civilization.[3] which placed a high priority on hygiene, or, alternatively, accessibility to the means of religious ritual. The mature phase of earlier village cultures is represented by and Amri in Pakistan.[57] Kot Diji rep- As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and the recently resents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan, with partially excavated Rakhigarhi, this urban plan included the citadel representing centralised authority and an in- the world’s first known urban sanitation systems: see creasingly urban quality of life. Another town of this hydraulic engineering of the Indus Valley Civilization. stage was found at Kalibangan in India on the Hakra Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes River.[58] obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was di- Trade networks linked this culture with related regional rected to covered drains, which lined the major streets. cultures and distant sources of raw materials, including Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. and other materials for bead-making. By this The house-building in some villages in the region still time, villagers had domesticated numerous crops, includ- resembles in some respects the house-building of the ing peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton, as well as ani- Harappans.[62] mals, including the water buffalo. Early Harappan com- munities turned to large urban centres by 2600 BCE, from The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that where the mature Harappan phase started. The latest re- were developed and used in cities throughout the In- search shows that Indus Valley people migrated from vil- dus region were far more advanced than any found in lages to cities.[59][60] contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today. The advanced architecture of the Harap- pans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries, 5 Mature Harappan warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military By 2600 BCE, the Early Harappan communities turned [63] into large urban centres. Such urban centres include conflicts. Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-Daro in modern day The purpose of the citadel remains debated. In sharp con- Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, trast to this civilisation’s contemporaries, Mesopotamia and Lothal in modern day India.[61] In total, more than and Ancient Egypt, no large monumental structures were 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in built. There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or 5.2 Authority and governance 5

5.2 Authority and governance

Archaeological records provide no immediate answers for a centre of power or for depictions of people in power in Harappan society. But, there are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented. For instance, the extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery, seals, weights and bricks. These are the major theories:

• There was a single state, given the similarity in arte- facts, the evidence for planned settlements, the stan- dardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements near sources of raw material. • There was no single ruler but several: Mohenjo-daro had a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth. • Harappan society had no rulers, and everybody en- joyed equal status.

5.3 Technology

So-called “Priest King” statue, Mohenjo-Daro, late Mature Further information: Indian mathematics – Prehistory Harappan period, National Museum, Karachi, Pakistan The people of the Indus Civilization achieved great ac-

temples—or of kings, armies, or priests. Some structures are thought to have been granaries. Found at one city is an enormous well-built bath (the "Great Bath"), which may have been a public bath. Although the citadels were walled, it is far from clear that these structures were de- fensive. They may have been built to divert flood waters. Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, Unicorn seal of Indus Valley, Indian Museum who lived with others pursuing the same occupation in well-defined neighbourhoods. Materials from distant re- gions were used in the cities for constructing seals, beads and other objects. Among the artefacts discovered were beautiful glazed faïence beads. Steatite seals have images of animals, people (perhaps gods), and other types of in- scriptions, including the yet un-deciphered writing sys- tem of the Indus Valley Civilization. Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods and most probably had other uses as well. Although some houses were larger than others, Indus Civ- ilization cities were remarkable for their apparent, if rel- ative, egalitarianism. All the houses had access to wa- Elephant seal of Indus Valley, Indian Museum ter and drainage facilities. This gives the impression of a society with relatively low wealth concentration, though curacy in measuring length, mass, and time. They were clear social levelling is seen in personal adornments. The among the first to develop a system of uniform weights prehistory of Indo-Iranian borderlands shows a steady in- and measures. A comparison of available objects in- crease over time in the number and density of settlements. dicates large scale variation across the Indus territories. The population increased in Indus plains because of hunt- Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale ing and gathering.[64] found in Lothal in Gujarat, was approximately 1.704 6 5 MATURE HARAPPAN

