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More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14773 Bhaswati Mondal · Gopa Samanta

Mobilities in India The Experience of Suburban Rail Commuting Bhaswati Mondal Gopa Samanta Department of Geography Department of Geography Rampurhat College The University of Burdwan Birbhum, West Bengal, India Bardhaman, West Bengal, India

ISSN 2365-757X ISSN 2365-7588 (electronic) The Urban Book Series ISBN 978-3-030-78349-5 ISBN 978-3-030-78350-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78350-1

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland The book is dedicated to our beloved parents. Preface

This book is the outcome of research conducted over a period of five years on suburban train commuting in Eastern India. It attempts to present the perceptions of commuters towards commuting. The book also analyses the role of suburban train commuting in the metropolitan expansion of Kolkata and the transformation of rural space within the catchment of Kolkata metropolis. The ground research is based on post-positivist philosophy and uses a trans-disciplinary research design, blending quantitative and ethnographic research methods. The area selected for the empirical survey is the Howrah–Bardhaman Main Suburban Railway Line (108 km), the first suburban railway line in Eastern India. This suburban line connects the metropolitan city of Kolkata with Bardhaman, headquarter of the rice bowl district of Purba Bard- haman, and passes through the urban agglomeration of Hooghly district. Workers residing in the adjacent three districts of Purba Bardhaman, Hooghly, and Howrah, and commuting for work throughout the year, participated in this research. Besides commuters, non-commuting passengers, hawkers, auto drivers, rickshaw pullers,1 and the households of one census town that developed under the influence of commuting were surveyed. Primary data were collected using separate question- naires for each group. Focus group discussions and observed data have also been used to analyse the findings . The book has been organized into different chapters focusing on separate issues in each chapter. There are eight chapters in this book. Chapter 1 introduces the book. It explains the concept of mobility and commuting as a form of mobility. It identifies the research gap from where the idea of this book has come. Then, it defines the central research question, which is followed by five subsidiary research questions. Each of these subsidiary research questions is followed by a number of objectives. In this chapter, the philosophy of this research has been explained, along with the rationality of its application. The chapter also outlines the study area and justifications for selecting the study area. The database used in this research, methods of data collection, and methods of data analysis have been explained. This chapter also covers a review of past studies carried out by different researchers. The analysis of

