CEU eTD Collection Second Reader: Professor Michael Michael Miller Reader:Professor Second Supervisor: Professor Andras Ger Andras Professor Supervisor: In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Social Discourse in Trianon Hungary Old Mythologies and New Nations: and Old Mythologies Central European University Central European Ę History Department Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Joseph Kiss-Illés Joseph Master of Arts Submitted to Submitted 2010 By CEU eTD Collection with such instructions may not be made without the written permission of the Author. the of permission written the without made be not may instructions such with This pagemust form a partof any such copies made.Furthercopies madein accordance librarian. the from obtained be may Details Library. European Central in the lodged and full part, mayor be made only in accordance with the instructions given by Authorthe Copyright in the text of this thesis rests in the Author. Copies by any process, either in i CEU eTD Collection 1930s. late by Hunmyth the the to theory origin Finno-Ugric the from utilize areturn to they were able with by means and reasons the and Britain, in those primarily historians, western by and within find from both West, thesis seek tothe inwhichHungary the ways will to was represented anidentity nation. This within needrecreate the to in wasanecessary West, there Hungary the toward directed were campaigns these nations. Though Western the to their Europeanness diplomacy. All three engaged in various sorts of propaganda, attempting toput forth an image of continueenlarged by butalso asserting Romania by Hungary to their useof the claims cultural the and Czechoslovakia of nation new the only not by efforts were there era post-Trianon the In Abstract ii CEU eTD Collection ILORPY...... -57 - ...... BIBLIOGRAPHY -54 - CONCLUSION...... -42 - PUBLIC EDUCATION...... THROUGH 4BACK THEDISCOURSE BOOKS:CHAPTER TOTHE CHANGING -28 - ‘OTHER’ THROUGH ...... SOCIAL DISCOURSE CHAPTER 3 REPRESENTATION: IDENTIFYING THE NATION AND THE -15 - HISTORIOGRPHY...... 2 OFHUNGARIAN MALLEABILITY UNCERTAIN PAST:THE CHAPTER CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL APPROACHES: -6 - SITUATIONAL DISCOURSE...... -1 INTRODUCTION...... Table of contents...... iii eodr ore ...... -58 - ...... Secondary Sources -57 - ...... Primary Sources The Hungarian -44 - Social Discourse ...... in Public Education -40 - ...... Conclusion -37 - ...... The Exported Discourse -33 - The British ...... Discourse -29 The- Changing Discourse...... -26 - ...... Conclusion -24 - Other Uses of History...... -20 - Finno-Ugrian ...... connection -16 - ...... Gesta Hungarorum -14 - Situational Discourse...... -11 Imagined- Communities...... -8 - Social Discourse...... -6 - Situational Ethnicity...... 97–13...... -51 - 1927 – 1938...... Early 20 Late 19 -36 - ...... After 1927 -34 - Between 1914-1927...... -33 - Before 1914...... th th cnuy...... -44 - century...... cnuy–12...... -47 - century – 1927...... Table ofcontents iii CEU eTD Collection the past (though noticeably one leaving plenty of room of which mythsthe of leaving anynumber pastthe to room noticeably(though one plenty identity. it of was a why anagreeablechoice verifiable First, practical to link reasons this was identifying with the Huns of asHungarian wasseen atonce origin more both and scientific muchless than aggressive as ancestors of the Hungarians.emphasizeconsciously chose Finno-Ugricview of to the linguisticheritage.This root Hungarian There and identity ethnic Hungarian weer of version a as myth origin Hun twothe from away turned veryofficially beneficial and Hungary? in years inter-war in the discourse, public in the re-contextualized as well as politicians, question this paperhow and is myth will address origin by historians was rewritten whythe and several throughout the1100yearhistory times Hungariansthe of intheircurrentterritory. One hasbeen fit –leavesfor theories needsof situation,other as done muchthe the adapting to room folklorehand, myth by linguistic the one counterbalanced approachon anda scientific, on the in down.shrouded from – Theskepticism concerningformationorigins the Hungarian top the end 19 the the around of rather ended, thequestion Beginninghas been re-opened time for or and again political purposes. open- left is it yet evidence, verifiable of plenty is there misleading; rather is really This people. Even today there seems to be no consensus among historians as to the origins of the Magyar In fin-de-siecle Hungary the government – specifically the Ministry of Education – th century identity of century purpose for the was utilized uncertainty this INTRODUCTION - 1 - - CEU eTD Collection 1 from framework view which historical multi-ethnicthe into Hungary, whichfor lastone the a gives it situation, Hungarian the onto directly theory this map to impossible it make will identity one can ascribe to themselves in given situations. Though there are some specifics which That is to say, the setting action” social a consequence of of setting the situations as withinenjoined parties social upon is the greater social the restraints “The ethnicity structural situational explainwould refer to of dimension assuch: structure is level primary the levels, several details he Though which situations. given to identity ethnic their dictates the variable Jonathan Y. Okamura explains in areable how(generally actors poly-ethnic societies) modify to amount of for – allows use the muchroom identity.hissituational “Situational of In essay Ethnicity,” even a consensus as to whether they migrated from the east or west slopes of the Ural Mountains accomplish. difficultnor to with wasneitherhistoriography, and this of Hungarian character return out so had been utilizedof aspart Hungarianthe identity time and the nation’sagain throughout history, lineagea stronger The Huns occurred. back to shiftborders, specificallyeducation, a through andmay West the have identity, Finno-Ugric the as retained heritage a Hungarian butwithin the withindiscourse is theis nation That concerned. say, to dialogue the between Hungarians the asfar myth, certainly Hunorigin this more aggressive backto turned spheres pointedly in public the 1930sthe dialogue late Yet,by ofEurope. the of exactopposite defenders the de-emphasizing the often utilized myth of the Hun heritage, a people who were obviously seen as of Ural the imagining Mountains, the Hungarians asalways having been eastEurope’s guard,and for cultural diplomacy with the West. At once it emphasized the Hungarian origin on the slopes of benign itvery departure point was a Secondly, be could attached.) ethnicorigin concerning Jonathan Y. Okamura, “Situational Ethnicity”, “Situational Okamura, Y. Jonathan This paper will show that the rather malleable origin myth of the Hungarians – there is not is there – Hungarians the of myth origin malleable rather the that show will paper This Ethnic and Racial Studies Volume 4 number 4 - 2 - - (Oct. 1981) p. 452 1 CEU eTD Collection concerned, the assertion of a specific Hungarian identity much of been justas has identity a means Hungarian a specific of assertion the concerned, is policy internal as far bemust remembered, It relations. external in of sphere the least second option. Yet, at times, for majority. theirhavehistory in the Throughout basin, have Hungarians the the Carpathian opted found itneighboring morethe into assimilation expedientpossible to aversion an validates and pride of sort a toinstills once downplay this distinctiveness,could seekoutaspecial inherentquality uniquenessor bringswhich forth an identity which at at one other, the On majority. surrounding the to alike more become to attempt an in differences options of of affairs. approachingminimize thestate Onthe onehand, couldto one try the primary two the as well as heritage, common a with others of midst the in individual an as feel understand, looking especially atit through situationalthe identity both approach, how one would that reason this origin for is it believe I out. odd-man the being of that was era post-Trianon in the certainly played such an importantfurther justify theirhistoric claims theirto lost territory. roleandjust was asimportant, re-identifying that with Huns,the for anation irredentists,of would in Second, the theory. Finno-Ugric in the asserted origins humble, historiographyyet scientific, the than rather nation, lineage, awarrior of Hun the was that defeat international of in wake the nation dismembered of the upon strength impart to Hungary. able better as seen ancestry the and with, faced was nation It is was identity The firstaspect myth.to theHun crisis the return the which encouraged origin easy to is hypothesisprimary The themselves, hadpaper of factors weretwo that there changed. this identify wereable to they within which framework structural the setting, or territory, the and forced to recreate the Hungarian identity. As a result of the loss of two-thirds of theirhistoric post-Trianon Hungary during the which time Hungarians wereinasensefacednation anew with hundred and fifty years the Hungarian were trying to solidify and assert their identity, as well as One of the ‘situations’ in which Hungary found itself for over a thousand years, and years, thousand a over for itself found Hungary which in ‘situations’ the of One - 3 - - CEU eTD Collection cultural affirmation within the international community. The final two chapters of this thesis will and territorial of means a as and cohesion social internal of means a as both identity national individual within within thelargergroup, group the social greater andfinallystructure, the issue centuries,formation,identity andwhy. with address of beginning Iwill Second, the the of made been have that assertions divergent the and origins, Hungarian of issue the addressed will needlook athow historianscourse of to seekingtheorigin Hungarianpeople of the be the starting point of this thesis. nation.will This the anidentity within recreate aneed to inwas there Hungary West, the toward weredirected thesecampaigns nations. Western Though tothe image of Europeanness their cultural diplomacy.All engagedthree in various sorts of putforthpropaganda, attempting to an and Romaniacontinue the enlarged by butalso Hungary to asserting their claimsuse by of the identifying themselves as distinct from surroundingthe Slav nations orvice versa. findingthan in themselves position the either causingof dissention thewithin borders and rather states, from neighboring it the apart set which as acharacterization as act as nation well the within effect aconsolidating both had have to said be can identity national a of assertion they that mademore than up 80% of is population.the It atthis pointHungarian the that – months of 1918 final two in the established were ofHungary borders cease-fire temporary the arguablysince really on Treaty June 4,1920–or Trianon signingof the of It after until wasn’t minorities and of aggregate borders, within historical until the barely 1919 they a majority.were country, eve butdidnot constitute 50%of populationthe in – vis-à-vistheir own country the ethnic Hungariansmid-19 the until all, After force. adivisive been were has it as identity group a consolidating minority majority – that is, they were the largest single group in the Four specific areas will be looked at in compiling my sources and information. First, I First, information. and my sources in compiling at looked be will areas specific Four In the post-Trianon era there were efforts by not only the new nation of Czechoslovakia - 4 - - th century CEU eTD Collection as well as the uncertain position the nation maintained on world maintainedthe on stage. nation the as well position uncertain as the assertion of Hungarian identity will go along way to show both the new Hungarian identity crisis internal andthe diplomacy external the A between comparison be traced. can late 1930s the and 1896 of celebration millennium the between narrative in change the believe I means these especiallyproduced for useinnational opposedtoecclesiasticalschool, as Through schools. portrayed tothe west.Internally education, to look specifically I will history utilizing textbooks diplomacy which engaged governmentthe in, special paying the post-Trianonattention imageto cultural the at look Iwill Externally with. be dealt formation identity external and internal both that here important is It channels. official through forth put as identity Hungarian with deal - 5 - - CEU eTD Collection into the category of social anthropology, rather than history, yet here they will offer a very useful very a offer will they here yet history, than rather anthropology, social of category the into situational beethnicity. sure, To this writing aswell as many toolsthe expoundedof upon fall In the essay “Situational Ethnicity” Okamura, as the title suggests, discusses book the concept of society through discourse, specifically usethe mythology, of described by inBruce Lincoln his theory blendnicely will with ideasof the deconstruction, construction, the andreconstruction of helpfulvery in situational involvedof observing context historicalthe factors inthis This thesis. Imagined Communities historical side will be found in writingsthe of Benedict Anderson’s groundbreaking book Jonathan discourse. historical is amore behindideas sociologywhich thislean throughout the analysis thesis; toward two and one which which be discussedwill in There willbe theoretical mainsources the driving chapter three this Discourse and the Construction of Society. Discourse andtheConstructionof . THEORETICAL APPROACHES: SITUATIONAL DISCOURSE Situational Ethnicity Situational CHAPTER 1 Y . Okamura’s theory Okamura’s theory ‘situational of ethnicity’ be will - 6 - - The mainfallsmore sourcewhich tothe CEU eTD Collection 4 3 situation.Finally, mostthe idea crucial isthat“individuals have the option eitherof asserting There are also choicesOkamura it, setting puts is ‘objective’the of point view, while is situation a ‘subjective’ view. to be made as to what as perception, basedon are often choices These in situations. dulled particular or ethnicaccentuated identity a person be will characterizations ethnic if, to how, what extent or concerning choices has person ascribes to anotherstructure, within may whichindividual actors chose variable coursesof Withinaction. asetting a in a 2 imposed constraints the by widersetting.”upon them the focused on wayinthe individuals which appraise the behavior choices open to themselves given determined by‘setting’ and As ‘situation’. Okamura it,is explains “[situational ethnicity] are parameters relational the Here reflect otherness. to from which concept or belief, idea, sidestwo tobe dealtwith here, all after really ethnicity is arelationship, nothing without some are There is thequintessence. buttherein than that, more complicated is itdecidedly ethnicity, shed