Indus Valley seals, British Museum

mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age. Harappan engineers followed the dec- imal division of measurement for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by their hexahedron weights.[65] These chert weights were in a ratio of 5:2:1 with weights of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 units, with each unit weighing approximately 28 grams, similar to the English Imperial ounce or Greek uncia, and smaller objects were weighed in similar ra- tios with the units of 0.871. However, as in other cul- The " of Mohenjo Daro" tures, actual weights were not uniform throughout the area. The weights and measures later used in Kautilya's Arthashastra (4th century BCE) are the same as those used in Lothal.[66] Harappans evolved some new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The engi- neering skill of the Harappans was remarkable, especially in building docks. In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh, Pakistan, discovered that the people of the Indus Valley Civilization, from the early Harappan periods, had knowledge of proto-dentistry. Later, in April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e., in a living per- son) was found in Mehrgarh. Eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults were discovered in a Neolithic grave- yard in Mehrgarh that dates from 7,500–9,000 years ago. According to the authors, their discoveries point to a tra- dition of proto-dentistry in the early farming cultures of that region.[67] A touchstone bearing gold streaks was found in , . Fragment of Large Deep Vessel, circa 2500 which was probably used for testing the purity of gold B.C.E. Red pottery with red and black slip-painted decoration, 15 (such a technique is still used in some parts of India).[68] 4 /16×6⅛ in. (12.5×15.5 cm). Brooklyn Museum

5.4 Arts and crafts steatite have been found at excavation sites. A number of gold, terracotta and stone figurines of girls Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewellery, and in dancing poses reveal the presence of some dance form. anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze, and These terracotta figurines included cows, bears, monkeys, 5.5 Trade and transportation 7 and dogs. The animal depicted on a majority of seals 5.5 Trade and transportation at sites of the mature period has not been clearly iden- tified. Part bull, part zebra, with a majestic horn, it has been a source of speculation. As yet, there is insufficient evidence to substantiate claims that the image had reli- gious or cultic significance, but the prevalence of the im- age raises the question of whether or not the animals in images of the IVC are religious symbols.[69] Sir John Marshall reacted with surprise when he saw the famous Indus bronze statuette of a slender-limbed danc- ing girl in Mohenjo-Daro:

When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric; they seemed to completely upset all established ideas about The docks of ancient Lothal as they are today early art, and culture. Modeling such as this was unknown in the ancient world up to the Further information: Lothal and Hellenistic age of Greece, and I thought, there- fore, that some mistake must surely have been The Indus civilisation’s economy appears to have de- made; that these figures had found their way pended significantly on trade, which was facilitated into levels some 3000 years older than those by major advances in transport technology. The IVC to which they properly belonged .... Now, in may have been the first civilisation to use wheeled these statuettes, it is just this anatomical truth transport.[75] These advances may have included bullock which is so startling; that makes us wonder carts that are identical to those seen throughout South whether, in this all-important matter, Greek Asia today, as well as boats. Most of these boats were artistry could possibly have been anticipated by probably small, flat-bottomed craft, perhaps driven by the sculptors of a far-off age on the banks of the [70] sail, similar to those one can see on the Indus River today; Indus. however, there is secondary evidence of sea-going craft. Archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged canal Many crafts “such as shell working, ceramics, and agate and what they regard as a docking facility at the coastal and glazed steatite bead making” were used in the mak- city of Lothal in western India (Gujarat state). An exten- ing of necklaces, bangles, and other ornaments from all sive canal network, used for irrigation, has however also phases of Harappan sites and some of these crafts are been discovered by H.-P. Francfort. [71] still practised in the subcontinent today. Some make- During 4300–3200 BCE of the chalcolithic period (cop- up and toiletry items (a special kind of combs (kakai), per age), the Indus Valley Civilization area shows ce- the use of collyrium and a special three-in-one toiletry ramic similarities with southern Turkmenistan and north- gadget) that were found in Harappan contexts still have [72] ern Iran which suggest considerable mobility and trade. similar counterparts in modern India. Terracotta fe- During the Early Harappan period (about 3200–2600 male figurines were found (ca. 2800–2600 BCE) which BCE), similarities in pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments, had red colour applied to the “manga” (line of partition [72] etc. document intensive caravan trade with Central Asia of the hair). and the Iranian plateau.[76] Seals have been found at Mohenjo-Daro depicting a figure Judging from the dispersal of Indus civilisation artefacts, standing on its head, and another sitting cross-legged in the trade networks, economically, integrated a huge area, what some call a yoga-like pose (see image, the so-called including portions of Afghanistan, the coastal regions of Pashupati, below). Persia, northern and western India, and Mesopotamia. This figure, sometimes known as a Pashupati, has been Studies of tooth enamel from individuals buried at variously identified. Sir John Marshall identified a re- Harappa suggest that some residents had migrated to the semblance to the Hindu god, Shiva.[73] If this can be val- city from beyond the Indus valley.[77] There is some evi- idated, it would be evidence that some aspects of Hin- dence that trade contacts extended to Crete and possibly duism predate the earliest texts, the Veda. to Egypt.[78] A harp-like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two There was an extensive maritime trade network operating shell objects found at Lothal indicate the use of stringed between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilisations as musical instruments. The Harappans also made various early as the middle Harappan Phase, with much com- toys and games, among them cubical dice (with one to merce being handled by “middlemen merchants from Dil- six holes on the faces), which were found in sites like mun” (modern Bahrain and Failaka located in the Persian Mohenjo-Daro.[74] Gulf).[79] Such long-distance sea trade became feasible 8 5 MATURE HARAPPAN with the innovative development of plank-built water- acterised as a literate society on the evidence of these craft, equipped with a single central mast supporting a inscriptions, this description has been challenged by sail of woven rushes or cloth. Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel (2004)[82] who argue that the Several coastal settlements like Sotkagen-dor (astride Indus system did not encode language, but was instead Dasht River, north of Jiwani), Sokhta Koh (astride Shadi similar to a variety of non-linguistic sign systems used River, north of Pasni), and Balakot (near Sonmiani) in extensively in the Near East and other societies, to sym- Pakistan along with Lothal in western India, testify to bolise families, clans, gods, and religious concepts. Oth- their role as Harappan trading outposts. Shallow harbours ers have claimed on occasion that the symbols were ex- clusively used for economic transactions, but this claim located at the estuaries of rivers opening into the sea al- lowed brisk maritime trade with Mesopotamian cities. leaves unexplained the appearance of Indus symbols on many ritual objects, many of which were mass-produced in moulds. No parallels to these mass-produced inscrip- 5.6 Subsistence tions are known in any other early ancient civilisations.[83] In a 2009 study by P. N. Rao et al. published in Science, Some post-1980 studies indicate that food production computer scientists, comparing the pattern of symbols to was largely indigenous to the Indus Valley. It is known various linguistic scripts and non-linguistic systems, in- that the people of Mehrgarh used domesticated wheats cluding DNA and a computer programming language, and barley,[80] and the major cultivated cereal crop was found that the Indus script’s pattern is closer to that of naked six-row barley, a crop derived from two-row barley spoken words, supporting the hypothesis that it codes for (see Shaffer and Liechtenstein 1995, 1999). Archaeolo- an as-yet-unknown language.[84][85] gist Jim G. Shaffer (1999: 245) writes that the Mehrgarh Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel have disputed this finding, site “demonstrates that food production was an indige- pointing out that Rao et al. did not actually compare nous South Asian phenomenon” and that the data sup- the Indus signs with “real-world non-linguistic systems” port interpretation of “the prehistoric urbanization and but rather with “two wholly artificial systems invented by complex social organization in South Asia as based on in- the authors, one consisting of 200,000 randomly ordered digenous, but not isolated, cultural developments”. Oth- signs and another of 200,000 fully ordered signs, that they ers, such as Dorian Fuller, however, indicate that it took spuriously claim represent the structures of all real-world some 2000 years before Middle Eastern wheat was accli- non-linguistic sign systems”.[86] Farmer et al. have also matised to South Asian conditions. demonstrated that a comparison of a non-linguistic sys- tem like medieval heraldic signs with natural languages 5.7 Writing system yields results similar to those that Rao et al. obtained with Indus signs. They conclude that the method used Main article: Indus script by Rao et al. cannot distinguish linguistic systems from non-linguistic ones.[87]

Between 400 and as many as 600 distinct Indus The messages on the seals have proved to be too short symbols[81] have been found on seals, small tablets, ce- to be decoded by a computer. Each seal has a distinc- ramic pots and more than a dozen other materials, in- tive combination of symbols and there are too few ex- cluding a “signboard” that apparently once hung over the amples of each sequence to provide a sufficient context. gate of the inner citadel of the Indus city of Dholavira. The symbols that accompany the images vary from seal to seal, making it impossible to derive a meaning for the symbols from the images. There have, nonetheless, been a number of interpretations offered for the meaning of the seals. These interpretations have been marked by ambi- guity and subjectivity.[87]:69 Photos of many of the thousands of extant inscriptions are published in the Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscrip- tions (1987, 1991, 2010), edited by Asko Parpola and his Ten Indus Signs, dubbed Dholavira Signboard colleagues. The final, third, volume, republished photos taken in the 1920s and 1930s of hundreds of lost or stolen Typical Indus inscriptions are no more than four or five inscriptions, along with many discovered in the last few characters in length, most of which (aside from the decades. Formerly, researchers had to supplement the Dholavira “signboard”) are tiny; the longest on a single materials in the Corpus by study of the tiny photos in the surface, which is less than 1 inch (2.54 cm) square, is 17 excavation reports of Marshall (1931), MacKay (1938, signs long; the longest on any object (found on three dif- 1943), Wheeler (1947), or reproductions in more recent ferent faces of a mass-produced object) has a length of scattered sources. 26 symbols. While the Indus Valley Civilization is generally char- 5.8 Religion 9