1 Rickshaw is a three wheeled passenger cart. These are generally pulled by human beings or are cycled. vii viii Preface literature is done under different themes. The main thematic categories of literature include ideas of mobility, commuting as mobility, factors determining commute patterns, transport as significant component of commuting, commute experiences, etc. Chapter 2 presents the development of the suburban railway in India, with special reference to Eastern India. It then explains the relation between develop- ment of suburban railways, commuting, and metropolitan expansion of Kolkata city. The growth of 12 cities within Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA) in the post- Independence period has been analysed in relation to growth of suburban railways. These cities grew at a more rapid rate than the inner city belt, which has been anal- ysed through the lens of the development of suburban railways and the growth of commuting. Chapter 3 explains the role of commuting in the reorganization of space. It presents the role of commuting in the transformation of a rural settlement into an urban one in the periphery of a metropolis. These new urban settlements have developed due to the facilities of commuting which play a wider role in enhancing rural–urban interaction in different forms, especially in terms of work opportunities. Chapter 4 explains the influence of a differential pattern of commuting on spatial organization of an area. It shows that there is no significant difference in commuting patterns at district level. Due to the differential nature of commuting, there are two distinguished divisions within the Howrah–Bardhaman suburban main line. The Bandel–Howrah section, on one hand, belongs to the KMA. It is characterized by greater volume of commuters, frequent train services, shorter interstation distance, and commuters with modern urban culture, etc. The Bardhaman–Bandel section, on the other hand, has lower volume of commuters, less frequent trains, longer intersta- tion distance, and commuters are basically of rural cultural background. This chapter also carries significant outcomes for transport and regional development policy initia- tives. It will help transport planners to identify the stations, which have fewer trains to serve a large volume of out-commuters, and accordingly will help them to adopt measures that are more efficient. Chapter 5 focuses on the commuters’ perceived experiences. There is a dearth of literature analysing commuters’ experiences. Using ethnographic methods, the chapter explores commuters’ positive and negative experiences as well as day-to- day general experiences and memorable events. Traditionally, commute time has been represented as a void in which nothing happens. However, research participants explain that the commute time is not a waste of time; rather it may be a useful time. This perceived knowledge also challenges the traditional idea that commuters dislike commuting. The commuter–hawker symbiotic relationship has been explored, with narratives taken from both the groups. This chapter makes enormous contributions in disproving the myth that ‘commuting is a dead time’ and in establishing the fact that commuting is also a part of productive time. Chapter 6 explains the nature of productive commute hours with the help of detailed narratives we received from our research participants. Commuting has generally been perceived to carry zero productivity. However, our research shows how productive this time is to the commuters themselves. Many past literature have Preface ix explained it as a process of stress generation, which is defied by the majority of our research participants. This chapter has uncovered the positive utilities of commute hours. The chapter interprets the commuters’ perceptions towards different railway services such as the announcement system, overall cleanliness, toilet services, use of over-bridge, service received at ticket-counters, etc. The chapter ends with certain specific policy proposals to improve the commuting experience. Chapter 7 reveals the gendered patterns of commuting. Prior studies perceived commuting to be highly masculine. An attempt has been made in this chapter to explore the reality. Although traditionally it is thought that women commute shorter distance than men do, this chapter shows that they commute longer distances in comparison to men. It also challenges other common concepts such as women commute for low-paid, part-time jobs, etc. In spite of the increasing trend of commuting among women, they still do not use private transit modes as often as men do. Finally, Chap. 8 summarizes the key research findings as discussed under different chapters. This chapter discusses the key findings of the book under different theoret- ical themes such as spatial fluidity in time capsule; rethinking binary models of public and private spaces; commuting in a blurring division between rural and urban; experi- encescape; commute time as productive time; and commuting as a gendered process. The suburban stations located on the Howrah–Bardhaman Main Railway Line have been shown in Fig. 1.2 in the introductory chapter. All the stations mentioned in this book refer to this figure only.

Birbhum, India Bhaswati Mondal Bardhaman, India Gopa Samanta Acknowledgments

The book has been possible because of the unforgettable assistance and support, in various forms, from different individuals and institutions. It is a great pleasure indeed to express our deep sense of gratitude to those who have extended their help, kind support, and encouragement during the course of the empirical research from which the book is written. We are obliged to all the research participants without whose kind coopera- tion, heartfelt assistance, devotion of time and honesty to answer the questions they were asked, this task would remain incomplete. We take this opportunity to express our deep feelings of gratitude to them all. This book would not have been possible without their openness and the time they shared with us. We are indebted to many officials in different government departments for helping us to access the data. We wish to extend our gratitude to Mr. R. Badrinarayan, Divisional Railway Manager, Eastern Railway; Mr. S. K. Kundu, OSG, Eastern Railway; Mr. Ravi Mahapatra, Chief Public Relation Officer, Eastern Railway; Mr. G. C. Pradhan, Sr. Divisional Commercial Manager, Howrah Division; Mr. Kazi Moniruljjaman (Biltu da), Clerk, Pandua Gram Panchayat; Dr. Ramen Kumar Sar, Department of Bengali, The University of Burdwan; Dr. Kanchan Kamilya, Librarian, The University of Burdwan; and Mr. Ashok Patra, Librarian, Institute of Develop- ment Studies, Kolkata, for their kind assistance. This book would not have emerged in this form without their generosity. We are delighted to express our acknowledgement to the organizers of different workshops, seminars, and conferences that we attended and presented our findings from this research. We are also thankful to all the resource persons, chairpersons, and the participants of those seminars, conferences, and workshops. Their valuable suggestions have enriched us and have helped us in the progress of our research. We are also indebted to the Department of Geography, The University of Burdwan, for giving us space and opportunity to work together for this book. We are sincerely thankful to all the anonymous reviewers of our writing in different forms for their critical comments and valuable suggestions, which encour- aged us to rework on the draft versions. Special thanks go to Prof. Sukla Bhaduri, Former Professor at the Department of Geography, University of Calcutta and Dr. Valérie Clerc, IRD, Paris, for their insightful comments which helped us to xi xii Acknowledgments make our core arguments stronger. We acknowledge the financial support of the University Grants Commission, New Delhi, which sponsored the empirical research in the form of research fellowships. This book would never been possible without the continuous mental support and inspiration from our family members and friends and beloved ones. We are indebted to the anonymous reviewers of the book manuscript. Their comments have helped us enormously to make our arguments stronger and to make the book better readable. Whatever flaws are still there in the book, we take sole responsibility for those.