say cansimply one is that notto That suchfactors. andother situation upon depending alike.” researcher andthe actor for the apparent most are identities social other and ethnic of relevance varying the and boundaries, ethnic of fluidity identities, the forof ethnic ascription criteria different meaning “theethnicity,of the variable behavior.” social of explanations and understandings actor’s the – societies, dealingspecifically “with subjective notions and perceptual inof ethnicity terms of an locate ethnicity in to discourse bewhich no there would –otherwise in community poly-ethnic with identity. lens through betterwhich viewto the athand,topic aswell as any historical approach dealing Ibid., p. 453 Ibid. Jonathan Y. Okamura, “Situational Ethnicity”, “Situational Okamura, Y. Jonathan The theory of situational ethnicity sets out to explain ethnic identity vis-à-vis greater toexplain the identity sets out ethnic The theory ethnicity situational of Ethnic and Racial Studies vol. 4 no. 4 - 7 - - 3 Quite simply, ethnicity is relative is ethnicity simply, Quite 4 So, setting is the greater social 2 With an approach such With approach this,an as (Oct. 1981) p. 452 CEU eTD Collection 5 or effect to in order treated are similarly estrangement of sources conversely, potential or, border social aclear of inestablishing theinterests orsuppressed overlooked andperhaps temporarily) (partially are affinity of potential in which mixes ambivalent are sentiments social of majority made available for associating ordisassociating oneself or social group from others, “and the vast are that sentiments alwayslatent are several he there explains, In any approach. structure, social whichpoints will be usedherein will be built, coincides very closely with Okamura’s situational already and be thisdescribed will main helpful to thesis. His upon first point, which specific the ideas nicely with manyimportant which approach Bruce Lincoln accord situational posits the social situation is crucial to mapping this theory of individual identity onto nation-states. to represent themselves, as well as what identities they choose to ascribe others.to The changing describes, while the nations themselves can be seen as the individual actors facing choices of how Okamura setting social wider the like much is setting international the which in situation to say, any of manynewlythe formed orthe offspring nations, of empires, find in themselves a useful from the point of view of the changing international system in the interwar years. That is that perception, boundaries, ascription, and setting all play very important roles. occupation.” their primary ethnic identity or other social identities, such as those derivative of class or Ibid., p. 460 In contextthe of this thesis, situationapproach the as by described Okamura willbe 5 This is vital in dealing national with identity in interwarthe years due to factthe Social Discourse - 8 - - CEU eTD Collection 8 7 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 10 6 point. In the seenthis from helpillustrate above book Lincoln’s here, graph will importance the Because of figureits Roman numeral one is the common ancestor (tribe), the capital letters as well order, between peoples. divisions as ‘situational focuses Lincoln mythitis on andwaysinwhich discourse.’ social toconstruct used be what termed here will create to in order approach situational Okamura’s merged with manipulated, and rendered dormant is discourse.” or takes it apart is sentiment, and the chief instrument with which such sentiment may be aroused, together holds society which either that “Ultimately, Asstates, nations. Lincoln other between in are useddefine an attemptinthey nation, one how to and are used acultural barrier situating they how to eye an with examined, be will sentiments authoritative these paper this In societies. other between border create the to serve also narrative can same the society, inthe same are with sentiments.approved The opposite is also true. boundWhile the groups by an official narrative forsentimentsby within carry division, society are heldtogether potential the officially groups solidarity.” and integration level of social adesiredpreserve Ibid., p. 19 Ibid., p. 11 Bruce Lincoln, Bruce Diagram I –fission and fusion of segmentary units. sufficiently be can it before more a bit out fleshed be must discourse of premise Lincoln’s Discourse and the Construction of Society: Comparative Studies of Myth, Ritual and Classification - 9 - - 7 6 He then explains that because these 8 , CEU eTD Collection 10 9 bytheneeds being present of the invocations,stimulated for specific ancestral recollected, is that past the shapes also “The true. present is also but theconverse present, the structure common split tribal furtherintoclansancestor, Yet, lineage not or subgroups. only pastthe does redefine ashappens sentiment, under certain conditions, suchas associated when by groups a at times, or, reaffirm, serveto can inturn which aprogression sentimentality; and affiliation unlike ancestral upon of notgroup momentsselection the inthe–depending –aprocess that past through the Thisoccurs summoning of allowssentiment. particular for manipulation the of available reconstructa more to harmonious relationship. is their commonality reach an accord, to when time comes the Yet, of reference. as apoint groups, each involvingstrife commonwill forgo option two of back tothe the reachingancestor is When there setting. the wider bewithin chosen to are able between others, borders as create circumstances.” may underother bemobilized that groups alternate possibilities: structural latent moment only one such level of social integration is active and evident, whereas the others exist as clear that membersbacklineage in the seeknarrative. the they theirin Although, it keeping is this with premise, of society involved, choose groups approach,far situational behow likemuch to they will, able Okamura’s in theory varying size.” of aggregates form to integration of levels belong different at recombine can field social atotal of members to multiple “wherebyfusion, is fission and theguideline pattern the subgroups tothis (lineages).Basic of commonfurther for holders place are numerals arabic the and (clans), descendents primary represent groups, “at any given Ibid., p. 19 Ibid. Lincoln also addresses ways in which sentiment helps create the very discourse that 10 9 Following thisit is clear that the narratives that hold societies together, as well What is Whatis important thatduring ofdepending anysort upon conflict, the - 10 - - CEU eTD Collection 12 11 three elements are integral to the formation of a modern national identity. Nations are“imagined Nations identity. national modern of formation a areintegral to the elements three of place. societies involvedthe took discourse was not necessarily new, but rather the means. Because of this, a necessary re-shaping for a new popularcommunities as Anderson describesit are precisely those things that constructsocial asetting necessary discourse placecreate in imagined to the case inorder whichtook involved, The thenation. changes this to takecame place, nation-states about, and modernity of context the within as discourse the which in ways welldemonstrates it as as wellthe actors.asbook Anderson’s Benedict how Thatthe issituation to say, the within greater setting is perceivedmore fully. becan on this appreciated thesis of implication social alsodiscourse but the by approach possible, Okamura’s with synthesis of isacertain not amount only that very point this the actorsfrom the anthropological record andfrom the social register –not the least uncommon.” is judge –to that –unless, one with tampers of apractice genealogy, course, specific ancestors andfact memory,historic collective canonlycall aredefinedthat one groups the forth by those is“beingfixed by thatbecauseancestry isimportant It recognized configurations. reconstruct identificationlandscape, through with specificancestors,onehasand deconstruct theability to for clan-level conflicts.” sized groups situation, must be appropriate to those needs: [referring to diagram 1] One cannot rally tribal- Ibid., p. 21 Ibid. The nation, Anderson says, isimagined as limited, sovereign, and as a community. These Imagined Communities Imagined Communities Imagined 11 It is easy to see that because of the fluidity of the social - 11 - - will be immensely helpful to this work in that work this to helpful immensely be will 12 Itis at CEU eTD Collection may may in is nation prevail each,the of always as a conceived deep, horizontal comradeship.” is of and becausethat “regardless imagined actual inequality such exploitation the community the vernacularthe shift wasafundamental helpedtocreate communitieswhich and territory. This discourse. build which interwar to the around of choice ancestry aconscious necessitating be dealt Okamura and Lincoln because time with,and the nation’s connection to the pastis the primary issue to of theories the integrating in helpful be will topics These time. of concept and changing asthe well as alreadydiscussed above, are the decline of sacral languages and the development of the printing press, as shown,enabling ananalysisnational of identity situationalthe through approach and social discourse this helped is bulk sensenation who makeupthe In histhis in theimagination. truly of con-nationals. createexplainsinby point this the readerthat nationreminding one canimagineany others only the the setting/situationAnderson as writes:welllongernoby trussed ratherthe unbounded stretch of dynastic authority religious or power. as“The ideaswords, anddeeds changed creating thesocio-political stage, in a which terrain werepeoples gauge and emblem of this freedom is the sovereign state.” 16 15 14 destroying the legitimacy of destroying hierarchical dynastic the legitimacy of divinely-ordained, the realm.” sovereign one of waysinthe Andersonwhich describes imaginingthe of They‘nation’. “imaginedare as nations.”other 13 as Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Benedict Anderson, limited The change inthe domination sacrallanguagesthe of over vastcommunities to theuse of in Foremost language.Anderson’s is which Histwomain areimportanttheory in points, because the concept was born in an age in which Enlightenment and Revolution were Revolution and Enlightenment in which age in an born was concept the because because even the largest of them…has finite, if elastic, boundaries, beyond which lie which beyond boundaries, if elastic, finite, them…has of largest the even because 13 A territory is of fundamental course to the activity mental of mapping, which is Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1993), p. 7 - 12 - - 14 In other 15 The 16 He CEU eTD Collection very real sense, it imaginedcommunity. made the very possible sense, real 18 17 the means for ‘re-presenting’ “technical a constant is it paper; same the reading are community his of members many simultaneously that understands importantly more but events, past is reading all of first morning, the aptly by Anderson in example ingiven an whichhesuggests aman that reading anewspaperin and arehappening the future inthe changepresent. The aboutby brought printingthe is press conception of history as an endless chain of effect.” and ascause chain of anendless history of conception no had mind Christian mediaeval “the that, explains Anderson media. press the and languages material. printed picking manyin choosing tobroaden amongfor and dialects,market the order theirregional large communities, of languages codify to market forpress the necessary itwas vernaculars language in played forming imagined Withcommunities. sacralthe languages being by replaced role the of part a crucial is material printed of marketing mass and press printing the why is this inneighboring languageothers has lands.Ofcourse, been long beforearound modernity, and the by creating community territorial the it enhanced hand, other One the mother tongue. same most blatant of identity markers;allowed on onehandthe mental formapping aswell as comradeship. After all,language is the one is easily able to feel solidarity with others who speak the Ibid., p. 25 Ibid., p. 23 A shift in the concept of time was also brought on by the undermining of the sacral kind of imagined community that is the nation.” is the that community imagined of - 13 - - 17 Rather, in Rather, their mind, past the 18 In a CEU eTD Collection homogenous timefor allowed this. based historical ifhistory on discourse were notavailable; change only inconsciousness the of identity make concerning choices impossible to bewould time. It of for anewconception not this very media. The discourse to be discussed here would simply have been non-existent were it ofbutnew verythe through communication, sources through apprehension understood time of though only not available became They available. became means those how also but discourse, andcreating choices making nationswere the by only means which not understand the helps to morelandscape changing than the it overthe interwar years; centuries leadinguptothe two those choices were made. Finally, Anderson’s imagined community presents an understanding of available. Given Lincoln’sdiscourse this, offers the opportunity understandandto what how stand inlandscape for to widen the social setting within which hassituational nation that choices for international the it then Identity,” allows “Situational in individual Okamura’s in of place the The synthesis of the above theories will serve asaguide thisto paper. If one can take the nation Situational Discourse Situational - 14 - - CEU eTD Collection 20 1953), p. 38 character, simply transferring the exploits of Attila to Árpád at the time of the conquest the of time the Árpád at to Attila of exploits the transferring simply character, Hungarorum this been reached dayhasnot to which up.” cleared in as butmodestly,fashion increasingly until dramatic has been time proceeds, a confusion identified them as Huns. “To fit this new pedigree, we find the early tradition remodeled,alsosources, buttheideas and adopted Hungarians about, West, the images of, from who at the first historical their as myth and folklore used only not which chronicles several of writing the through 19 sorted out, butbealways out, manipulated. sorted to be never to historiography, tale of beginning something the offeringHungarian from adistorted before Simon Kézai’s before Simon Well times. the of needs the suit to manipulated be can origin national of discourse the that is,was, ambiguity. andinthis context still It Carpathian amount Basinthrived onacertain of has nearlysincethe historiography The social in time conquestof of the discourse the Hungarian Ibid., p. 67 C. A.Macartney, C. THE MALLEABILITY OFHUNGARIAN HISTORIOGRPHY THE MALLEABILITY actually far actually went so inhisfactbendingblendAttila asto Árpádinto and one Medieval HungarianHistorians: A Criticaland AnalyticalGuide Gesta Hungarorum UNCERTAIN PAST: CHAPTER 2 , Hungarian history history , Hungarian became muddled andconfused - 15 - - 19 The anonymous writer of an of earlier writer Theanonymous (Cambridge University University Press, (Cambridge Gesta 20 , CEU eTD Collection 1953), p. 68 Huns and banner the“Attila’s Hungarians: bore the image bird of the Hungarians the call the the between connection direct a makes he Attila, of description his In manner. interchangeable extent of drawing aline from the sons of Nimrod, Hunor and Magor, to the Huns and Magyars. the connects rulingAttila house Árpád of to Almos, through lineagethe of notgo butdoes tothe 12 21 earlier notable The most by with dealt chroniclers. earlier been directly hadnot which story the to addition important is avery This Magor. from Magyars 4) origins.”