5.8 Religion animals.[94][95] Herbert Sullivan and Alf Hiltebeitel also rejected Marshall’s conclusions, with the former claim- ing that the figure was female, while the latter associ- ated the figure with Mahisha, the Buffalo God and the surrounding animals with vahanas (vehicles) of deities for the four cardinal directions.[96][97] Writing in 2002, Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be ap- propriate to recognise the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would be going too far.[93] Despite the criticisms of Marshall’s associa- tion of the seal with a proto-Shiva icon, it has been inter- preted as the Tirthankara Rishabha by Jains & Dr. Vilas Sangave[98] or an early Buddha by Buddhists.[90] Histo- rians like Heinrich Zimmer, Thomas McEvilley are of the opinion that there exists some link between first Jain Tirthankara Rishabha & Indus Valley civilisation.[99][100] Marshall hypothesized the existence of a cult of Mother Goddess worship based upon excavation of several fe- male figurines, and thought that this was a precursor of the Hindu sect of Shaktism. However the function of the The so-called , showing a seated and possibly female figurines in the life of Indus Valley people remains ithyphallic figure, surrounded by animals. unclear, and Possehl does not regard the evidence for [101] Further information: Prehistoric religion Marshall’s hypothesis to be “terribly robust”. Some of the baetyls interpreted by Marshall to be sacred phal- lic representations are now thought to have been used as The religion and belief system of the Indus valley peo- pestles or game counters instead, while the ring stones ple have received considerable attention, especially from that were thought to symbolise yoni were determined to the view of identifying precursors to deities and religious be architectural features used to stand pillars, although practices of Indian religions that later developed in the the possibility of their religious symbolism cannot be area. However due to the sparsity of evidence, which is eliminated.[102] Many Indus Valley seals show animals, open to varying interpretations, and the fact that the Indus with some depicting them being carried in processions, script remains undeciphered, the conclusions are partly while others show chimeric creations. One seal from speculative and largely based on a retrospective view from Mohen-jodaro shows a half-human, half-buffalo mon- [88][89] a much later Hindu perspective. An early and influ- ster attacking a tiger, which may be a reference to the ential work in the area that set the trend for Hindu inter- Sumerian myth of such a monster created by goddess pretations of archaeological evidence from the Harrapan Aruru to fight Gilgamesh.[103] sites[90] was that of John Marshall, who in 1931 identified the following as prominent features of the Indus religion: In contrast to contemporary Egyptian and Mesopotamian a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; deification or civilisations, Indus valley lacks any monumental palaces, veneration of animals and plants; symbolic representation even though excavated cities indicate that the society pos- [104][105] of the phallus (linga) and vulva (yoni); and, use of baths sessed the requisite engineering knowledge. This and water in religious practice. Marshall’s interpretations may suggest that religious ceremonies, if any, may have have been much debated, and sometimes disputed over been largely confined to individual homes, small temples, the following decades.[91][92] or the open air. Several sites have been proposed by Mar- shall and later scholars as possibly devoted to religious One Indus valley seal shows a seated, possibly ithyphallic purpose, but at present only the Great Bath at Mohenjo- and tricephalic, figure with a horned headdress, sur- daro is widely thought to have been so used, as a place for rounded by animals. Marshall identified the figure as an ritual purification.[101][106] The funerary practices of the early form of the Hindu god Shiva (or Rudra), who is Harappan civilisation is marked by its diversity with evi- associated with asceticism, yoga, and linga; regarded as a dence of supine burial; fractional burial in which the body lord of animals; and often depicted as having three heads. is reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elements The seal has hence come to be known as the Pashupati before final interment; and even cremation. [107][108] Seal, after Pashupati (lord of the beasts), an epithet of Shiva.[91][93] While Marshall’s work has earned some sup- port, many critics and even supporters have raised sev- eral objections. Doris Srinivasan has argued that the figure does not have three faces, or yogic posture, and that in Vedic literature Rudra was not a protector of wild 10 7 LEGACY

