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Reef Fisheries and Livelihoods in Coastal Villages of Southern Tanzania: Lessons for Adaptation to Environmental Change?

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Reef Fisheries and Livelihoods in Coastal Villages of Southern Tanzania: Lessons for Adaptation to Environmental Change? Fachbereich 8: Sozialwissenschaften Reef fisheries and livelihoods in coastal villages of southern Tanzania: Lessons for adaptation to environmental change? Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde durch den Promotionsausschuss Dr. rer.pol. der Universität Bremen vorgelegt von Robert Eliakim Katikiro Bremen, den 15. Dezember 2014 Erster Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Michael Flitner Zweiter Gutachter. PD. Dr. Hauke Reuter Dedication To my parents, especially my mother who left us in the middle of this work, and my father for supporting my studies over many years, and to my son Eleazar. ii Abstract The crucial importance of the reef fisheries to the livelihoods of communities associated with coastal areas in developing countries cannot be overemphasised. However, these important resources are increasingly threatened by destructive human activities and continued overexploitation. Therefore, understanding how the degradation of fisheries resources increases the vulnerability of the livelihoods of coastal households, and the coping strategies employed by them, is critical for planning sustainable livelihoods. This thesis looks at how households currently residing in coastal villages of the Mtwara district in southern Tanzania– an area with a history involving dynamite-fishing activities– sustain their livelihoods. In particular, it examines the existing livelihoods strategies, the ways these strategies are developed in response to changing socio-ecological conditions, and how livelihood trajectories of the households can be conceptualised and interpreted in that context. Further, through scenario planning, it examines whether current coping strategies predispose the community to adapt more easily to unprecedented threats of environmental change, more specifically the effects of climate change to their livelihoods. Drawing on perspectives of sustainable livelihoods, and the ideas of political ecology and scenario planning, the study examines the changing nature of livelihood strategies in coastal areas. By combining insights from political ecology and the thinking around sustainable livelihoods, it links a critical review of the degradation of natural resource discourse and policy with micro-level studies, and thus provides an enhanced understanding of the processes of human–environment interactions. The fieldwork was carried out in two phases: phase one from February to July 2012, and phase two from November 2012 to January 2013. A mixed-method approach, involving qualitative and quantitative methodology for data collection, was adopted. The main techniques for primary data collection were household survey, key informant interviews, participant observation, focus group discussions and life history interviews. A sample of 297 household heads and 46 key informants were interviewed, and 58 people participated in focus-group discussions. Secondary data were obtained through documentary review. Data were analysed both qualitatively and quantitatively. The findings demonstrate that the majority of study respondents are driven to the trajectory of livelihood diversification for subsistence where gradual improvements in the livelihoods are interspersed with more abrupt declines. It is clear that, despite significant constraints linked to destructive fishing activities, coastal households seem to retain a very high level of agency, which allows them to pursue their own, sometimes contested, economic and political objectives. Different social networks and local village groups appear to play a key role in facilitating this process, however, they offer less evidence in understanding the opportunities that households and individuals have to cope and transform their livelihoods. By presenting scenarios for the future of livelihoods, the thesis argues that although households constantly adjust their adaptive strategies to survive, their coping strategies in their current form are weak in terms of being able to transit to climate-resilient livelihoods. This situation calls for efforts that take more determined approaches towards sustainable livelihoods with particular focus on the role and viability of a natural-resource base to manage risk and build resilience in a changing social, environmental, institutional and political conditions. The results contribute to our understanding of how households negotiate livelihoods under conditions of rapid socio- environmental change and increased vulnerability. iii Acknowledgements This work would have never been accomplished without the blessings and power of the Almighty God, and the generous support and kind assistance of many dedicated