(Chapter Magor,and Hunor sons, two begot there and Persia, called now is bywhich a Havilah, land the entered his wife directEneth. descendent of Noah.“After the confusion of tongues the giant [Nimrod, Noah’s grandson] It andHunor are thatthe a Magor sons of specificallytwin Hewrites a biblical tradition. through was from HunsandtheMagyars connectsthe Hungarorum firsthis Gesta Kézai,pages of from Simon the them that the Huns, or Hungarians, took identity. therenational Hungarian the for basis the remains, still and became, itquickly time. Secondly,the needsof the befitting character Hungarian specific for two reasons. First, it will clearly be shown as a case of situational discourse, detailing a 22 (Budapest:trans. Central EuropeanUniversity 1999),Press, p.15 Simon De Kéza, Simon C. A.Macartney, C. th century by the unknown writer mentioned above, usually referred to as Anon, indirectly Anon, as to referred usually above, mentioned writer unknown bythe century Notably, as early as Chapter 4,KézaiNotably, early and is as as Chapter ‘Hungarians’ using‘Huns’ inabasically It is important to begin this discussion with Simon Kézai’s Simon with discussion this begin to important is It Gesta Hungarorum Medieval HungarianHistorians: A Criticaland AnalyticalGuide 21 In this narrative, the Huns are said to be descendants of Hunor, the (The Deeds of the Hungarians), László Veszprémy and Frank Schaer eds. and Schaer Frank and Veszprémy László Hungarians), ofthe Deeds (The Gesta Hungarorum Gesta - 16 - - Gesta Hungarorum Gesta Hungarorum (Cambridge University University Press, (Cambridge , written in the late inthe written , (ca.1280) 22 CEU eTD Collection descending from descendingfrom through Magor), otherthe twin. “Among captains these Árpádthe son of 4with Magyars the inChapter alineage Hunsonceagainestablished already to the (having Hungarians, andfurther on he makesa directlineage from Attila toÁrpád,relating the Hungarian In above, passagefrom the Chapter 10cited he the extends cultural of Hunstothe traditions the Chapter 4, he has made the Huns relatives of the Hungarians through the twins Hunor and Magor. areas.in Already linkin important one more than create the care to extraordinary he takes itgounnoticed that cannotin that whendealingseveral Huns,cases with relationshipthe tothe 25 2003), p. 29 trans. (Budapest:trans. Central EuropeanUniversity 1999),Press, p.25 23 7), 700”(Chapter “year of Our Lord Basin inthe into Carpathian incursion the Attila’s easier by placing conquest,the buthestates alsounder that Gézaitwasa‘Hunnish army.’ madeThis was abit histories together with a double knot; not only does he bring the narrative towell after the time of Hungarian and Hun the fastens skillfully also He Christianity. European within firmly identity the Hungarian he Attila, alsopositions of lineage the Géza to only not connects Kézai here Hungary.While it was known Gézacontinuedthat toworship aftergods pagan his babtism, theemblems notably ofAttilaconnects DukeGéza, to Christianity ruler in the accepted whofirst he First, passage. short in this levels multiple on identity Hungarian in asserting successful is 24 (Budapest:trans. Central EuropeanUniversity 1999),Press, p.38 time flag of beenDuke Gézathis has by 10) always carried Hunnish the army.”(Chapter Turul, with itsa crown on head, and thishe emblem carried onhis ownshield.Infact,until the Simon De Kéza, Simon Simon De Kéza, Simon Paul Lendvai, Claiming an identity for the Hungarians is of great significance to Kézai, tosuch an extent The Hungarians: A Thousand Years of Victory inDefeat Gesta Hungarorum Gesta Hungarorum 25 bringing the legacy Attilaof and Hunsthe 250years closer the time of Árpád. (The Deeds of the Hungarians), László Veszprémy and Frank Schaer eds. and Schaer Frank and Veszprémy László Hungarians), ofthe Deeds (The (The Deeds of the Hungarians), László Veszprémy and Frank Schaer eds. and Schaer Frank and Veszprémy László Hungarians), ofthe Deeds (The - 17 - - (New Jersey: Princeton University University Press, (New Princeton Jersey: 23 Kézai 24 CEU eTD Collection place within European placeChristianity. within European Hungarians. the oneencounter, Hungarians,this via take their areable In the Huns, to proper the identified nations European towhom one western the imagination, in European the currently was which that than Hun different vastly a is This not. or temporarily whether Church, the giving Attila the role of Géza. Ineffect,he prophetic hasarather him vision which turns toward of short Kézai just comes have In chapter, notvisions. this men do After all, that. ordinary Akademia Kiadó, 1975), p. 19 attained a function within, so to say, so tothe within,function a attained encounter with the pope “Attila is exalted to the position of a defender of the Church; he has Simon ofKéza’s Gesta Hungarorum 28 27 26 17) andbarrel.”(Chapter Romanslock,the stock, take his head off at any moment. Attila received such a shock that he assented to the petitionsbeheldbeinginjust mid-air ahuman hovering above him, and swinging asword threatening to of Romans were Butin midst asking. of glancetheirdiscussions the he to chanced upwardsand accede whatthe inclination to no showed first it. “Theking against launchan attack than rather between Attila encounter an details Kézai and passage, following the In the well. as water holy of pope,sprinkling a Attila in which, after a vision, thecentral he Carpathian spreadof role the infacilitating gives Basin,Christianity throughout the Hun a comesmaintained who leader the also was to banner Hunnish a theflew still who leader aid Hungarian the that of the Church 27) more powerful following.”(Chapter Álmos son of Álmos son El of Jen Ibid., p. 63 Ibid., p. 81 Ę Sz Already setting Hungariansbiblical the within the tradition, and remindinghisaudience Ħ cs, Theoretical Elements in Master Simon of Kéza’s Gesta Hungarorum 1282-1285 A.D. Ę d son of Ügyek, of Turul the kindred,in wasricher possessions andenjoyed a 26 1282-1285 A.D. 1282-1285 The “Turul kindred” is an obvious reference to Attila. ecclesia militans ecclesia - 18 - - 27 In his book , Jen .” 28 It seems to go a bit further than Ę Sz Theoretical Elements in Master Ħ cs suggests that aftercs suggests this that (Budapest: CEU eTD Collection Hungarians came back for the second time…”(Chapter 22) Hungarians backfor second came the time…”(Chapter 21) of country.”(Chapter the in acquiredpart conquestof joined Pannonia and them bordersthe then the of Ruthenia, with and when they found out that the Hungarians were returning to Pannonia, they came to meet them and of remnants Huns, the in fact are Székely as Hunsas Székely. These but not on themselves to referring time, Árpád’s until Csigla of field the on remained they nations Western the of fear Germans. the seek vengeanceagainst Pannonia. Attila’s sonCsaba to Scythiareturns andimmediately plans initiates in return to order Attila. the time of since a continued butalso occupation on conquests, three only not founded firmly are claims territorial the Therefore, left. never who Huns as Székely the traditional ‘second but measure, narrative,also a conquest’ for adds third well noting good as as Basin. Carpathian inthe Hungarians of presence asarecurring show acontinued, aswell measures to 29 25) Pannonia once again.”(Chapter Hungarians, entered or incarnation...when Lord’s Huns, the our in earlier, chronology noted possibly this be cannot return areference tothe “in the year872of 32 31 30 (Budapest:trans. Central EuropeanUniversity 1999),Press, p.71 strengthened. Yet, a close look at the first part of part of Kézai’s atfirstlook the aclose Yet, strengthened. claims. Asdescendentsof Huns,the Hungarians’ the claim Carpathianto the isBasin naturally the important qualities of a European and Christian nation, was another vital issue: territorial Simon De Kéza, Simon Ibid., p. 77 Ibid., p. 73 Ibid. 32 Therefore, it can be seen that where it concerns territorial claims, Kézai takes extra Kézai takes claims, territorial where itconcerns it that can be seen Therefore, After Attila’s death, he explains, the Huns fall into chaos and are forced to leave Along with the Hungarian identity, which Kézai went to suchlengths imbue wentAlong the identity, all Kézai with with to Hungarian to which Gesta Hungarorum 30 Kézai gives Csaba’s son Edemen the role of the leader “when the (The Deeds of the Hungarians), László Veszprémy and Frank Schaer eds. and Schaer Frank and Veszprémy László Hungarians), ofthe Deeds (The 29 “Another group “AnotherKézaiof group Huns writes. survived,” “Outof - 19 - - Gesta 31 Even taking into account the shift the account into taking Even shows that he not only uses the uses only not he that shows CEU eTD Collection nationalistic for abide,itbut Viennanationalistic just heritagewassuffusedreflected to that the thetype with heritage of Hunswhichthe the Hungarians had enjoyed forwas severalcenturies only not too late in 18 yet the Ottoman rule, to athreat pose necessarily didn’t Kézai by told as narrative The written. was it after long not authority of position the into The Hungarians Christian within Europe. not only craftto an identity within a group, but also among groups, it helped create a place for the long invasions. isnation thedevastating Also,becausenot used after Mongol social discourse strengthen into the may havebeen vital order heritage, which astronger gave Hungarians the validation for thelineage pagan he hismother’s receivedfrom side.more importantly,Perhaps it Cuman, the known asLadislas also IV, It offeredLadislas discourse. anewsocial for creating claim. territorial historical a making is he times, three civilization, Christianity, doubly connectingto them inand CarpathianBasin them bysettling the basis for territorial claims. an elaborate he created Finally, realm. Christian the into acceptance for allowing connection, In effect, he is giving the Hungarians toeitherinter-changeably.hebasically biblical references iscreatingastrong Secondly, using the background Hungarians, the and Huns the between connection direct of a making is he anFirst, ancientcommunity. European reconstruct theHungarian identity greater the within iswhich he to attempting Gesta His adept ability connectto the Pagan past with a biblical past works well in several ways in operation he anintricate is we seethat conducting GestaHungarorum Kézai’s In the Hungarorum followed Hungarian historiography followed Hungarian intowell the 18 Finno-Ugrian connection Finno-Ugrian - 20 - - th , aspart of the Habsburg empire, the th century,settling CEU eTD Collection 34 33 two. The Finno-Ugric theory is based mainly on linguistics, as Paul Lendvai explains, “in the “in explains, Lendvai Paul as linguistics, on mainly isbased theory Finno-Ugric The two. the of synthesis canbenowpossible isthere it that thearea enough that case important certain livingpatriot in Austrailia, calls thisnew source identificationof “a blow to nationalthe pride.” ex- a Hungarian Endrey, in which above quote first in the apparent is which case, the is still This relinquish. to loath was nation the that identity an was it finding scientific of face in the even notonly that in Hunmyth was the deeply ingrained butalso Hungarianconsciousness,the that legitimate justification folklore,conjecture, andmyth. Itis hereunderstand important this to becausethereisno for putting the based competingthe which methods, Hunsorigin wasstill seen was primarily as with theory on two theories against one another, and thereforeorigin with Huns, Avars and Hungarians.” it shows languages...declared that the Finns and near relatives their were and of of Hunnish stock same the enlarging these with betweendetailed comparisons Hungarian and various Finno-Ugrian new and findingsof arguedthe Sajnovics, “adopted the he theory, Magyar-Lapp against initially reconstruction necessary for of Hungariansaspart Pray, the an empire. In1775,George though Sajnovics’ thesis provided the foundation for the changing social discourse and identity language vicinity of Lappsin the the alearnedinpublished thesis Copenhagen in 1770.” in islandthe findingVardö of andnative between on hisNorway and similarities tongue the from Venus of transit the observe to went who Jesuit, a Hungarian Sajnovics, János by dealt was form of inquiry,scientific specifically linguistics.through “The firstblow tothe national pride of strength that had the potential createto a very real threat. The change in narrative came in the Ibid., p. 28 Anthony Endrey, Another reason they are set up as opposing theories is that they contrast each other in each other is they contrast that theories up asopposing they reason are set Another The Finno-Ugric theory of Hungarian origin, though arrived at through scientific Sons of Nimrod: The Origin of theHungarians 34 - 21 - - (Melbourne: The Hawthorne Press,1975), p. 27 33 CEU eTD Collection 37 literary language Bessenyei themeans, that Hungarian through “invented nation.” focus claims, Hungarian the of on revival the because ofhis Ignotus from 1772 onwards. 