Bhaswati Mondal Gopa Samanta Contents

1 Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 The Idea of Mobility ...... 4 1.3 Commuting as Mobility ...... 7 1.4 Determinants of Commuting ...... 9 1.5 Transport: A Significant Component of Commuting ...... 11 1.6 Commuting as Experience ...... 14 1.7 TheBook ...... 16 1.8 TheStudyArea ...... 18 1.9 Research Process ...... 22 1.10 Database ...... 23 1.11 Sampling Procedures ...... 24 1.12 Research Methods ...... 24 1.13 Interviews...... 25 1.14 Focused Group Discussions (FGDs) ...... 26 1.15 Observation Methods ...... 26 1.16 Conclusion ...... 26 References ...... 27 2 Suburban Railways, Commuting, and Metropolitan Expansion ..... 35 2.1 Introduction ...... 36 2.2 Indian Railways—16th April, 1853 … The Beginning ...... 37 2.3 Development of Railways in Eastern India ...... 38 2.4 Introduction of Suburban Railways ...... 39 2.5 Suburban Railways and Metropolitan Growth ...... 41 2.6 Kolkata Metropolitan Area ...... 42 2.7 GrowthTrajectoriesofKMA...... 44 2.8 DevelopmentofSuburbanRailways...... 45 2.9 Diurnal Variation in the Frequency of Trains: Significance ofCommuting ...... 48

xiii xiv Contents

2.10 Post-independence Growth ...... 49 2.11 Conclusion ...... 52 References ...... 53 3 Blurring Rural–Urban Boundaries Through Commuting ...... 57 3.1 Introduction ...... 57 3.2 Dichotomy Versus Interaction ...... 58 3.3 Role of Commuting in Rural–Urban Interaction ...... 60 3.4 Small Cities, Commuting, and Rural–Urban Interaction ...... 61 3.5 Commuting, Development of Small Towns and Rural–Urban Linkages: Evidences from CaseStudy ...... 63 3.6 Selection of Pandua as Case Study ...... 65 3.7 Pandua: Trajectories of Growth ...... 66 3.8 Commuting and Transformation of Rural into Urban ...... 67 3.9 As Regional Centre Enhancing Rural–Urban Interaction ...... 67 3.10 Conclusion ...... 68 References ...... 69 4 Spatial Patterns of Suburban Train Commuting ...... 73 4.1 Introduction ...... 73 4.2 Commuters’Outflows...... 74 4.3 Availability of Suburban Trains ...... 76 4.4 Intertrain Time Difference ...... 76 4.5 Interstation Distance ...... 77 4.6 Average Annual Growth Rate of Commuters ...... 77 4.7 CulturalGapofCommuters...... 79 4.8 Conclusion ...... 81 References ...... 82 5 Commute Experiencescapes ...... 85 5.1 Introduction ...... 85 5.2 Three Spheres of Everyday Life: Home, Work, andCommuting ...... 86 5.3 Mobile Sense of Place ...... 90 5.4 Mobile Experiencescapes ...... 91 5.5 Changes in Day-To-Day Experiences ...... 93 5.6 Memorable Experiences ...... 96 5.7 SolidarityofCommuterstoNon-commuters...... 97 5.8 Howrah–Bardhaman Main Suburban Railway: The Perceived Specificities ...... 97 5.9 Commuters and Hawkers: A Symbiotic Relationship ...... 99 5.10 Conclusion ...... 102 References ...... 103 Contents xv

