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Isotopes, Separation and Application P1: GPJ/GUU P2: GLM Final Pages Qu: 00, 00, 00, 00 Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology EN008I-355 June 29, 2001 12:43 Isotopes, Separation and Application Emory D. Collins Charles L. Ottinger Oak Ridge National Laboratory I. Isotopic Separation of Stable Isotopes II. Radioisotope Production III. Postirradiation Radiochemical Separations Processing IV. Examples of Specific Isotope Production Processes V. Industrial Applications of Isotope-Related Neutron Science GLOSSARY products to identify the components in the material. One or more of the radioactive emissions signals can Brachytherapy Radiation treatment of cancer tumors by be used in numerous applications, such as process con- means of a sealed radiation source. trol indicators. Calutron Type of electromagnetic machine designed to Neutron radiography Practice of bombarding a material separate metal ions according to their mass as they are with neutrons and using a film exposure of the exiting passed through a magnetic field. The term calutron was neutrons to determine the shape of materials that did not derived from the California University Cyclotron. absorb the neutrons. The process is similar to X-ray and Half-life Characteristic constant of a radioactive isotope γ -ray radiography, with this distinction: neutrons are that denotes its rate of decay. The half-life of a specific absorbed by lower atomic weight materials, such as hy- radioisotope is the time required for half of its initial drogen atoms, whereas X rays and γ rays are absorbed nucleus to decay. by higher atomic weight materials. Neutron activation analysis (NAA) Practice of bom- Positron emission tomography (PET) Diagnostic imag- barding a material with neutrons to create activation ing method in which a chemical compound of inter- products from the components of the material and to est, labeled with a positron-emitting radioisotope, is utilize the radioactive emissions from the activation injected into a patient and its biological distribution in 109 P1: GPJ/GUU P2: GLM Final Pages Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology EN008I-355 June 29, 2001 12:43 110 Isotopes, Separation and Application thebodyrecordedassignalsfroma γ -raydetectorarray TABLE I Naturally Occurring Isotopes which surrounds the patient. A computer reassembles Natural Typically the signals into tomographic images that depict organ abundance enriched assay function and failure of organ systems in disease. Isotope (%) (%) Aluminum-27 100 Antimony-121 57.3 99 ALTHOUGH A FEW chemical elements have only one Antimony-123 42.7 99 naturally occurring isotope, most consist of several iso- topes, as shown in Table I. Each isotope of a given element Argon-36 0.337 99 contains a different number of neutrons in the nuclei of its Argon-38 0.063 95 atoms, thus giving the isotope a different atomic weight Argon-40 99.6 99.9 and slightly different physical properties. These different Arsenic-75 100 atomic weights and properties enable a separation of the Barium-130 0.106 48 isotopes to be possible, creating enriched isotopes. Vari- Barium-132 0.101 35 ous separations methods are described as follows. Table I Barium-134 2.417 83 also shows assays of typical enriched isotopes. Barium-135 6.592 93 Only a very few of the naturally occurring isotopes Barium-136 7.854 92 (Table I) are radioactive, and those that are have very long Barium-137 11.23 89 half-lives. However, many radioactive isotopes of each el- Barium-138 71.7 99 ement, with exponentially varying decay rates, can be pro- Beryllium-9 100 duced artificially by bombardment of target isotopes with neutrons in nuclear reactors or charged particles or neu- Bismuth-209 100 trons in accelerators. Each radioactive isotope produced Boron-10 19.9 99 decays at a specific rate by emission of one of the fol- Boron-11 80.1 99 α lowing particles or a combination of them: an particle Bromine-79 50.69 98 α β (helium nucleus; decay), an electron or positron ( de- Bromine-81 49.31 98 cay), or a photon ( γ decay). In many cases, the target Cadmium-106 1.25 86 isotope or some of the isotopes produced are fissile and, Cadmium-108 0.89 69 upon capturing a neutron, undergo fission and split into Cadmium-110 12.49 96 two main fragments. This binary fission process can oc- Cadmium-111 12.8 95 cur in many modes, thus producing a multitude of fission Cadmium-112 24.13 97 product isotopes. All of these events can occur simultane- Cadmium-113 12.22a 96 ously during the bombardment, thus producing a complex Cadmium-114 28.73 98 and highly radioactive mixture of residual target and iso- Cadmium-116 7.49 98 tope products. This mixture requires postbombardment, radiochemical separations processing to recover and pu- Calcium-40 96.941 99.9 rify the specific isotopes that are needed. A