36 2003), p. 13 35 on Finno-Ugricthe origins, as inwell “Indications thefollowing quote: furnishedby linguistic identity. aHungarian recreate create, or underway effortto also wasaconcerted but there not identity,a desired form situation was nationalism on in of group contemporaneous the which Not discourse. only of was thecategory situational falls certainly within seen that this discourse in endof 18 at the the Hungary language reform in his does the language reform movement placing the same emphasis on language as Benedict Anderson unique in Europe.” evidence for the originslanguage from Finno-Ugrian linguisticfamily –a of Hungarians the the absence of written and archeological sources, the language remains the only scientifically reliable conscious renaissance of language. Hungarian the in Paul hisIgnotus, book marker importantidentity probably mostfor of the Around Hungarians. the this time therewasa separationeast...The of proto-Hungariansthe from Ob-Ugriansthe tookplace 500B.C.” about south- the gradually migrated towards group and Ugric north-west the westand the towards formed group ahomogenous until 2500 – 2000about B.C.when Finno-Permicthe moved group B.C. They millennium in atforest third of zone beginning Kama the the the Pechora and rivers “The ancestors of Finno-Ugrian the peoples livedon side European the Uralsthe of around the Paul Ignotus, Paul Anthony Endrey, Lendvai, Paul Anthony Endrey hints atanational ifdespair, not resentment, several times in hischapter This new discourse came about at a time when language was increasingly seen as Imagined Communities Hungary The Hungarians: A Thousand Years of Victory in Defeat Sons of Nimrod: The Origin of theHungarians 35 (London: Ernest Benn Limited, 1972),p. 44 The Finno-Ugric explanation of Hungarian origins basically states that states basically origins Hungarian of explanation Finno-Ugric The . György . György Bessenyei was ofthemainone forces behind - 22 - - th century, writing andpublishingin Hungarian (Melbourne: The Hawthorne Press,1975), p. 32 (New Jersey: Princeton University University Press, (New Princeton Jersey: Hungary 37 It can be can It , explains 36 CEU eTD Collection service of current considerations. manipulationthe in look atthis history to theboth with which of passage, point of a closer First, he attaches an endnote to this statement. The citation accepted that the descent of that house from Attila is factual.” Attila from house that descentof the that accepted belonged the House of Árpád, Endrey concludes with line“…andthe is it generally now his in National on Tradition,” places emphasis the a paragraphdiscussing Anon Attilathe lineagein 39 38 from more passage of implications one at the quite easily,be understood well glimpsing malleability as as the history,by lookingof Hungarian – from within aswell from as –by others of means situationalthe approach.discourse This can overhauled. wasbeing time discourse the caseatthe the havebebeen said it to cannot generations, later to contention of bone be a may myth, that, just to myth origin Hun the of relegation the Though in mind. bekept anewcreate –aswelltheir in – discourse actions actors those to a position light on his objection to the theory. When considering situational discourse, itis essential that the late 18 the inin occurring If circles. here heisanything academic readerthat reminding the inadvertently analysis. Itis see off to target Hungarianthe basepopulation beinginvolvedas inadebate isanachronistic an averageHungarian the about theassumption Yet, theempire. place within of Hungary’s because heritage ahumble create intended to itwas is correct: statement level this Attila’s sword were boldly pronounced as basically of humble Finno-Ugrian stock.” Finno-Ugrian humble of basically as pronounced boldly were sword Attila’s magnified inheritors of sparseasthey out all andtheproud were of research, were, proportions Ibid., p. 4 Anthony Endrey, Gesta Time andcircumstances are of importanceutmost when understanding changing identities Hungarorum th century, the Hungarian nation meant the aristocracy, which really shines a different a shines really which aristocracy, the meant nation Hungarian the century, Sons of Nimrod: The Origin of theHungarians , suggesting that it was due to the fact that the king the writer served was - 23 - - Sons ofNimrod Sons (Melbourne: The Hawthorne Press,1975), p. 30 39 . In his first chapter, entitled “The . Inhis chapter, first Two things noteof can be found 38 On one CEU eTD Collection 40 published in 1941. confirms that his source for this statement came from Balint Hóman’s book narrative over the course of time is that because theof uncertainty which surrounds the origins of history is history. fictitiousan bemade that must Whether to appeal isbeingconstructed, newdiscourse social a which in situation any in thesis, this of chapter theoretical in the discussed as fact, In tradition. or not does To notbe sure, mater.the use of history forWhat political ispurposes unique can not be said to beabout a uniquely Hungarianthe changing Hungarianhand. at the situations to well suited reasons for political of maytime be as by planted patches thebriar manipulated well early as chroniclers in mistsby passage whichan enhancesobscured ways the origin the Endrey understandingof the up on propped shouldersthe Hunsis of the very expose. In thesis the this point this seeksto one nationalism which in history Hungarian of time very this was It reasons. nationalist specifically time in lastthe 300years of Hungarian history when myth Hun the had been toforreturned wrapping of confusion. Secondly, historiography since the chroniclersever wenttosuchlengthsbundle to the Hungarian in past a the very book he Hungarian of characteristic This israther hissupport in ownthesis. to discourse order cites was written origin Hungarian the through sifting duringis carefully he is that to come must one conclusion a the brief period of accepted,” asvalidate something “nowgenerally to inyears order more earlier than published 30 Ibid., p. 97 40 If one considers why a historian writing in the 1970s would cite a book Other Usesof History - 24 - - Magyar Történet, CEU eTD Collection 2003), p. 384 42 41 decidedly founded on the specific conceptions of Hungarian origins. As Nicholas Nagy-Talavera As Nicholas Hungarian origins. of conceptions specific the on founded decidedly organization’s policies, from investigation the of Gömbös.Aside acaptain staff,deeper currently Gyula general on the a simple look as “X”, orsometimeswhowas headedbyfutureprime referred to minister,Etelközi Szövetség), at the ideologynumberin 1920was101.” of the association will show that it in mind, an wasuncertain past was most helpful. vicinity.”immediate andits of Carpathian Basin Magyars among thenations the historic Hungary by demonstrating the alleged cultural and intellectual of pre-eminence the motivated “itpossibility vigor: desirerenewed toprobe into by was also the of reconstituting the Steven Vardysuch drastic revisions of historicalthe narrative. In his book explains would attempt discourse national the recasting for resources with necessary the several people the prevalent(wider social setting) had undergone drastic changes. In light of this,it is easy understandto objective whythe and perception) (individual mindsetsubjective the both Hungary, post-Trianon of case among the In backdrop. static a rather against largeextent a to but ethnicity, of fluidity the to referring those looking from is outside.the tosay, That when Okamura talkssituational about ethnicity he is often to historical been created had already identity in national anew butalso which available, choices identity studyidentifiable which finds group faced itself circumstances with in only whichnot are a of plethora with point. this on light shed will follow which examples two The identity. reconstruct Hungarianthe for seeking those of to departure nationthe this isoften point the Paul Lendvai, Steven Vardy, Steven In the inter-war years there were “dozens of right-wing secret organizations –their organizations secret right-wing of “dozens were there years In the inter-war an of example prime a as serves years inter-war the during in Hungary situation The Modern Hungarian Historiography The Hungarians: A Thousand Years of Victory inDefeat 42 One of the mostimportant was the Etelköz Association (E.K.Sz. – (Boulder, Colorado: EastEuropeanQuarterly, 1976), p. 158 - 25 - - (New Jersey: Princeton University University Press, (New Princeton Jersey: Modern Hungarian historiography 41 With goal this CEU eTD Collection 44 (HooverInstitution Press, 1970), p. 50 43 to the ‘Godvanian race’ (whatever that means), which is related to the Hungarian!” belonged Szálasi, to isJewish! Jesus,according afterall, not He conclusion that, “arriving atthe with the aid of Hungary’s origin myths to create a decidedly different genealogy of Christ, bible whileinhe a in of Jewish descent, ofsources 1938, the used prison combination along hishelpbeing Jesus accept Hungarians notion the of platform. political Unwilling promote to to Nazis, but with a specifically basin.” Carpathian the they entered oldbefore the tribes Magyar Hungarianexplainsin hisbook on Hungarian andit Rumanianfascism, was “organized on framework the of character, also utilized the uncertain origin of the change in the social discourse actually created a situation in which not only is it contested by is not only in itcontested which asituation created actually in change social discourse the scientific means,the Hun myth has been soengrained in national the consciousness thisthat different eras ofHungarian history. Finno-Ugricthe Though arrived atthrough theory was in the serve nation needsof the the to in designed myth and steeped a narrative of creation for the Gesta Hungarorum, Hungarian historiography is origin. the Ascan be fromseen, early on, and codified inKézai’s in history of uses political the of point focal the not than often more and reasons, political The confusion of the Hungarian past leaves much room for the manipulation of history for Ibid., p. 119fn Nicholas M. Nagy-Talavera, Ferenc Szálasi, head of the Arrow Cross, a fascist organization influenced by a influenced by German fascist Cross, the organization headFerenc Szálasi,Arrow of the the lack ofhistorical of records earlythe Hungarians and the Huns allowed The Green Shirts and the Others: AHistory of Fascism in Hungary and Rumania Conclusion - 26 - - 43 44 CEU eTD Collection identity which is based on the very notion of a mysterious past which can never be determined. never can which past mysterious a of notion very the on based is which identity those who are loath to relinquish the Hun origin myth, but also it seemed to help generate an - 27 - - CEU eTD Collection 45 less its“Hungary Trianon. wasreduced to core, still than retaining proper one-third Though (32.6 losing by neighboring truncated,as landits Treaty the states termsof the dictated of to of two-thirds ita subjugated state,vastly butyears wasnot first time Hungary wasalso that innearly 400 change. international community – discourse will least oratchange, have fortuitous amore foropportunity by limitationsupon the enforced widersetting, the based behavior evaluates choices how the actor upon isisidentity dependent or ascribed, ascribes, drastically. Asperin Okamura, his essay “Situational Ethnicity,” thediscourse through which one bein socialEuropean landscape inmany the countries amended such hadto a way that discourse in held in1919,changedthe conference Paris andpeace signed atthe as theother treatiescreated result of World War I, but rather the war’s aftermath. TheAs signingnoted of the Treaty in of Trianon,the asintroduction well to this thesis, the changing discourse in Hungary was not so much a Jonathan Y. Okamura, “Situational Ethnicity”, “Situational Okamura, Y. Jonathan After World War I, Hungary was effectively a new nation. That is to say, not only was it the it was only not say, is to That nation. new a effectively was Hungary I, War World After IDENTIFYING THENATIONIDENTIFYING ANDTHE ‘OTHER’ THROUGH SOCIAL DISCOURSE REPRESENTATION: CHAPTER 3 Ethnic and Racial Studies vol. 4 no. 4 - 28 - - 45 When the setting changes – in this case the case this in – changes setting the When (Oct. 1981) p. 453 CEU eTD Collection Classification 47 Oxford University Press, 1937), p. 1 46 may be aroused, manipulated, and rendered dormant ismanipulated, and bemay rendered discourse.” aroused, dormant itsociety or istogether takes apart sentiment, andthe chiefinstrument with which suchsentiment her population.” of percent) (41.6 two-fifths over little a and area, her pre-War of per cent) Peace to in foreword the claimsIstvan is Bethlen asCount It true, setting. international of strategy, matter of wasa others to situation, representation contemporaneous the withbut to regard chapter, next how to reclaim in the importance willbeseen isas ofutmost is sentiment concerned, Hungary within discourse the territory, as Hungary, an apt amendmentwell to the above quote would be the word ‘strategy’. That is say, to asfar as as how to bestwith Hungary’s representation to the West, in part as a revisionist campaign, andsituate the West’s image of itself within the changed book his In community,irredentistespecially and Westdueto hopes for sentiments arevision the of treaty. the European tothe and itself, nation within the identity, both reaffirm an create, or to necessary was ittime same Atthe options. available the inviewof itself re-conceptualize hadto society agrarian traditionally the level apractical on else, if nothing that, meant alone land agricultural itself; vanished had the todrastically such lossHungary of re-imagine and people, territory Bruce Lincoln, Bruce C. A.Macartney, C. , a book , (New York: Oxford University Press,1989), p. 11 DiscourseSociety of andtheConstruction containing fourspeeches he madein London Newton was Lord 1933, that among the Discourse and the Construction of Society: Comparative Studies of Myth, Ritual and Hungary and Her Successors: The Treaty of Trianon and its Consequences 1919-1937 The Changing Discourse Changing The - 29 - - , Bruce Lincoln states, “that which either holds The Treaty of Trianon and European The TreatyofTrianon 47 Because this chapter will deal will Because chapter this (London: 46 With CEU eTD Collection 51 1939 ) p. 7 50 51 and Hungary. about Treaty.” the of revision peaceful interestthe offriends and abroad, toinfluencefeeling popular inthe countriesvictorious infavor of a itselfarouse further set It to upthe Hungarian organizing task of opinion…public accordingly took Rothermere’s was thefoundation League…TheLeague action the of Revision Hungarian resultof Lord first “The article: the of consequences important the Herczegexplains Ferenc – actually moniker“Thethe receiving Little Father of Hungary” explainhis reasons for publishing the original aswell article, as adoration unexpected the he received injusticesthe of treaty the it possibleand the consequencescould haveon harmony in Europe. question ofhistoricin territorial but anysignificanthisrights spendsmuch way,of time delineating 49 48 appeared in which forEurope.” in Central Safety Sun. the Place “Hungary’s article Rothermere’s Viscount historians and writers on Hungary’s behalf can be said to have begun with the publication of dependents,” andhas had isbeing a stroke constantly paralytic andcuffed byhisformerand kicked associates as greet friends and fought brothers us too.Hungaryagainst in really is the position a man of who people “Their in whom against iswe now fought address, us…other hestated, thatthey crime which announced his for Hungary support itsand claimsin Britishthe Houseof LordLords. Newton’s first to support Hungarian claims against the Treaty of Trianon. Ibid., p. 11 Viscount Harold Sidney Harmsworth Rothermere, John Flournoy Montgomery, Flournoy John Count IstvánBethlen, In the introduction