institutions, organisations and individuals, not all of whom can be mentioned. I offer my profound gratitude to all. Iam extremely grateful to the financial support from the Evangelisches Studienwerk e.V. Villigst and a contribution study grant from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Scholarship Programme for Young Climate Change Scientists in developing world through the Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation. My sincere thanks for intellectual debt are extended to Prof. Dr. Michael Flitner under whose supervision this study was undertaken. He subtly sharpened my thinking and indicated plausible lines of enquiry which were likely to bear fruit. More specifically, his guidance as well as patience and understanding, have been invaluable at every stage of this work. Iam very grateful to Dr. Hauke Reuter for accepting to be the second reviewer for this work. I would also like to thank the members of my thesis committee Dr. Sarah Wise and Dr. Annette Breckwoldt for their useful comments that have improved this work significantly. Thank you to Dr. Kathleen Schwerdtner Máñez who played essential role and guided me at the beginning of the doctoral studies. I will always be grateful to you and Dr. Marie Caroline- Badjeck, who in the course of the GTZ project on fisheries in West Africa under the leadership of Prof. Flitner, reshaped my perspective and outlook on social research in environmental issues. My sincerely gratitude go to my family especially my wife Catherine and my son Eleazar who was born during the period of this study. My other family members, my father and extended members are highly appreciated for encouragement and prayers when completion of this work seemed a distant milestone while they required my presence for other equally family issues. I really thank them for their love and forbearance. At the Leibniz-Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT) in Bremen, I owe thanks to many people. My sincere appreciations go to Prof. Dr. Hildegard Westphal, the Director of ZMT for allowing me to affiliate to the institution for the whole period of studies. Indeed, I would like to extend my deep gratitude to Prof. Dr. Achim Schlüter and Dr. Marion Glaser of the Department of Social Sciences at ZMT—for agreeing to include me among other PhD students in the Department, and in particular, in the working group of Socio-Ecological Systems Analysis. Suffice to say, scholarly interactions in the group, and friendship and insights made by senior scientists in the group—Drs. Schwerdtner Máñez, Ferse and Breckwoldt—my fellow doctoral candidates Daniella, Phillip, Asti and Aquila provided collegiality and made my time enjoyable. I would like to say a special thank you to all colleagues from the Institutional and Behaviour Economics working group, whom we shared candid discussion during Departmental meetings. iv Paul Tuda deserves special thanks for his help in data analysis; reacting to desperate emails on data at various times. Iam grateful to Asti, who we happened to meet after our MSc studies in 2009, for her companionship and encouragement throughout the completion of this project. Although he joined ZMT at late stage of this work, Aquila is highly appreciated for his useful suggestions, cooperation and spiritual insights. Jessica provided a platform to introduce me to the issue of coastal tourism. Alejandra Sepulveda provided discussion opportunities and laughs to relieve pressure from writing. Gashaw too was helpful in technical issues. I would like to acknowledge for support from infrastructure/administration department of ZMT, especially to Dr. Ursel Selent, Petra Käpnick and Ulrich Pint. In fact, a long list of people at ZMT also deserves to be acknowledged. I wish to thank my doctoral candidates’ colleagues under supervision of Prof. Flitner for their support and companionship during doctoral colloquium. Their contributions have helped to improve the quality of this work. These include Anna, Ewelina, Frieda, Ilka, Irenda, Jan, Johannes, Martin, Nina, Patrick and Timo, as well as Mahmud, Liber and Rio, who successful defended their thesis before completion of this work. Enormous thanks to households in the study villages for their heart wholly welcome to their houses and sharing of information. All informants and focus group discussions deserve many thanks. My research assistants; Juma Waziri and Shabani Mohamed provided valuable entry for unreachable households. Thanks also to my colleagues in Tanzania; in particular the MBREMP and Mtwara district and regional authorities, for their support during data collection and study period. Iam especially thankful to Jairos Mahenge for facilitating discussion with valuable key informants outside Mtwara. The former Manager of MPRU, Dr. Abdillahi Chande is highly appreciated for allowing permission to go for doctoral studies. Also, I would like to thank everybody in Tanzania who was important to the successful accomplishment
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