6 The Perceived Space ...... 105 6.1 Introduction ...... 105 6.2 Productive Commute Hours ...... 106 6.3 AMovingCommunity ...... 112 6.4 Social Network Through Commuting ...... 117 6.5 Commuters’ Perceptions Towards Railway Service ...... 118 6.5.1 Announcement System ...... 119 6.5.2 Signal System ...... 119 6.5.3 Cleanliness of the Stations and of the Compartments . . . . . 120 6.5.4 RailwayTicketWindows...... 121 6.5.5 Over-Bridge and Subways ...... 121 6.5.6 PlatformToilets ...... 122 6.5.7 Overall Maintenance and Service Monitoring System . . . . 123 6.6 Problems Faced by Commuters ...... 124 6.7 Policy Proposals by the Commuters ...... 126 6.8 Conclusion ...... 128 References ...... 128 7 Commuting and Gender ...... 131 7.1 Introduction ...... 131 7.2 DoesMasculinityMatterinCommuting? ...... 133 7.3 Do Women Commute Shorter Distances Than Men Do? ...... 134 7.4 Do Women Commute More for Part-Time, Low Paid Jobs? ...... 137 7.5 Women’s Reliance on Public Transport and Walking ...... 138 7.6 WomenandTripChaining ...... 140 7.7 SafeandReliableCommuting...... 141 7.8 Conclusion ...... 145 References ...... 145 8 Conclusion ...... 149 8.1 Introduction ...... 149 8.2 MajorOutcomes ...... 150 8.2.1 SpatialFluidityinTimeCapsule ...... 150 8.2.2 Rethinking Binary Model of Public and Private Space . . . . 151 8.2.3 Explaining Experiencescape ...... 151 8.2.4 Exploring Commute Time as Productive Time ...... 151 8.2.5 Role of Commuting in Peripheral Urbanization ofKMA ...... 152 8.2.6 Commuting in Changing Identity of Rural/ Urban Spaces ...... 152 8.2.7 Women in Long-Distance Commuting ...... 152 References ...... 153

Appendix A: Minimum Amenities for a Suburban Station ...... 155 Appendix B: Distribution of Cities in KMA ...... 157 xvi Contents

Appendix C: Distribution of Area and Population in KMA ...... 159 Appendix D: District-Wise Distribution of Cities in KMA ...... 161 Appendix E: Suburban Trains of Howrah–Bardhaman Main Line in Different Parts of the Day ...... 163 Appendix F: Changing Status of Cities in and Around KMA Formed in the Post-independence Period ...... 165 Appendix G: Utilities of Commute Time ...... 167 Appendix H: Proposed Timetable ...... 169 Appendix I: Percentage of Women Commuters in Different Identities ...... 171 Index ...... 173 About the Authors

Bhaswati Mondal is presently working as an assistant professor in the Department of Geography, Rampurhat College, located in the district of Birbhum in West Bengal, India. After obtaining her Master’s degree, she completed her Ph.D. from the Depart- ment of Geography, The University of Burdwan. Her core areas of research include mobility, rural development, and urban environment. She has presented her research findings on mobility studies in a number of national and international seminars held across the country. She won the Young Geographer 2017 award at the International Seminar and 48th Regional Science Conference held in Tripura University. She has published articles in peer-reviewed journals and as part of edited books. She thinks herself to be a learner of geography.