to Rothermere’s book Rothermere’s to introduction the In 49 The DailyMail is not one which can be misinterpreted. Yet, the real campaign among British The Treaty of Trianon and European Peace Hungary: The Unwilling Satellite on address on June 21,1927.Inthe the Rothermere not article, does 51 In a sense, Rothermere’s article helped direct the new discourse in newdiscourse the direct helped article Rothermere’s Inasense, My Campaign for Hungary - 30 - - My Campaign Hungary for (New York: The Devin-AdairCompany, 1947), p. (London: Longmans, Green andCo., 1934) p. xi 48 (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, As early Marchheas 30, 1920 50 from Hungarian the people – , written in, written 1939 to CEU eTD Collection Civilization of Hungary 52 the between scant was rather in West the history place Hungarian market for War the World I, before published3 after in 1919, of those So,Budapest. while there wassomeinterest in Hungarian history isarticle, thatof 27 titles only 6 werepublished 1914and between 1927.Of these 6 titles, 5were here,main thing whichnote beginning of in suggests the of certainly a discourse wakeof the the 9 werepublished WorldWar before I,of 6 werepublishedthose in London. either New Yorkor The total of 27 titles listedhere;12werepublished 8were article,the after of publishedthose inLondon; article. Rothermere’s of appearance with the occurred amovement of instigation the that understand beeasy to itwill publication, of andlocations dates to the attention close paying sections, other two as well publication is London.” publications areintended listed forpage,noting on first the that “unless placethe stated, otherwise of marketthe ahint as tothe already gives Thepamphlet subsections. several periodicals –with & trade finance; social andcultural life; folklore literature; andarts; dictionaries and and grammars; article. Viscount’s concerns followingof the Hungarian publication history,contemporaneous the and culture, extensive bibliographyby compiled Clara whichSzölösy will aid inshowing the in ofinteresttrend years – will be very helpful. The name of the pamphlet is pamphlet name the helpful.of The bevery – will years engaging in Hungarian Quarterly cultural – an association specifically inter-war diplomacy late the Clara Szölösy ed., The first subsection listed under the main section of history is simply ‘general’. There are a There ‘general’. is simply history of mainsection the under listed subsection The first The ispamphlet seven dividedinto – sections history; geography, economics,agriculture, In order In order show to morethis clearly, published apamphlet in1937by Society The the of What to Read About Hungary: A Selection ofRepresentative Books on the History and (Budapest: The Society Hungarianof the Quarterly, 1937),p. i 52 A brief examination of one of the subsections under the heading of history, - 31 - - What toReadAboutHungary . It is an CEU eTD Collection 54 53 image in the West. Thisandhistory, is it apparent that the society was trying the take an active rolecan in creating the Hungarian be understood discourseonce partof itself andthat understanding wasat of aspecific promoting Hungarian culture in the choice because publication the that givenand a hadWestdirection, been inthe thediscourse ofHungary once publications. The titles indicate,statistical data or maps.) as or have no date (it 1919-1926 between either published is(26) were and Worldbefore WarI, 30.3% verifiably published important to note (16) were 18.6% article, only while June1927 the after published than were More 50% (44) here that almost exclusively the undated date. no contain three items are either remainingthe 6werepublishedbetween 9publications, 1919-1926(4 in whileof those Budapest), 7 werepublished outside of Hungary; publishedonly 2 were before war,bothin the Of Budapest. article, the of lists published after of which these Here Szölösy 12 23publications; agriculture.were analyze this set of facts properly, though a trend can still be seen. of remainingthe 10publications only listed (3 in4 havedates in it1925, 1 is1926) possible not to London; 6were war,of the in published before 5werepublishedthose factthat London.Duetothe a total of 36 publications arelisted; article, 20 werepublished the 13werepublished after in of those Rothermere’s publication in publication Rothermere’s monthsand of in final 1918 two borders of Hungary the establishment temporary the of cease-fire Ibid., pp. vii - ix Ibid., pp. i - iii This pamphlet shows two things at once; that there was a decidedly increased interest in interest increased adecidedly there was that once; at twothings shows This pamphlet examined is86. bibliography The number threesections in of publications total of the the be atissection looked hereThe last and to geography, theonedealing economics, with A similar trend is found in the other sections. In the section devoted to social and cultural life The DailyMail . 53 - 32 - - 54 CEU eTD Collection 2003), p. 303 55 between the late 19 late the between instarting pointappreciate which to the transformation of Britishthe Hungary discourse about a will be helpful as introduction few in importance here,not lengthy the tales of aremarks such are the Though consumption. British for Kropf L. Lewis and Jones Henry W. Reverend by compiled Magyars Society entitledFolk-Lore London releasedaweighty In publication 1889 theof Before 1914 discourse which will be dealt with in the next chapter. part of meaningthatinternal this the was not intheEnglishlanguage, publications listedwere situational betweendiscourse theWest andHungary.is It important also tokeepin mindall that the publication of Szölösy’s bibliography, something substantial was occurring concerningthe more than 50% of writingsthe in listssurveyedemergingthe years inthe between ten 1927 and the with that beunderstood clearly itcan but was positive, catalyst serveas a to seemed article which Britain between 1896-1918” in of Hungary perception “the deteriorating instigating writers be foremost of one to was considered who Viator’, as‘Scotus known also Seton-Watson, is R.W. Hungary, towards sentiments favorable specifically. notable important writerinEast of absence known for The hisone European not topics, in be publications that the would werelikely expected, general, revisionist and pro-Hungarian Paul Lendvai, , containing folktales collected folklorists traditional byHungarian andtranslated and The Hungarians: A Thousand Years of Victory inDefeat th century and the late inter-war years. The translators of the book begin their 55 Certainly, not all the literature in the West which appeared after the The British Discourse - 33 - - (New Jersey: Princeton University University Press, (New Princeton Jersey: Folk-Tales of the Folk-Talesof CEU eTD Collection 57 Erdélyi, Pap and Others 56 only not discourse social of example an clearly is This mood. prevailing the considering especially butwith conflict, to theHungarians the tradition regard to, of Hunheritage the waseasily returned the during barbarians with swelled ranks the sides, both on enemies of perception the in Certainly, motif.a Hungarian-as-Huns back to wasreverted discourse there in what Paris, hammered out being still were treaties peace the while I, War World following immediately that surprising not is It 1914-1927 Between origin myth and championing the Finno-Ugric theory. history, astheMillennium discoursecelebration the approached, heavily relied on denying the Hun in Hungarian duringthis time that previousin chapter, the asdescribed also but that, discourse, Magyars.” as the known from race distinctthe respects in many yetare they people, Magyar-speaking a been, have always perhaps time, and the present they are at latter: “…although the negate effect playing down possibility the a Székely/Hungarian of relationship. Inthefollowing theyin quote, Hungarians andtheHuns, they one stepfurther,go questioning Székely/Hunrelationship, aswell as the between lineage of confusion the show to lengths great to Going theory. Finno-Ugric the of Nimrod had two sons named Hunyor and Magyar, from whom the Huns and Magyars descended.” returneddefeat, to their inAsia…Legend homes carries us furtherstill back, saying thatthe giant Hungarorum Hungarians Huns tothe through legend, aswell thebiblicalas expoundedtradition inKézai’s introduction brief with history of Attila and Huns,followedthe by which statementthe ties the Ibid., p. xiii Reverend W. Henry Jones and Lewis L. Kropf eds. and trans., They immediately leave behindthat legend, as instead turning to scientificthe understanding 57 This not only shows the important place origin maintains in the Hungarian national Hungarian in the maintains origin place important the shows only not This . “A tradition asserts that the Magyars are descendents of those Huns, who, after their after Huns,who, those of descendents are Magyars the that asserts “A tradition . (London: The Folk-Lore Society, 1889), p. viii - 34 - - Folk-Tales of the Magyars: Collected by Kriza, Gesta 56 CEU eTD Collection 58 nothing.” Turanian tribe with acute distaste. Like their cousins the Turks, they had destroyed much and created that regard, and still I regarded, that “I confess people. Hungarian the of heritage barbarian of the insinuation carry an Hisremarksplainly theHungarians quitebrazenly. toward hisattitude describes states. re-formed European hadpowers for ascribing seemingly options unlimited formed on identities newly the – or western the hand, other the On limited. very were Hungarians the to identity) specific a asserting as far (as available the choices ethnicity,’ of ‘situational parameters the considering a sense, In exhibit. engage in a dialogue with the West in which they could effectively create the identitytime beinglongerthey no part of wantedthe European community. to is That tosay, the Hungarians were unable to the for was Hungary silenced; been temporarily, least at had, powers, western the and Hungarians the between discourse the of characterization, type this Because of character. national Hungarian origin myths itas has historiography; sooften in Hungarian it was simply a matter of defining the the to back reached have to be shown not will discourse the here Nicholson, Harold diplomat British by from a remark aside Yet, situational. necessarily butalsoa group, as to characteristics ascribing viscount who profferedanew viscount dialogue. Hungary. With in mind,this itis understand easy to thenation’s “Little Father” being a British history,post-war more halfmost than between of were published in1919-1926, publishedthose was more like a monologue.Hungarian Of listed books the in bibliography Szöllösy's concerning community international the within discourse the wasthat such attitudes of resultits The and people. Hungary views certainly about bemany similar held and peacemakers delegates to punished, other Harold Nicholson, Harold Nicholson, in his memoirs of the treaty negotiations in Paris, titled in Paris, negotiations treaty the of memoirs in his Nicholson, 58 After the most After history, destructive warin the and beingseenasone of European nations the Peacemaking 1919 (London: Universal Library, 1965), p. 34 - 35 - - Peacemaking 1919 , CEU eTD Collection Civilization of Hungary 59 territory, Macartney of course begins with the Huns, but only has this to say: “But Attila’s own horde serve tocreate a lineage from either Hunor and Magor, or Attila to Árpád. In dealing with Hungarian connect the Huns with the Hungarians; in fact he lens. rights’ territorial does a‘historical through revision address as to not even address any of part theof the revisionist legendsliterature, with an attempt as to showbe seen the easily whichproblemscan work This the treatyin Hungary. has caused,situation as current well the of a survey and others) the of any longerthan times three chapter second isa (the both history Inasensethis work longest. well as the as chapter, second the is which History’ in Magyars ‘The and Minorities’, National ‘The Peasants’, inwritten 1934 is a survey including life,of Hungarian chapterssuch as ‘The Gentry’, ‘The Szöllösy's list Szöllösy's of World War history IIon Hungarian and which historiography. One books, of madeitthose onto Hungarian Rothermer’scause after atarticle, least wrote four booksbetween 1927 and beginning the community. European the Hungary its inheritage torestore amoreplacewithin highlights benignin which order to adiscourse which exception almost without withstart originthe of Hungarians,the usuallyattempting engage to items, in more beare the extensive withsection dealtwill this here.will benot What investigated the treaty, not only to restore justice,but also topreventmore intense problems down the line. These the contemporaneous issues, attempting focusmuch like of Many and these writings, Rothermere’s, sympathy,on support. understanding of to convince the European powers of the ofwrittenThe tone necessity articles,isthe aboutHungary pamphletsandbooks 1927 after predominantly one to revise After 1927 Clara Szölösy ed., Important here is how he deals with the origin myths. Macartney makes no attempt to attempt no makes Macartney myths. origin the with deals he how is here Important C. A. Macartney, who is quite representative of the British writers eager to take upthe take to eager writers British the of representative is quite who C. A.Macartney, 59 , will be examined here as part of the wave of British interest in Hungary. interest of wavethe British of hereaspart , willbe examined What to Read About Hungary: A Selection ofRepresentative Books on the History and (Budapest: The Society Hungarianof the Quarterly, 1937),p. ii - 36 - - Hungary , CEU eTD Collection 62 61 60 diplomacy – being exported to the West the late inter-war years. The following brief examples examples will brief years.Thefollowing inter-war late Westthe to the exported being – diplomacy purposeof cultural literature –for the issimilartothe work Macartney’s of The description moderate theHungarians withincommunity.origin, theEuropean firmly situates and a rather into heritage Hun nationalistic aggressive, the reduces whichonce at It isasentiment situationalthe outside discourse of Hungary beginningin late20sandthe continuing through 30s. the within been hasnotonly butreduced, hasbecome European.is Thisimportant most element the in be the barbarian very sure–butby acts to –raping asbarbarians those pillaging, and Europe entered male only…” Hungary conquered warriors of consisted snatching in mustEurope have altered their racial composition radically…the band whichfirst veins of those“…how who very callthinly thethemselves bloodcharacter of the old warriors Magyarthose who first empathizing to-day.crossed the Carpathians The relatively benign Finno-Ugric from tradition which to tell story the of withHungarian origins. first can therun in generationstheHungarians sought of raiding