generic isotope Calcium-42 0.647 93 production process is illustrated in Fig. 1. Note that waste Calcium-43 0.135 79 treatment and disposal are inherent and necessary parts of Calcium-44 2.086 98.5 this process. Calcium-46 0.004 43 The widely differing nuclear, chemical, and physical Calcium-48 0.187a 97 properties of the various enriched stable and radioisotope Carbon-12 98.9 99.9 products have enabled a wide variety of beneficial uses Carbon-13 1.1 99 to be developed in many research, medical, and industrial Cerium-136 0.19 43 applications. Cerium-138 0.25 25 Isotope enrichment processes to separate the isotopes Cerium-140 88.48 99.5 of a particular element are described first, followed by a Cerium-142 11.08a 92 discussion of target fabrication and irradiation in either Cesium-133 100 a reactor or an accelerator, and then the radiochemical separations processing steps necessary to isolate the ra- Chlorine-35 75.77 99 dioisotope of interest are presented. Finally, the widely Chlorine-37 24.23 98 varying beneficial uses of isotopes are described. continues P1: GPJ/GUU P2: GLM Final Pages Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology EN008I-355 June 29, 2001 12:43 Isotopes, Separation and Application 111 TABLE I (continued ) TABLE I (continued ) Natural Typically Natural Typically abundance enriched assay abundance enriched assay Isotope (%) (%) Isotope (%) (%) Chromium-50 4.345 95 Hafnium-180 35.1 93 Chromium-52 83.789 99.7 Helium-3 0.000138 99.9 Chromium-53 9.501 96 Helium-4 99.999862 Chromium-54 2.365 94 Holmium-165 100 Cobalt-59 100 Hydrogen-1 99.985 99.99 Copper-63 69.17 99.8 Hydrogen-2 0.015 99.9 Copper-65 30.83 99.6 Indium-113 4.3 96 Dysprosium-156 0.06a 28 Indium-115 95.7a 99.99 Dysprosium-158 0.1 20 Dysprosium-160 2.34 77 Iodine-127 100 Dysprosium-161 18.9 93 Iridium-191 37.3 98.17 Dysprosium-162 25.5 94 Iridium-193 62.7 99.45 Dysprosium-163 24.9 95 Iron-54 5.8 96 Dysprosium-164 28.2 98 Iron-56 91.72 99.9 Erbium-162 0.14 27 Iron-57 2.2 88 Erbium-164 1.61 73 Iron-58 0.28 72 Erbium-166 33.6 96 Erbium-167 22.95 91 Krypton-78 0.35 99 Erbium-168 26.8 95 Krypton-80 2.25 97 Erbium-170 14.9 95 Krypton-82 11.6 92 Krypton-83 11.5 99 Europium-151 47.8 92 Krypton-84 57 92 Europium-153 52.2 96 Krypton-86 17.3 99 Fluorine-19 100 Lanthanum-138 0.09a 7 a Gadolinium-152 0.20 42 Lanthanum-139 99.91 99.99 Gadolinium-154 2.18 66 Lead-204 1.4a 70 Gadolinium-155 14.8 90 Lead-206 24.1 99 Gadolinium-156 20.47 96 Lead-207 22.1 92 Gadolinium-157 15.65 90 Lead-208 52.4 98 Gadolinium-158 24.84 95 Gadolinium-160 21.86 97 Lithium-6 7.5 95 Gallium-69 60.1 99 Lithium-7 92.5 99.9 Gallium-71 39.9 99 Lutetium-175 97.41 99.9 a Germanium-70 20.5 98 Lutetium-176 2.59 73 Germanium-72 27.4 97 Magnesium-24 78.99 99.9 Germanium-73 7.8 94 Magnesium-25 10 97 Germanium-74 36.5 98 Magnesium-26 11.01 99 Germanium-76 7.8 92 Manganese-55 100 Gold-197 100 Mercury-196 0.14 40 a Hafnium-174 0.162 13 Mercury-198 10.02 91 Hafnium-176 5.206 68 Mercury-199 16.84 88 Hafnium-177 18.606 89 Mercury-200 23.13 95 Hafnium-178 27.297 93 Mercury-201 13.22 92 Hafnium-179 13.629 84 Mercury-202 29.8 96 continues continues P1: GPJ/GUU P2: GLM Final Pages Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology EN008I-355 June 29, 2001 12:43 112 Isotopes, Separation and Application TABLE I (continued ) TABLE I (continued ) Natural Typically Natural Typically abundance enriched assay abundance enriched assay Isotope (%) (%) Isotope (%) (%) Mercury-204 6.85 94 Platinium-190 0.01a 4 Molybdenum-92 14.84 97 Platinium-192 0.79 57 Molybdenum-94 9.25 91 Platinium-194 32.9 97 Molybdenum-95 15.92 96 Platinium-195 33.8 97 Molybdenum-96 16.68 96 Platinium-196 25.3 97 Molybdenum-97 9.55 92 Platinium-198 7.2 95 Molybdenum-98 24.13 96 Potassium-39 93.2581 99.9 Molybdenum-100 9.63 97 Potassium-40 0.0117a 83 Neodymium-142 27.13 92 Potassium-41 6.7302 98 Neodymium-143 12.18 91 Praseodymium-141 100 a Neodymium-144 23.80 97 Rhenium-185 37.4 96 a Neodymium-145 8.30 89 Rhenium-187 62.60a 99.2 Neodymium-146 17.19 97 Rhodium-103 100 Neodymium-148 5.76 94 Rubidium-85 72.165 99.7 Neodymium-150 5.64a 96 Rubidium-87 27.835a 98 Neon-20 90.51 Ruthenium-96 5.52 98 Neon-21 0.27 Ruthenium-98 1.88 89 Neon-22 9.22 Ruthenium-99 12.7 98 Nickel-58 68.27 99.9 Ruthenium-100 12.6 97 Nickel-60 26.1 99 Ruthenium-101 17.0 97 Nickel-61 1.13 91 Ruthenium-102 31.6 99 Nickel-62 3.59 96 Ruthenium-104 18.7 99 Nickel-64 0.91 94 Samarium-144 3.1 91 Niobium-93 100 Samarium-147 15.0a 98 a Nitrogen-14 99.634 99.9 Samarium-148 11.3 96 a Nitrogen-15 0.366 98 Samarium-149 13.8 97 Samarium-150 7.4 95 Osmium-184 0.02a 5.45 Samarium-152 26.7 98 Osmium-186 1.58a 61 Samarium-154 22.7 98 Osmium-187 1.6 70 Osmium-188 13.3 94 Scandium-45 100 Osmium-189 16.1 94 Selenium-74 0.9 66 Osmium-190 26.4 95 Selenium-76 9.0 96 Osmium-192 41.0 95 Selenium-77 7.6 93 Oxygen-16 99.762
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