6 Collapse and Late Harappan monsoon at that time. Alternatively, a crucial factor may have been the disappearance of substantial portions of the Ghaggar Hakra river system. A tectonic event may have Main article: Late Harappan diverted the system’s sources toward the Plain, though there is complete uncertainty about the date of this Around 1800 BCE, signs of a gradual decline began to event, as most settlements inside Ghaggar-Hakra river emerge, and by around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were beds have not yet been dated. The actual reason for de- abandoned. In 1953, Sir Mortimer Wheeler proposed cline might be any combination of these factors. A 2004 that the decline of the Indus Civilization was caused by paper indicated that the isotopes of sediments carried by the invasion of an Indo-European tribe from Central Asia the Ghaggar-Hakra system over the last 20 thousand years called the "Aryans". As evidence, he cited a group of do not come from the glaciated Higher Himalaya but have 37 skeletons found in various parts of Mohenjo-Daro, a Sub-Himalayan source. They speculated that the river and passages in the referring to battles and forts. system was rain-fed instead and thus contradicted the idea However, scholars soon started to reject Wheeler’s the- of a Harappan-time mighty “Sarasvati” river.[115] Recent ory, since the skeletons belonged to a period after the geological research by a group led by Peter Clift inves- city’s abandonment and none were found near the citadel. tigated how the courses of rivers have changed in this Subsequent examinations of the skeletons by Kenneth region since 8000 years ago, to test whether climate or Kennedy in 1994 showed that the marks on the skulls river reorganisations are responsible for the decline of the were caused by erosion, and not violent aggression.[109] Harappan. Using U-Pb dating of zircon sand grains they Today, many scholars believe that the collapse of the In- found that sediments typical of the Beas, Sutlej and Ya- dus Civilization was caused by drought and a decline in muna rivers (Himalayan tributaries of the Indus) are ac- trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia.[110] It has also been tually present in former Ghaggar-Hakra channels. How- suggested that immigration by new peoples, deforesta- ever, sediment contributions from these glacial-fed rivers tion, floods, or changes in the course of the river may stopped at least by 10,000 years ago, well before the de- have contributed to the collapse of the IVC.[111] velopment of the Indus civilisation.[116] Previously, it was also believed that the decline of the A research team led by the geologist Liviu Giosan of Harappan civilisation led to an interruption of urban life the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution also con- in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Indus Valley cluded that climate change in the form of the easter- Civilization did not disappear suddenly, and many el- ward migration of the monsoons led to the decline of the ements of the Indus Civilization can be found in later IVC.[117] The team’s findings were published in PNAS in cultures. David Gordon White cites three other main- May 2012.[118][119] According to their theory, the slow stream scholars who “have emphatically demonstrated” eastward migration of the monsoons across Asia ini- that Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Val- tially allowed the civilisation to develop. The monsoon- ley Civilizations.[112] supported farming led to large agricultural surpluses, Current archaeological data suggests that the material cul- which in turn supported the development of cities. The ture classified as Late Harappan may have persisted until IVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, rely- at least c. 1000–900 BCE and was partially contempora- ing mainly on the seasonal monsoons. As the monsoons neous with the Painted Grey Ware culture.[113] Harvard kept shifting eastward, the water supply for the agricul- archaeologist Richard Meadow points to the late Harap- tural activities dried up. The residents then migrated to- pan settlement of , which thrived continuously from wards the Ganges basin in the east, where they estab- 1800 BCE to the time of the invasion of Alexander the lished smaller villages and isolated farms. The small sur- Great in 325 BCE.[110] plus produced in these small communities did not allow development of trade, and the cities died out.[120] There Recent archaeological excavations indicate that the de- is also a Harappan site called in Rajkot district of cline of Harappa drove people eastward. After 1900 Saurashtra. Its excavation started under archaeological BCE, the number of sites in India increased from 218 to team from Gujarat State Department of Archaeology and 853. Excavations in the Gangetic plain show that urban University of Museum of the University of Pennsylvania settlement began around 1200 BCE, only a few centuries in the year 1982 – 83.[121] after the decline of Harappa and much earlier than previ- ously expected.[110] Archaeologists have emphasised that, just as in most areas of the world, there was a continuous series of cultural developments. These link “the so-called 7 Legacy two major phases of urbanization in South Asia”.[113] A possible natural reason for the IVC’s decline is con- Main article: Iron Age India nected with climate change[114] that is also signalled for the neighbouring areas of the Middle East: The Indus In the aftermath of the Indus Civilization’s collapse, re- valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from gional cultures emerged, to varying degrees showing the about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the influence of the Indus Civilization. In the formerly great 11