toimportant.” ascribe and slave-to thethe nation Huns and itswhowas numerically small; andmost his of were Germanic…subjects After his remnantsof death…The people: continued to dwell between the Danube and the Tisza were too small to be from a very scanty, between-the-lines Székely/Hun/Hungarian connection), Székely/Hun/Hungarian between-the-lines scanty, very a from Ibid., p. 15 Ibid., pp. 50-51fn C. A.Macartney, C. He makes a very telling remark in the first pages of the book, which show just what kind of 60 Suggesting nodirect absolutely blood between ties Huns the and Hungarians (aside Hungary (London: Ernest Benn Limited,1934), p.32 The Exported Discourse - 37 - - 62 In this remark, he suggests that they 61 he insteadutilizes the CEU eTD Collection 64 cover theme. uncommon an not was this war, the after West the to character European their expressing In Christianity. finds the‘place European of and inhistory’ as thedefenders traditions, all, above Europe, writer locates the origin of the Hungarian people within the Finno-Ugric tradition. theFinno-Ugric within people theorigin Hungarian locates of writer the 63 Kornis, a reprint of an article which appeared in the autumn issue of diplomacy was the main aim of this society. Hungary,” and“The Englishin Style Park Hungary.” From itthis can hardly be doubtedthatcultural amonglisted, “The them and Problems,”“Links Between are European British PeopleEngland and in hadappeared which already articles backthe of the cover some inside of On makethe seemlessexotic. people Hungarian where the wasto perhaps this possible; equivalent in English their written are cover in front the listed names all note Hungarian that the to political and cultural relations between Hungary and the Anglo-Saxon world.” Anglo-Saxon the and Hungary between relations andcultural political periodical spread knowledge to designed of Danubian andCentral European fosteraffairs andto –listingdirectors mission“A Count Stephen president statement:Bethlen asthe – aswellthe of board the image West.Theinsideof contains cover the each to European aspecifically exporting of for purpose expressly the which inthe organized yearsfollowing article Rothermere the was andsociety. culture European the member of same: identify as a humble Hungarians the nation which has a for over years thousand beena viable show only slight variation, butit will be clear that the attitude toward the origin myth is generally the Ibid., p. 1 Julius Kornis, On the first page of a pamphlet entitled “Hungary’s Place in History,” written byJulius written inHistory,” Place “Hungary’s entitled a pamphlet pageof On thefirst First it is important to take a more detailed look at The Society of the Hungarian Quarterly, theHungarian of The Society at look detailed amore take to isimportant it First Hungary’s Place in History (Budapest: The Society of Hungarianthe Quarterly, 1936), inside front - 38 - - The Hungarian QuarterlyThe The Hungarian Quarterly Hungarian 63 It is alsointeresting 64 From here he , the , are CEU eTD Collection in 1939. Because the translation and publication was brought about through supportof the about through the brought publication was the translation inand 1939.Because 66 65 worldthe canbecome civilized. conduit of by marauding butthe hordes, rest which the only not bulwark against the Hungarians are barbarians and on the other opening out an approach admitting influences from West.” from the influences admitting an approach out opening other the on and barbarians Eastern of attacks the to resistance of barrier impregnable an forming hand one the on nations, of community Western the of outpost advanced the more once became thereby “Hungary Britain, of the West’ motif seen in Kornis. Because of the Hungary’s high culture, due to close relations with historical bond between the Hungarians and British, as well as giving a slight twist to the ‘defendersHorváth does not discussshows the understanding Hungary was trying reachto with England on a cultural level. In this essay, the origin –again in History” Connection –“Anglo-Hungarian title The of editions. earlier publication’s the the Hungarians, meeting of English-Hungarianthe inbutsummer school September 1937,whichhad appeared in one of goes to great lengthsform, in andhistory,written culture by pamphlet and apaper reprinted, Horváth readatthe Eugene to create a tight given them a humble origin while at the same putting them in the role of the defenders of Europe. upon of Attila, has Kornis impartGod,’ the heritage scourge Rather than of ‘the Hungarians the Eugene Horváth, Ibid., pp. 3-4 The History of Hungary The History of The DanubianReview Europe. rest of Oxford” to this day.of The thetragic Reformation, mission Islam, Saracenswould the haveof invadedaalready upheaval Europe the suffering Hungary was and to shed thenTurks…if and its theTartars, Hungarians bloodCumans, to had notPatzinaks, opposed quotefor Orientals, [sic]of tides their theoncoming bodies against to theMacaulay, bulwark onslaughts of “themade was nation apparent. Hungarian Koran the of She mission was to be historical the the defenderwould crusades] [the time of that From the West; bethe Marches taught of Europe, a at Anglo-Hungarian Connection in History 65 , another organization designed to engage the West inengage Hungarian West the organization to designed , another , abookby historian,Zarek,German was Otto inpublished London - 39 - - (Budapest:Sárkány Printing Co., 1937), p.12 66 The CEU eTD Collection 68 67 the first line that, “From its beginning a spell of romanticism pervades the History of line itsbeginning firstthe “From romanticism aspell the that, History of pervades Hungary.” of readeron Hereminds the heritage. hetheHungarian more dealsmuchbook with hisdiplomacy. In cultural exported Hungarian as analyzed be can book this Affairs, Foreign of Ministry Hungarian nation, most of mostnation, of which –being supportive of Hungariancausethe 1927–wasafter designed also to Hungarian tothe characteristics specific was ascribing also West but the community, European create aspecific the Hungarians would within allow identity placement for which to attempting an external discourse. Eastbent the on destroyingincivilization Thatand imagination. European culture European the is to say, stemmingmaraudingbrutal, from hordeswhofor many had barbarianscenturies from represented it one as is heritage Hungarian the of notion a the minimize to situational inorder theory Finno-Ugric the upon discoursestarting point found in the majority of thein writings waswhich article cases, both important publication immensely by Rothermere,the after of the the Viscount the origin, almost withoutnot exception settlingonly In in West. the specifically ofHungary, borders as beyond, the well as borders, the changed within were the In this chapter it has been shown that in the inter-war years the social discourse of necessity had task of taking possession of Attila’s land, so as to turn it into the country of the Hungarians.” actual the inspired Attila with Árpád of identification’ ‘mythical “This is timely: it as simple is as addressing both the twins of Nimrod version as well as the Attila-Árpád connection. His explanation myth,this writerconfirmsthe theory Hunorigin theFinno-Ugric work as categorizingwhile Ibid., p. 44 Otto Zarek, Otto It isIt in important extremely mind tokeep thatthe here discusseddiscourse inis this chapter The History of Hungary (London: Selwyn& Blount,1939), p. 11 Conclusion - 40 - - 68 67 In CEU eTD Collection in the internal in internal discourse. the benign Finno-Ugric origin wouldwas something that asharp take back turn tothe Hun origin myth based upon the of civilization. Identity the as theHungarians aspacefor European part construct - 41 - - CEU eTD Collection was set in place by an article which appeared inin was byan which set appeared article place West andthe Hungary between discourse the of thedirection 1927when after specifically years, inter-war the in atransformation through went shown, been has as discourse, situational The This discourse was evoked, as Bruce Lincoln explains, “in order to effect or preserveeffector adesired to “in order explains, Lincoln wasasBruce This discourse evoked, new situation. the in of view necessary as was identity Hungarian re-shape the to extent certain sentiment. it than rather torely tended moredealing aunique approaches situation, strategic quite on with were they because Also, others. above and over characteristics specific for asserting options available the as perceived it what by bound was Hungary formation, identity of phase in this For discourse thatthe be wassituationalwithin indicates international sure. to community. This the dialogue rather than a monologue – it was necessarily shaped around the issue of a Hungary’s place eventually but uni-directional, awhile for – ‘other’ the and Hungary between was discourse This chapter will deal with the internal discourse to which Hungary was appealing, to a THROUGH PUBLIC EDUCATIONTHROUGH PUBLIC CHANGING THEDISCOURSE BACK TOTHE BOOKS: CHAPTER 4 - 42 - - The DailyMail in London.Because this CEU eTD Collection Classification 69 tail end of 19 the find how anditis where in observable utilizedschool grades textbooks schools in state from the will reception. thein changing Thischapter exclusively seeking to with deal Hungary, discourse this means thatMinistry of Education control discourse, but they also have a rather captive audience. Obviously, the thethrough government, the can only Not discourse. sway official this for conduit a as serves of the officially foundation whichserveeducation Public officially discourse. of the approvedsentiments asthe endorsedconstruction of cultural and social barriers,the it and is importantcohesion, to rememberdivision, for that often potential the it social iscarry thethey in that preeminent, are sentiments discourse will haveterritory lost with the signing of the Treaty of Trianon.a very wide identity towhichthe on included becausethe ‘other’ was inopposition ‘other’ the was Hungarian necessarily it internal asan dialogue even identity, of a newsource seeking Hungarians the were only not specific; isvery in Hungary years interwar inthe seen been can this in which way toalessergroup, greater degree, is or alwaysbetween and adialogue group the The ‘other.’ the single a evenwithin discourse situational is say, to That identity. national a strong as creating well as ‘other’, the between borders soften, or establish, to how about both was discourse social solidarity.” and integration social of level Bruce Lincoln, Bruce Education is a very powerful source of identity formation. is in identity Because of Education avery source this discourse powerful , (Oxford University Press, New York 1989), p. 10 Discourse and the Construction of Society: Comparative Studies of Myth, Ritual and th century century through latethe 1930s in Hungary. 69 This important suggeststwo internal the things, - 43 - - CEU eTD Collection velök rokon kazarok, kunok, beseny kunok, kazarok, rokon velök 73 szlávok egyaránt rettegtek hatalmától, s a rómaia s görög császárok ad császárok sgörög s arómaia hatalmától, rettegtek egyaránt szlávok és a németek valamint és rómaiak, Görögök terjedett. folyamig a Volga egész határától Németország mely föl, 72 71 Kiadja Heckenast Gusztáv, 1872) 70 relatives, the Khazars, the Cumans, the Pechenegs and Bulgars.” Pechenegs the the Cumans, the Khazars, the relatives, their of neighborhood in the centuries for lived they where in Asia, River, Volga the beyond following passage:“Theland mother of Hungarians – before they Hungarymoved to – was in the relatives and homeland their both situates he Hungarians, the for As yet. Hungary with is it Hungarians, the is, Hungary, that the about is or, Carpathian Basin being wasnot that paid Greekand the him Roman tribute.” emperors and fearedhis power, theGermans and with Slavs, Romans, together Volga Greeks and River. God,’ set up an immense empire, of whom ‘the scourge calledAttila“…the (432-453), famous people has empire: Attila’s reached which was across the border from Germany, extending to the Presentations a newon form.take was already beginning to book, The Hungary and the West 1927,butafter with variationa small suggestswhich the that discourse between discourse external in the observed discourse the with inline much very Hungarians schools originof publishedaddressesthe in the instate writer for1872, the In use a textbook country country since the times earliest by wasinhabitedpeoples.” different living in Carpathianthe aroundthe Basin time ofChrist’s birth, stating it succinctly: quite “Our Late 19 Ibid., p. 11 “A magyarok Ibid., pp. 9 “…a hires Attila (432-453),kit isten ostorának neveztek anépek,oly roppant nagy birodalmat állitott Ibid., p. 9 “Hazánkat a legrégibb id legrégibb a 9 “Hazánkat p. Ibid., Ferencz Ribáry, Ferencz th century 70 , written by Ferencz Ribáry begins quite simply, with a description of thepeoples of a description with simply, quite begins Ribáry by Ferencz , written The Hungarian Social Discoursein EducationPublic Magyarország Története:Rövid El Ę s hazája, miel Ę k, bolgárok szomszédságában több századon át laktak.” át századon több szomszédságában bolgárok k, Ę kt Ę l fogva különféle népek lakták.” népek különféle fogva l Ę tt Magyarországba költöztek volna, a Volgán tul, Ázsiában volt, hol a Ę adasban - 44 - - 72 This history theoretically has nothing to do to nothing has theoretically history This (Hungary’s History: InShort Presentations), (Pest: Ę fizet Ę i lettek.” i Hungary’s History inShort 71 73 By the end of the page he The mighty ruler Attila, ruler mighty The CEU eTD Collection (Budapest:Lampel Róbert Könyvkiadása, 1877) 75 elfoglalását.” táján tábort ütött. Meggy kinek nemzetségéb kinek 74 linguistic theory, yet is still somewhere between to theories. two between issomewhere yet still theory, linguistic Finno-Ugric include of not the anymention does hespecifically Basin.Also, Carpathian conquered the theory. ThisHungarian text relationshipseems from or either andMagor Hunor –asaway Attila-Árpád heritage the the of confirming to situate to thewhether Huns. the or Henot Hungarian simplythe indication he consciousness. givesany Noticeably,“as neither Hungarian establishedwithin the theyleaves believed” origins it as wasfirmly by Kézai and others, canonized Hunmyth,the as important: suggests something isa belieftrue, closer nor ofdoes the it.” conquer he decided land,to Hungarians the beauty fertility the and the of toHungariansconcern the himselfbenign who in beyond889 Carpathian the Mountains andsetup Munkács.theirwith campclose to seeing Upon the lineage – familycountry, –astheybelieved whose –Árpáddescended the from, with Hungarians crossed Attila’s be to used which Mountains, Carpathian the beyond is land blissful and beautiful anancestor becomes ifof is Hungarian the historian willing to make the connection. the ‘the scourge of God,’ the warrior who put fear into the hearts of rulers of great empires, only These two Magyar. and Hunyor brothers nations the from sprang they and nations brother are nations Hungarian were indigenousrelegating myth by itto of end opening the “Legend hasitparagraph: Cuman the that and to Asia, east ofhistory by Cumansrelating totheHungarians, aslightdistortion of usualnarrative,the and the Caspian Sea.Ebenspanger, Their after a briefancient outline of world history history up to the timeis of Attila, begins the homeland János Ebenspanger, Ibid., p. 12 “Ez hallván, hogy mily szép és áldott föld fekszik a Kárpátokontúl, mely hajdan Attila országa volt, a In thata hearing upon way: “He[Árpád], insubtle a very connection that makes Ribáry Domestic History:ThroughCharacter Studies Ę l, mint hitték, származott Árpád is, a magyarokkal 889-ben átkelt a Kárpátokon és Munkács és Kárpátokon a átkelt 889-ben magyarokkal a is, Árpád származott hitték, mint l, Hazai Történelem: Jellemrajzokban Ę]Ę dvén ekkor dvén aföld szépségér - 45 - - Ę l éstermékeny voltáról a magyarok,elhatározták annak (Domestic History: ThroughCharacter Studies), 75 , published in János1877, writer 74 The subtlety here subtlety The CEU eTD Collection szerént, Erdélybe, a hegyek köze menekültek s ott telepedtek meg. Ívadékaiknak tartják magukat aszékelyek.” magukat tartják Ívadékaiknak meg. telepedtek sott menekültek köze a hegyek Erdélybe, szerént, 79 Hungarian and Other People inBiographies), (Budapest: Singerés Wolfner Könyvnereskedése, 1888) 78 hegyszorosonát Magyarországba jövének.A terhes hegyi utról Munkácsnál pihentek meg.” 77 népnél mély homály födi.” nemzet Ázsiának a Kaspi-tengert 76 theSzekely.” themselves into theyfled mountains Transylvania, into the and consider there.Their settled progeny moved now backtotheoldis thousand it homeland; migrated however, some threepeople, said, addresses asmall behind: of “Partof Huns the Huns who writer remained the afterwards, group with blood inchokinghis onhisown sleep, and the breakingapartof Hunsshortly the examined of concluding textbooks far.After avery the thus telling narrative, Attila the dramatic slight variation, one which was shown in the previous chapter, but which has not yet been seen in of Cumans. relatives the as Hungarians the by legend casting theNimrod modifies here writer the and connection, Finno-Ugric the of mention no is there text, previous the in As tribes. seven the of leader Árpádbecoming and in Hungarians intostory Etelköz movesthe of he the Hungarians, directly the regarding Mainly, Hungarians. the with Basin Carpathian the into peoples different leaderand severalbrought makeÁrpáda though the writerthe does Hungarians, great who they rested at Munkács.” at they rested road, lead tiresomemountain the byÁrpád.After Hungary Vereckepass, the camethrough to then nations, other and Cumans the relatives their with time long a lived Hungarians “The Huns. the the Cumans,not it butrelates to legend Hungarians the isutilized, andMagor thethat Hunor however unknown, justlike in the case of almost every nation.” Ibid., p. 13 “A húnok egy része most viszszaköltözött régi hazájában; mintegy három ezren azonban, monda azonban, ezren három mintegy hazájában; régi viszszaköltözött most része egy “A húnok 13 p. Ibid., Miksa Mayer, Miksa avereckei alatt vezérlete Árpád megöregbülve által smás népek kún- rokon a “A magyarok p. 9 Ibid., Ibid., p. 6 “A rege meséli, hogy a kún és magyar rokonnemzet Hunyor és Magyar testvérekt Magyar és Hunyor rokonnemzet és magyar kún a hogy meséli, “A rege p. 6 Ibid., History:the thePastHungarians of and OtherPeople Történelem: A Magyarok és Más Népek Multjából Vett Életrajzokban 77 79 There is madeconnection nodirect in narrative between Huns the this Itis from alreadyunderstood previousthe how chapter tiesthis the Ę l keletnek terjed Ę rónáin honolt, - 46 - - Ę störténelmét azonban, mint jóformán minden 78 76 , publishedin 1888, gives another The obvious divergence here is (History: the Past of the Ę l származik. Ekét származik. l CEU eTD Collection 81 narratives, often told through the voice of travelers or envoys to various courts. The first story,The first envoys various courts. to or of voice the travelers through often narratives, told historical a collection of through instructs niceMika,is readerwhich bySándor a edited beOf texts first examinedthe to here,the willin beahistory This text, reader published 1912. ezer esztend 80 Early 20 seem already to be sorting out a new national narrative. they chronologically, read when that, is texts these of element important another Yet, prove. texts in connection with myth isthe an unconscious part of the HungarianHungarians consciousness; that is, where it does appear in these it is treated Hun the that suggests which This Lincoln writes. Bruce latentsentimentthe about them, to akin as a simple fact which there is no need to noattempt toconnect the Huns tothe Hungarians, even not using the Szekely as alink. this text, the writer makes very minimal reference to the Hungarians before Etelköz, and makes of country” the becameruler he [Árpád] years eight within how about tradition, the to speak only but it, write not do “Scholars – science than rather totradition, partof story relegate hethe paragraph does next of the in opening the migration,so he founded ourdearhomeland,whichhas for years.” a existed thousand of a statementis millennium:“It the little of yearssincehis short a thousand [Árpád’s] finallytribes, andthebloodoath, of basin. Carpathian the of conquest with telling theirHe ends seven the Árpád, Asia, from Hungarians the of migration the explaining before nations other of Huns to the Hungarians,yet Mayer does not address this point. Instead, he moves on to the story Ibid. “Nem tudósok írják, hanem csak a hagyomány beszéli, nyolez év alatt mint lett ura az országnak.” Ibid., p. 16 “Bejövetelének, kevés híjján, most telik be ezredik éve beezredik telik most híjján, kevés “Bejövetelének, p. 16 Ibid., With these three texts it is quite easy to see that there is something within, or amongst or within, is something there see that to is easy itquite three texts With these Ę th óta áll fenn. century – 1927 century ” 81 –nowhere does he speak of the Finno-Ugric theory. In - 47 - - s így Ę alapitotta meg édes hazánkat, mely már 80 Though CEU eTD Collection a földet örökségi jogon bírják.” jogon örökségi földet a 85 Pannóniába.” bejöttek 84 83 1912) p. 1“Attila Udvara.” (Hungarian History Reader: Part 1 – History of Hungary Until the Mohács Defeat), (Budapest: Wodianer F. és Fiai, way of inheritance.” went toPannónia with the seven leaders, butnot as settlers, but as people who owned theland by arrival,he as hasthe Hungarians again therightful ‘return’ Árpád “Yet this during owners: time After in the givingas editor of before of basin the situation this text. the abrief description missing isthe so connection not unusual,butcertainly,Mika wasmakingquite specific choices writer, another by written was story this that Given history. Hungarian of haziness the account into one takes when story,especially changethe completely “camebackagain” small words 82 this is done without the help of Nimrod orhis sons. In this sentence, he clearly posits Hungary as Pannónia.” to backagain came Hungarians Attila, year the deathof the after 100th linkswriter tothe the yearHuns: “InHungarians 670th the birth the after Lordand inour of the the sentence, first in the Interestingly, Basin. Carpathian the in arrival their before Hungarians the of home the at hinting even not tribes, seven the and Árpád with beginning Hungarians the of the empire after the ruler’s death. ruler’s empirethe the after recountingcourt, the story Hunsfrom the of entrytheir intoPannonia until disintegration the of Court,” “Attila’s Ibid., p. 17 “Árpád pedig ezalatt a hét vezérrel bement Pannóniába és pedig nem mint telepesek, hanem, mint akik mint hanem, telepesek, mint nem pedig és Pannóniába bement vezérrel ahét ezalatt pedig “Árpád p. 17 Ibid., újra a magyarok esztendejében századik pedig halálának Attila hatszázhetvenedik, születésének “Urunk Ibid. Ibid. p 15 “A Honfoglalás. A Fehér Ló Regéje.” Sándor Mika, Sándor Finally, atthe end of the tale, the writer manages giveto itbit a biblical of a flourish. All The following story, “The Conquest. The Legend of the White Horse.,” Magyar Történelmi Olvasókönyv: I. Rész – Magyarország Történelmea Mohácsi Vészig 82 is told by a Greek traveler received by Attila. It tells of the grandeur of the 85 - 48 - - 83 tells ofthe story 84 The three CEU eTD Collection 1922) p.231 (Hungarian History Reader: Part 1 – History of Hungary Until the Mohács Defeat), (Budapest: Wodianer F. és Fiai, 87 örökségképen. országát egész Kánaán 86 empire; in is the story this 1922 edition omitted discourse. The opening historical narrative in the 1912 edition of this book is the story of Attila’s this isfirstblatantlyfound conscious simple observation in the choice social the re-addressing put forth is such a way as to suggest that it is a simple, unquestionable truth. be not could it Otherwise, origin. Hun the concerning consciousness Hungarian the in sentiments latent the show also it yet assertions, only rather but Árpád, and Attila between links ‘factual’ no for finding tosome format extent accounts story fit the not wouldwell.terribly Second, account Finno-Ugric scientific the stories, of book is a it because First, here. important are things Two time. the at acceptable which was history Hungarian narrative of of the variation tell a slight entire land of Canaan to the sons of Israel in Moses’ time as inheritance.” the back he gave like just Hungarians, the to Pannónia back gave Lord the so “And land: a holy behind in Transylvania. After this, in one paragraph devoted to the Avars, he relates the totheAvars,heinAfterthem to this, one relates paragraph behinddevoted in Transylvania. crumbles. With almost the same wording asMayer’s heleaves1888 text, of agroup Huns people, arriving at a small section about Attila. In two small paragraphs the empire is created and of Viscount Rothermere’s article. The writerin have heard voice West. to the their attempting were still Hungarians opens the chapter, the previous in the observed was textsas in which, situation, historical the of withview in also but ancient history of conquest. This isimportant notonly in viewingitas a conscious attempt direct different narrative, to the Sándor Mika, Sándor visszaadat idejében Mózes fiainak Izrael miképen Pannóniát, Úr amagyaroknak az tehát “Visszaadta p. 18 Ibid., A brief look at the table of contents of the 1922 edition of the same book is in order. In Taking into account the format of this book, it is understandable how it comes together to The final in book section this justwas published in 1925, years two before the appearance Magyar Történelmi Olvasókönyv: I. Rész – Magyarország Történelmea Mohácsi Vészig - 49 - - 87 . Instead the book begins with the story of the of story the with begins book the Instead . 86 CEU eTD Collection átvezette a népet Árpád a Kárpátokon, mostani hazánkba” mostani aKárpátokon, Árpád anépet átvezette sok gy útjukban Hosszú elfoglalni. azt és elindultak 90 zaklatták között folyók Szereth és a Pruth telepedtek után le, melyet vándorlás akkor Etelköz-nekhosszú és hívtak. De itta magyarok sem volt jöttek sokáig nyugtok, Európába mert alatt a szomszéd népekvezérlete folytonosanÁlmos mert a megszaporodott népnek sz népnek megszaporodott a mert 89 Kiadása, 1925) p. 7 88 Huns. country.” presentinto our Mountains, his Carpathian across the nation Árpád led year successfully 889 conquerto it. During theirlongjourney, they a lotfought of battles,victorious untilfinally in the beautiful things about the one-time empire of theirancestors, the Huns and the Avars,and set out alot of heard Hungarians: theformer Hungarians with “The connects incoming the occupants line opening writer’s of the homeland”, “Árpád,the founder the in Avars the section entitled yet makes no homeland, Asian directin an Hungarians the places it observed; texts earlier the referenceunlike so not is This to the Finno-Ugric origin. He then returns to the Huns and the in Etelköz: settlement curtailed at times – almost exactly as it was in the late 19th exactly was in itcentury.late 19th as –almost attimes the curtailed herebit be ismade discourse, –a to in thestory utilized told concerningthe origin myth the Ibid., p. 9 “Árpád, a honalapító”, “A magyarok sok szépet hallottak hallottak szépet sok “A magyarok a honalapító”, 9 “Árpád, p. Ibid., Ibid.,p. 8“ János Gy János 88 neighbor nations were constantly harassing them. harassing constantly were nations neighbor the because long, for here rest even not could they However, Etelköz. called they settled long of Álmos a leadershipwandering from period andafter under the Scythia of down betweenneighboring nations were alsopressuring the Europe them. Hungarians to came and The nation growing the for small too the was country the because Pruthome, their left and Siret lived inAsia.far away They ancestors east, in of the on Back day, oldest our the rivers, in an area which was then Thisagain givesverylittle Hungarians the text about information before their temporary Ę ket.” 90 Ę rffy, Although, only three years earlier, it seemed that conscious choices were being were choices conscious that seemed it earlier, years three only Although, ė seink a legrégibb id A Magyarok Története Ħ k volt az ország, meg a szomszéd népek is szorították szorították is népek szomszéd a meg ország, az volt k Ę ben messze keleten, Ázsiábanlaktak. Ottani hazájukbólazonban kivándoroltak, (The History of Hungarians),the (Budapest:A Szent-István-Társulat Ę zelmes csatát vívtak, míg végre a 889-ik évben szerencsésen évben a889-ik végre míg vívtak, csatát zelmes - 50 - - 89 Ę seik, a hunok és avarok egykori birodalmáról egykori és avarok a hunok seik, Ę ket. Szittyaországból ket. CEU eTD Collection örökségét.” 