Gopa Samanta is a professor in the Department in Geography, The University of Burdwan. Her core areas of research and teaching interest are urban, gender, and mobility studies. With grants from different national and international institutions such as the UGC, ICSSR, Ford Foundation, Australia India Institute, INR-France, and IRD-France, she has completed a number of research projects with interdisci- plinary methodologies and collaborative research teams. As a geographer, she has a passion for undertaking in-depth and field-based empirical research. She is the joint author of two books: 1. Dancing with the River: People and Life on the Chars of South Asia, published from Yale University Press and 2. Negotiating Terrain in Local Governance: Freedom, Functioning and Barriers of Women Councillors in India, published from Springer. She acts as peer reviewer of academically acclaimed journals such as Community Development Journal, Development in Practice, ACME: An International E-Journal for Critical Geographies, Local Environment, Economic and Political Weekly, etc. She was on the editorial board of the Journal of Mobility Studies called Transfers. She has acted as Visiting Fellow of Australian National University and Paris Diderot University and as Gender Chair of Paris Sorbonne University.

xvii Abbreviations

A.C. Alternating current ADB Asian Development Bank ATVM Automatic ticket vending machines BNDL Bandel BWN Bardhaman CT(s) Census town(s) D.C. Direct current Dn Down DRM Divisional Railway Manager EMU Electric multiple unit ER Eastern Railway FGD Focused group discussion GOI The Government of India GRP Government Railway Police HWH Howrah ICDS Integrated Child Development Scheme INR Indian rupees IR Indian Railways KMA Kolkata Metropolitan Area KMDA Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority NSSO National Sample Survey Organization RPF Railway Protection Force R-R Rural-to-rural R-U Rural-to-urban SER South Eastern Railways ST(s) Statutory town(s) UK United Kingdom ULBs Urban Local Bodies U-R Urban-to-rural USA United States of America U-U Urban-to-urban

xix List of Figures

Fig.1.1 Kolkatasuburbanrailwaynetwork...... 19 Fig. 1.2 Stations situated on the Howrah–Bardhaman main railway line ...... 20 Fig. 2.1 Proportion of suburban and non-suburban railway Traffic in India, 1960–61 to 2011–12 ...... 41 Fig. 2.2 Kolkata metropolitan area: a its location within six districts of south Bengal, and b the constituting bodies ...... 43 Fig. 2.3 Peripheral growth of cities in the post-independence period . .... 49 Fig. 2.4 Suburbanization as a result of improved transport ...... 52 Fig. 3.1 Census towns developed along the Howrah–Bardhaman Main Railway Line, 2011 ...... 65 Fig. 4.1 Daily average originating traffic of Howrah–Bardhaman main line, 2005–06 to 2014–15 ...... 75 Fig. 4.2 Average annual growth of daily originating traffic in between 2005–06 and 2014–15 ...... 78 Fig.5.1 Relationbetweenhome,work,andcommuting ...... 87 Fig. 5.2 Commuters’ utilization of body energy in different fields of activities ...... 89 Fig. 7.1 Proportion of men/women commuters at different distances . .... 136

xxi List of Tables

Table 1.1 Departure of suburban local trains from Howrah station in different rail-routes on weekdays ...... 22 Table 2.1 Zone-wise suburban railways in India ...... 40 Table 2.2 Number of rakes and EMU service per day in different zones of India ...... 41 Table 2.3 Growth of passengers in Kolkata suburban railway ...... 46 Table 2.4 Weekday peak hour trains to and from Howrah ...... 47 Table 2.5 Percentage share of train commuters commuting over 20 km . . . 52 Table 4.1 Regional division of Howrah–Bardhaman suburban railwayline ...... 81 Table 7.1 Gender differences in using different types of transport modes ...... 139 Table 7.2 Difference between existing research findings and our observationsfromthefield...... 144

xxiii