city of Harappa, burials have been found that correspond northern and eastern Sri Lanka, but pockets of it still to a regional culture called the . At the remain throughout the rest of India and Pakistan (the same time, the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture expanded Brahui language), which lends credence to the theory. from into the Gangetic Plain. The Cemetery H Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola concludes that the uni- culture has the earliest evidence for cremation; a practice formity of the Indus inscriptions precludes any possibility dominant in today. of widely different languages being used, and that an early form of Dravidian language must have been the language of the Indus people. However, in an interview with the 8 Historical context and linguistic Deccan Herald on 12 August 2012, Asko Parpola clari- fied his position by admitting that "Sanskrit has also pre- affiliation served a very important part of the Indus heritage” and that even Sangam Tamil had possible influences of the [125] See also: Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit and Harappan . language Proto-Munda (or Para-Munda) and a “lost phylum” (per- haps related or ancestral to the Nihali language)[126] have The IVC has been tentatively identified with the toponym been proposed as other candidates for the language of Meluhha known from Sumerian records; the Sumeri- the IVC. Michael Witzel suggests an underlying, prefixing ans called them Meluhhaites.[122] It has been compared language that is similar to Austroasiatic, notably Khasi; he in particular with the civilisations of Elam (also in the argues that the Rigveda (composed by the Indo-Aryans context of the Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis) and with after the decline of the Harappans) shows signs of this Minoan Crete (because of isolated cultural parallels such hypothetical Harappan influence in the earliest historic as the ubiquitous goddess worship and depictions of bull- level, and Dravidian only in later levels, suggesting that leaping).[123] The mature (Harappan) phase of the IVC speakers of Austroasiatic were the original inhabitants of is contemporary to the Early and Middle Bronze Age in Punjab and that the Indo-Aryans encountered speakers of [30] the Ancient Near East, in particular the Old Elamite pe- Dravidian only in later times. riod, Early Dynastic to Ur III Mesopotamia, Prepalatial Minoan Crete and Old Kingdom to First Intermediate Pe- riod Egypt. 9 See also After the discovery of the IVC in the 1920s, it was im- mediately associated with the indigenous Dasyu inimical • List of Indus Valley Civilization sites to the Rigvedic tribes in numerous hymns of the Rigveda. • Mortimer Wheeler interpreted the presence of many un- List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley buried corpses found in the top levels of Mohenjo-Daro Civilization as the victims of a warlike conquest, and famously stated • Cradle of civilization that "Indra stands accused” of the destruction of the IVC. The association of the IVC with the city-dwelling Dasyus • Bronze Age remains alluring because the assumed timeframe of the first Indo-Aryan migration into India corresponds neatly • Iron Age India with the period of decline of the IVC seen in the archaeo- logical record. The discovery of the advanced, urban IVC • Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric however changed the 19th-century view of early Indo- cultures Aryan migration as an “invasion” of an advanced culture at the expense of a “primitive” aboriginal population to a gradual acculturation of nomadic “barbarians” on an ad- 10 Notes vanced urban civilisation, comparable to the Germanic migrations after the Fall of Rome, or the Kassite inva- [1] Masson: “A long march preceded our arrival at Haripah, sion of Babylonia. This move away from simplistic “inva- through jangal of the closest description.... When I joined sionist” scenarios parallels similar developments in think- the camp I found it in front of the village and ruinous brick ing about language transfer and population movement in castle. Behind us was a large circular mound, or eminence, general, such as in the case of the migration of the proto- and to the west was an irregular rocky height, crowned Greek speakers into Greece, or the Indo-Europeanization with the remains of buildings, in fragments of walls, with of Western Europe. niches, after the eastern manner.... Tradition affirms the existence here of a city, so considerable that it extended It was often suggested that the bearers of the IVC cor- to Chicha Watni, thirteen cosses distant, and that it was responded to proto-Dravidians linguistically, the break- destroyed by a particular visitation of Providence, brought up of proto-Dravidian corresponding to the break-up of down by the lust and crimes of the sovereign.”[31] Note that the Late Harappan culture.[124] Today, the Dravidian lan- the coss, a measure of distance used from Vedic period to guage family is concentrated mostly in southern India and Mughal times, is approximately 2 miles (3.2 km). 12 11 REFERENCES