94 tévedtek.” vidékre gyönyörü egy Európának 93 üldözve, szarvast csodaszép egy közben, vadászat 92 Ę nép hun rokon a vele és magyar was their third move since they left their original homeland. Though the writer admits that the 91 Attila.” conquer athird legacy the to of time, country and departed seeing their of destruction the Afterrights. abattle, arrival upon theirto homeland “TheEtelköz, of returning Hungarians, territorial of claiming asasource like Kézai’s, much utilize narrative, the to choice specific nextTransylvania. thetells Hungarians He conquest of about Basin. Carpathian the Here isa in behind remaining Székely the and Basin, Carpathian in the empire Attila’s of establishment “From Hunor derive the Huns, and from Magyar the Hungarians.” ina beautiful region Europe.” to by mistaketheywent deer,beautiful hunter,great hadtwosons. Namely: andMagyar. Hunor Once thehuntthey,during a chasing the Nimrod, legend, to “According Huns: the relatives their and Hungarians the of heritage the to factual connections in the next. He then tells of the Nimrod legend, giving the reader no doubt as Asia.” in homeland ancient Hungarians andtheirrelativestheHuns. much is Yetthis thebrother certain, that hadan nations Segédkönyv Hunsthe andtheHungariansare butonly legends. related, accordingThe 1931 to text, that pages first the from directly told is it narrative; in the found be to connections mythical only As early 1931,the Hunmythas had toconsciously.returned been From pointthis on are there 1927 –1938 shazája Ázsiában volt.” Ibid.,p. 2“Avisszatér Ibid. “Hunortól származtak a hunok, Magyartól pedig a magyarok.” Ibid. “A monda szerint Nimdódnak, a nagy vadásznak, kétfiavolt. Úgymint: Hunor és Magyar. Ezek egyszer Pál Kalma, 94 Thisbe Carpathian enteredthe sentenceshould they read but basinthis not that thrice, Segédkönyv: A Történelem , opens with with , opens followingthe line: legends “Only tell the ancient about history of the Ę magyarok,látva hazájuk pusztulását, harmadszor indultak útnak, hogy elfoglalják Attila Ę 91 störténetér Though helegend, thefirst relegates makes to sentence loose he Tanítasához (Guidebook: forTeaching History), (Budapest, 1931), p. 1 “A Ę l csak mondák beszélni. Annyi azonban bizonyos, hogy a testvérnépnek a hogy bizonyos, azonban Annyi beszélni. mondák csak l - 51 - - 93 The story continues with the with continues story The 92 There they married and married There they CEU eTD Collection fiatalabbnak...Hunor utódai voltak a hunnok, Magyaréi a magyarok.” a Magyaréi ahunnok, voltak utódai fiatalabbnak...Hunor könyvkereskedés, 1938),pp. 5-6 “Két szépfiút szült itt Eneth asszony:volt Hunor a neve azid 98 97 96 nép.” a magyar és a hún eredt népeké is, mondákkal kezd mondákkal is, népeké Civics,and Geography),(Budapest: A Szent-István-Társulat Kiadása, 1933), p.4 “A magyarok története, mint más 95 Hungarians.” the elder,legend: “The woman Eneth [Nimrod’s wife] here bore two beautiful sons: Hunor was the name of Magyar by Huns tothe The Nimrod the the Hungarians relating through text againbeginsthis writer of the expect. might of what one is in exactly opposite narrative the that shown education younger…Hunor’sis it here – Hungarians the and Huns the between connections weak offering and vacillating of decades myth, –after in education public back Hunorigin the turn toward 1930s beganto successors were the HunorHuns, and Magyar. sons were Nimrod's says that stag the miracle tells about that myths. legend The with begins Magyar’s Fromlike peoples, other Hungarians, the history of “The past: the uncertainty of the admits to writer them resulted the the Hun scholarly view. Still,itis important that heand shrouds originsthe in mists the of myth and legend. the Hungarianorigins connecting Hunsarebasedaddress tothe inmyth, the Hungarians not hedoes the people.” Mountains.” “Their ancientpeoples.” Finno-Ugric are the home was insentence takesthe the student fromeastern myth to fact: “In reality, the closestpart relatives of the Hungariansof today’s Russian, on the slopes of the Ural György Szondi, György Ibid. “ Ibid. Ibid. “Avalóságbana magyarok legközelebbi finn-ugor rokonai a népek.” Ferenc Kohl, ė The 1938 textbook is even more elaborate in making a distinction between myth and fact. and myth between distinction a making in elaborate more iseven textbook 1938 The published narrative,the portion the nextinfollowingtext, In upontheHun of 1933, the si hazájuk a mai Oroszország keleti részén, az részén, keleti Oroszország a mai hazájuk si 97 98 A magyar Nemzet Története Állampolgári Ismeretek Földrajz This is a very important observation. Although, as the public discourse in the By the end of the page, Szondi begins to tell a different story: “The scholars story: a different to tell begins Szondi By page, of end the the A Magyar Nemzet Története Ę dik. A csodaszarvasról szóló monda szerint Nimród fiai voltak Hunor és Magyar. T Magyar. és Hunor voltak fiai Nimród szerint monda szóló csodaszarvasról A dik. 96 He very specifically details the ancient home of the Hungarians: (History of the Hungarian Nation), (Budapest: Bethlen- - 52 - - Ural hegység mellékén (History of Hungarianthe Nation, volt.” Ę sebbiknek,Magyar a 95 The next The Ę lük CEU eTD Collection 100 99 harder to either put into place or solidify.either placeor into put to harder created such and historiography thata new haziness Hungarian a jumble of narrative wasmuch Thatistosay, exactly malleability used forpolitical worked the wasinthis opposite. case purposes, be to narratives ever-changing for allowed had long so for which origins, Hungarian the of vagueness the that argue easily could One solidified. from far still was Trianon of Treaty the of signing the which after emerged situational that shows the discourse This certainly discourse. in public the in opposition direct thenationalisticto held sentiment within legend, hadHun beenreturned which to standing if are even as look they texts last be. The should new discourse that what onjust consensus is there no it seems yetthat discourse, the direct maketo arebeing choices conscious that show national consciousness. In the within the be seemssentiment alatent Theto in texts Hunmyth factual data. lineagethese the with second batch of texts, some veryHungarians tothe Huns,yet on other,the they itspeak of as legend andmake noattempt back up to conscious choices are seenseems which to be dealt with in veryIn grouping first the examined of textbooks in chapterthis there is identity an observable issue which round about ways. On the one hand, the writers tenddialogue following Viscount Rothermere’sto articlerelate and the end of the thirties. emerging newly the the between years the in Britain to, exported and in, told narrative the like much very sounds it fact, In myth. origin Hun the to return distinct a was which in Hungary, discourse origin the know otherwise ancestors.” about our of Urals. indetail Asia slopes home of great andtheir connection the on Finno-Ugric the the of original Ibid. “A tudósok másképpen tudják Ibid. 100 The intexts lastthis grouping tell story a muchdifferent than social contemporaneous the Ę seink seink eredetét.” - 53 - - 99 He then, as in the previous text, goes into CEU eTD Collection vastly divergent ways than is the case in other nations. in other case is the than ways divergent vastly hasoriginbeen ofthe nation. more manipulated Becauseof history often,Hungarian this, and in the of uncertainty the dueto much easier so madebeen ithas is that case this about is unique What And of history course, as forused is political notexclusivepurposes tothe Hungarian situation. ‘other’. againstthe but solidarity,also situating group the boundaries, constructing group notonly is for political a discourse cultural often tool, Social usedas political purposes. creating discourse surrounding the originsAs a result, ashas been in shown several throughoutHungarianexamples, history, this confusion of the nation served still a largedoes. extent andto several centuries, for theories origin ofHungarian base served asthe as a convenient tool with which to changesocial settingthe within which that nation socialis able to perceivewiden the for in its stand available to situational landscape choices.international the for allows then which Identity,” “Situational in inOkamura’s individual thenation years, place the of caninsert one in inter-war the landscape international drastically changed accountthe into Taking social discourse. through of society Okamura’s theory of situational as ethnicity, aswell Bruce Lincoln’s explanation construction of the after the signingThis hasthesis an offered examination of changingthe social in discourse Hungary truncated the of the Treaty of Trianon. This has been done utilizing as a guide Jonathan Hungarian historiography began with a very tangled assembly of legend andmyths. This CONCLUSION - 54 - - CEU eTD Collection occurred even as the wider public discourse was returning to the origins shrouded in myths and origins the shrouded to wasreturning discourse evenas widerpublic the occurred and 1938the in discourse school the demarksbooks very firm borders between myth fact. and This ingrasp hold Finally,as if between1927 discourse. vacillate, years a new of they the are trying to legends were addressed,consciousness. but not This attended can ingrained inthe national history, invery wassodeeply early on myth, Hungarian codified be seen into theso finaldiligently. chapter social much so discourse previouslyeasier – the uncertain origin –as well that as thefact Hun the of this Later, thesis. the Early writers oncommunity. Thedifficulty was by enhanced very the which thing had madethe recastingin of the the discourse,of the texts the seemsigning toof the by the about Treaty brought nation Hungarian the in of change the only not Trianon, of in view reevaluated completely but also thebe to had changedidentity the say, is to That itself. in re-imagining of process thethe in was nation wider Hungarian the social setting, the international community. European tothe acceptable image an proffering of matter a simply was West the with dialogue The discourse. social internal the with compared when relatively direct, to easy West, wasrelatively the and Hungary between community, rather than the barbarians of the East. This discourse, once an active dialogue opened up member European of the of with expressing allthecharacteristics middle-agesa the along – than Hunlineage – more how hadthe aggressive which was by they been identified Westsince the rather heritage benign a show to important very was it Secondly, Trianon. of Treaty the of result two reasons. First, for it origins national address to itwas necessary was discourse in this shown, Aswas diplomacy. cultural importantin engage to Hungary for to allowing showturn, important an took West the the and Hungary Hungary’sbetween discourse historic right to the territory lost as a inter-wars years. After the publication of Viscount Rothermere’s article in article Rothermere’s Viscount of publication After the years. inter-wars The internal dialogue was much more difficult to consolidate. This was due to the factthat the to due This was consolidate. to moremuch difficult was dialogue The internal This is easily observable by examining the discourse in Westthe concerning Hungary in the - 55 - - The DailyMail , the , CEU eTD Collection narrative. usedinleast textbooks in at shows discourse thesis this one with endorsed officially the competition this by wasexacerbated malleability historiography.the of An Hungarian examination of the Again, discourse. were competing nation,even there the also, muchbutwithin so lossterritory, of the by about brought state confused rather a in only not was discourse the Secondly, imagination. itthough they relegate mythology,itshows thatit to is firmly fixed national Hungarian within the later books, two thingsbe struggling to consolidate a newbecome discourse from which to form the Hungarian identity. Then,in the quite clear.see between textswritten easy 1912 whenlookingthis 1925, when at the writersthe seemto andto First, because theyisinIt disarray. –now fieldpossibilities set of the previously manageable been amuchmoreproject all start with the Hun had originsthe –which back Reachingto social discourse. anew organize all to actors trying many myth, even problem in the developmentlegends is It asapointof departure. confusionthe here that Hungarianoriginsthe of a caused of a new discourse. During this time of intense crisis, the nation had - 56 - - CEU eTD Collection Mayer, Miksa. Mayer, Macartney, C. A. Macartney, C. A. Kornis, Julius. Kornis, Kohl, Ferenc. Kalma, Pál. Jones, Reverend W. Henry and Lewis L. Kropf eds. and trans. Horváth, Eugene. Horváth, Gy Ebenspanger, János. Ebenspanger, Bethlen, Count István. Count Bethlen, Primary Sources Ę rffy, János. rffy, Singer ésWolfner 1888. Könyvnereskedése, (History: the Past of the Hungarian and Other People in Biographies). Budapest: 1919-1937 Quarterly, 1936. Kiadása, 1933. Hungarian Nation, Civics, andGeography).Budapest:A Szent-István-Társulat Budapest, 1931. Collected by Kriza, Erdélyi,PapandOthers 1937. István-Társulat Kiadása, 1925. István-Társulat Character Studies). LampelKönyvkiadása, Character Budapest: 1877. Róbert Green 1934. and Co., Segédkönyv: A Történelem Segédkönyv: A A magyarNemzet Története Állampolgári Ismeretek Földrajz Hungary’s Place in History Történelem: és AMagyarok Más Népek MultjábólVett Életrajzokban A MagyarokTörténete Hungary and Her Successors: The Treaty of Trianon and its Consequences Hungary Anglo-Hungarian Connection in History . London: Oxford University 1937.Press, Hazai Történelem:Jellemrajzokban The Treaty of Trianon and The TreatyofTrianon European Peace . London: Ernest Benn Limited, 1934. BIBLIOGRAPHY (The History of the Hungarians). Budapest: A Szent- Tanítasához for (Guidebook: Teaching History). . Budapest: The Society of the Hungarian - 57 - - . London: The Folk-Lore Society, 1889. (Domestic History: Through . Budapest: Sárkány Printing Co., Folk-Tales oftheMagyars: . London: Longmans, London: . (History of the CEU eTD Collection Lincoln, Bruce. Lendvai, Paul. Lendvai, Kéza, Simon Simon De. Kéza, Ignotus, Paul. Anthony. Endrey, Anderson, Benedict. Anderson, Secondary Sources Mika, Sándor. Mika, Sándor. Zarek, Otto. Ferencz. Ribáry, Harold. Nicholson, Szölösy, Clara ed., Szondi, György. Harmsworth. Sidney Harold Viscount Rothermere, Ritual andClassification UniversityPrinceton Press, 2003. Frank Schaer eds.and Budapest: Central trans. European University 1999. Press, Hawthorne Press, 1975. Hawthorne Mohács Defeat). Budapest: Mohács Defeat). Wodianer F.és Fiai, 1912. Mohácsi Vészig Quarterly, 1937. History andCivilization ofHungary Mohács Defeat), Budapest: Mohács Defeat), Wodianer F.és Fiai, 1922. Mohácsi Vészig Bethlen-könyvkereskedés, 1938. Eyre and 1939. Spottiswoode, Gusztáv, 1872. Pest: Kiadja Heckenast Presentations). 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Budapest: - 58 - - Ę My Campaign for My Campaignfor Hungary adasban (Hungary’s History: In Short . Melbourne: The Melbourne: . . New Jersey: . London: . CEU eTD Collection Vardy, Steven. Sz Montgomery, John Flournoy. Macartney, C. A. Okamura, Jonathan Y. “Situational Ethnicity.” “Situational Y. Jonathan Okamura, M. Nicholas Nagy-Talavera, Ħ cs, Jen Quarterly, 1976. A.D. (Oct. 1981):454-462 Cambridge University 1953. Press, Hungary and Rumania Adair Company, 1947. Ę . Budapest: Akademia Budapest: 1975 Kiadó, Theoretical Elements in Master SimonKéza’s of Gesta Hungarorum 1282-1285 Modern Hungarian Historiography Medieval Hungarian Historians: ACritical and Analytical Guide The Green Shirtsandthe Others: AHistory ofFascism in Hungary: TheUnwilling Satellite . Hoover Institution Press, 1970. - 59 - - Ethnic and RacialStudies . Boulder, Colorado: East European . New York: The Devin- Volume 4, no. 4 .