11 References [14] [15] B. B. Lal, Keynote Address. Webpages.uidaho.edu. Re- [1] “Archeologists confirm Indian civilization is 2000 years trieved on 12 July 2013. older than previously believed, Jason Overdorf, Global- post, 28 November 2012”. [16] Charles Kahn (2005). World History: Societies of the Past. Portage & Main Press. [2] “Indus Valley 2,000 years older than thought”. [17] Wright 2009, pp. 115–125. [3] “Haryana’s Bhirrana oldest Harappan site, Rakhigarhi Asia’s largest: ASI”. [18] Beck, Roger B.; Linda Black, Larry S. Krieger, Phillip C. Naylor, Dahia Ibo Shabaka, (1999). World History: [4] “History What their lives reveal”. Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 0-395-87274-X. [5] “What did Harappans eat, how did they look? Haryana has the answers”. [19] Wright 2009, p. 2.

[6] Wright 2009, p. 1. [20] "'Earliest writing' found”. BBC News. 4 May 1999. Re- trieved 5 January 2010. [7] Wright 2009:Quote: “The Indus civilization is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia [21] Akhilesh Pillalamarri (18 April 2015). “Exploring the In- and Pharonic Egypt, was a cradle of early civilization in dus Valley’s Secrets”. The diplomat. Retrieved 18 April the Old World (Childe 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt 2015. were longer lived, but coexisted with Indus civilization [22] Morrison, Kathleen D. (Ed.); Junker, Laura L. (2002). during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 B.C. Of the Forager-traders in South and Southeast Asia : long term three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from histories ([Online-Ausg.] ed.). Cambridge [u.a.]: Cam- today’s northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India.” bridge Univ. Press. p. 62. ISBN 9780521016360.

[8] Blanc De La, Paul. “Indus Epigraphic Perspectives: Ex- [23] http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/psearch/QResult15. ploring Past Decipherment Attempts & Possible New Ap- aspx?qref=138704 | “It was observed that major Harap- proaches 2013 Pg 11” (PDF). University of Ottawa Re- pan sites of Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Banawali and search. University of Ottawa. Retrieved 11 August 2014. Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat) [9] http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/psearch/QResult15. lie along the River Saraswati."- Ministry of Space, aspx?qref=138704 | “The work on delineation of entire Government of India. course of river 'Saraswati' in North West India was [24] Wright 2009, p. 107: Quote: “Five major Indus cities are carried out using Indian Remote Sensing Satellite data discussed in this chapter. During the Urban period, the along with digital elevation model. Satellite images are early town of Harappa expanded in size and population multi-spectral, multi-temporal and have advantages of and became a major center in the Upper Indus. Other synoptic view, which are useful to detect palaeochannels. cities emerging during the Urban period include Mohenjo- The palaeochannels are validated using historical maps, daro in the Lower Indus, Dholavira to the south on the archaeological sites, hydro- geological and drilling data. western edge of peninsular India in Kutch, Ganweriwala It was observed that major Harappan sites of Kaliban- in Cholistan, and a fifth city, Rakhigarhi, on the Ghaggar- gan (Rajasthan), Banawali and Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Hakra. Rakhigarhi will be discussed briefly in view of the Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat) lie along the River limited published material.” Saraswati ."- Ministry of Space, Government of India. [25] Archana Khare Ghose (3 June 2012). “Can Rakhigarhi, [10] http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/oct25/articles20.htm | the largest Indus Valley Civilisation site be saved?". Eco- A.V.Shankaran.:"Saraswati – The ancient river lost in the nomic Times. Retrieved 3 June 2012. desert.” [26] Ishtiyaq Sibtian Joo (18 April 2015). “Can 'national her- [11] http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/psearch/QResult15. itage' Rakhigarhi survive for long”. Hindustan Times. Re- aspx?qref=138704 | " Indian Space Research Organi- trieved 18 April 2015. zation (ISRO) has studied the palaeochannels in North West India and related them to the channels of River [27] “Haryana to set up museum at Rakhigarhi”. Saraswati.” [28] Ratnagar, Shereen (2006). Trading Encounters: From the [12] http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/oct25/articles20.htm | Euphrates to the Indus in the Bronze Age (2nd ed.). India: A.V.Shankaran.:"Saraswati was believed to have had Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195666038. three tributaries, Shatadru (Sutlej) arising from Mount [29] Lockard, Craig (2010). Societies, Networks, and Tran- Kailas, Drishadvati from Siwalik Hills and the old Ya- sitions, Volume 1: To 1500 (2nd ed.). India: Cengage muna. Together, they flowed along a channel, presently Learning. p. 40. ISBN 1439085358. identified as that of the Ghaggar river, also called Hakra River in Rajasthan and Nara in Sindh.” [30] Witzel, Michael (February 2000). “The Languages of Harappa” (PDF). Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. [13] Michel Danino: The Lost River - On the trail of the Saras- vati (Penguin Books, 2010). ISBN 978-0-14-306864-8 [31] Masson 1842. 13

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• File:Ceremonial_Vessel_LACMA_AC1997.93.1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Ceremonial_ Vessel_LACMA_AC1997.93.1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: • Image: http://collections.lacma.org/sites/default/files/remote_images/piction/ma-31963494-O3.jpg Original artist: ? • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Dancing_girl.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Dancing_girl.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contrib- utors: Own work Original artist: Jen with modifications by Ismoon 20 February 2012 (earlier version by Calliopejen1) • File:Elephant_seal_of_Indus_Valley,_Indian_Museum,_Kolkata.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ c0/Elephant_seal_of_Indus_Valley%2C_Indian_Museum%2C_Kolkata.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Royroydeb • File:IndusValleySeals.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/IndusValleySeals.JPG License: CC-BY-SA- 3.0 Contributors: Self-photographed Original artist: World Imaging • File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Early_Phase_(3300-2600_BCE).png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/ 9b/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Early_Phase_%283300-2600_BCE%29.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Origi- nal artist: Avantiputra7 • File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Late_Phase_(1900-1300_BCE).png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/ Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Late_Phase_%281900-1300_BCE%29.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Avantiputra7 • File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ c9/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Orig- inal artist: Avantiputra7 • File:Indus_civilisation_seal_unicorn_at_Indian_Museum,_Kolkata.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ a/a8/Indus_civilisation_seal_unicorn_at_Indian_Museum%2C_Kolkata.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Royroydeb • File:Jar,_Indus_Valley_Tradition,_Harappan_Phase,_Quetta,_Southern_Baluchistan,_Pakistan,_c._2500-1900_BC_-_ Royal_Ontario_Museum_-_DSC09717.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Jar%2C_Indus_Valley_ Tradition%2C_Harappan_Phase%2C_Quetta%2C_Southern_Baluchistan%2C_Pakistan%2C_c._2500-1900_BC_-_Royal_Ontario_ Museum_-_DSC09717.JPG License: CC0 Contributors: Daderot Original artist: Daderot • File:Lothal_dock.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Lothal_dock.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contrib- utors: English Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:A006_%28Small%29.jpg Original artist: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User: Rama%27s_Arrow • File:Mohenjo-daro_Priesterkönig.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk% C3%B6nig.jpeg License: CC BY-SA 1.0 Contributors: world66.com Original artist: Mamoon Mengal • File:Mohenjodaro_Sindh.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Mohenjodaro_Sindh.jpeg License: CC SA 1.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was M.Imran at English Wikipedia • File:Red_pottery,_IVC.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Red_pottery%2C_IVC.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: 3774b, cropped, colours adjusted by Podzemnik Original artist: amy dreher from Brooklyn, NY, United States • File:Shiva_Pashupati.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Shiva_Pashupati.jpg License: Public do- main Contributors: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/bce_500back/indusvalley/protoshiva/protoshiva.jpg Orig- inal artist: unknown Indus Valley Civilization sealmaker from Mohenjodaro archaeological site • File:Skull_of_Indus_Valley_inhabitants,_Indian_Museum,_Kolkata.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ d/d8/Skull_of_Indus_Valley_inhabitants%2C_Indian_Museum%2C_Kolkata.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Origi- nal artist: Royroydeb • File:Sokhta_Koh.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/Sokhta_Koh.jpg License: CC-BY-2.5 Contributors: ? Orig- inal artist: ? • File:The_'Ten_Indus_Scripts’{}_discovered_near_the_northern_gateway_of_the_Dholavira_citadel.jpg Source: http: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/The_%27Ten_Indus_Scripts%27_discovered_near_the_northern_gateway_of_ the_Dholavira_citadel.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: siyajkak drew this picture by pencil and recopy Original artist: Siyajkak • File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Li- cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AleXXw 14.3 Content license 19

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