TWENTIETH CENTURY FOX

This is the first scholarly history of Fox from its origins in 1904 to the present. It builds upon research and histories of individual periods to describe how one company responded to a century-long evolution of the audience, nationally and globally. In the beginning, William Fox grabbed a once-in-a-millennium opportunity to build a business based on a genuinely new art form. This study explores the enduring legacy of F.W. Murnau, Will Rogers, Shirley Temple, John Ford, Spyros Skouras, George Lucas, James Cameron, and many others, offering dis- cussion of those behind and in front of the camera, delving deeply into the his- tory and evolution of the studio. Key films covered include The Iron Horse, The Grapes of Wrath, How Green Was My Valley, Forever Amber, All About Eve, Cleo- patra, The Sound of Music, Planet of the Apes, Star Wars, Titanic, and Fight Club, providing an extensive look at the successes and flops that shaped not only Twentieth Century Fox, but the entire Hollywood landscape. Through a chronological study, the book charts the studio’s impact right up to the present day, providing a framework to allow us to look to the future of movie- making and film consumption. Lively and fresh in its approach, this book is a comprehensive study of the studio for scholars, students, and enthusiasts of Hollywood cinema, film history, and media industries.

Frederick Wasser is a professor in the Department of Television, Radio and Emerging Media at Brooklyn College in the City University of New York. He is the author of numerous chapters and articles on American media. His books include Veni, Vidi, Video and Steven Spielberg’s America. ROUTLEDGE HOLLYWOOD CENTENARY Series Editors: Yannis Tzioumakis and Gary Needham

The eleven-year period 2012‒2023 marks the centennial anniversary of all seven Hollywood major studios: Universal, Paramount, 20th Century Fox, Warner Bros. Columbia, Disney, and MGM. Originally self-run organizations operating within a clearly defined film industry, from the 1960s onwards these companies have become divisions of various conglomerates during a long period of corporate con- solidation and, more recently, of media convergence driven by the advent of digital technology and changes in distribution and consumption. The Routledge Holly- wood Centenary book series provides a detailed and authoritative history of these long-standing organizations, aiming to chart their hundred-year development and their transition from film studios to divisions of global entertainment conglomerates. Each individual volume examines in detail the evolution of the major Hollywood players over the course of a hundred-year period. With some of the studios having been divisions of conglomerates for more than fifty years, and as they have continued to evolve under changing corporate ownership and increasing media convergence, the Routledge Hollywood Centenary volumes assess how this evolution, and its period- ization, impacts our understanding of Hollywood film history. From the ‘studio’ to the ‘post-studio’ era, from ‘Classical Hollywood’ to ‘Conglomerate Hollywood,’ through changes in ownership and management regimes, and through collaborations with ever changing clusters of talent each Hollywood studio has been a major con- tributor to the ways in which American cinema acquired a particular identity at differ- ent historical junctures. The Routledge Hollywood Centenary series volumes examine in detail how each studio has put an indelible stamp on American cinema and beyond. MGM Tino Balio United Artists Peter Krämer, Gary Needham, Yannis Tzioumakis and Tino Balio Twentieth Century Fox Frederick Wasser For more information about the series, please visit: www.routledge.com/The- Routledge-Hollywood-Centenary-Series/book-series/RHC TWENTIETH CENTURY FOX

Frederick Wasser First published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 Frederick Wasser The right of Frederick Wasser to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Wasser, Frederick, author. Title: Twentieth Century Fox / Frederick Wasser. Description: London ; New York : Routledge, 2020. | Series: Routledge Hollywood centenary | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020005251 (print) | LCCN 2020005252 (ebook) | ISBN 9781138921252 (hardback) | ISBN 9781138921269 (paperback) | ISBN 9781315686486 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corporation–History. | Motion picture studios–California–Los Angeles–History. | Motion picture industry–United States–History. Classification: LCC PN1999.T8 W37 2020 (print) | LCC PN1999.T8 (ebook) | DDC 384/.80979494–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020005251 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020005252

ISBN: 978-1-138-92125-2 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-92126-9 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-68648-6 (ebk)

Typeset in Bembo by Swales & Willis, Exeter, Devon, UK CONTENTS

List of figures vii List of tables x Acknowledgements xi Series editors’ preface xii

Introduction 1

1 William Fox and the beginnings (1904–1924) 9

2 Fox goes for broke and is broken (1924–1935) 37

3 A new company finds itself during a Depression (1935–1941) 65

4 Social problems, mature women, and musicals (1942–1952) 96

5 Trying to get it right: from TV to Cleopatra (1953–1964) 127

6 The Sound of Music and ‘the sixties’ (1965–1975) 154

7 From Stanfill to Murdoch and featuring George Lucas (1975–1984) 182 vi Contents

8 Twentieth Century Fox as Murdoch’s global conglomerate (1984–1997) 209

9 Fox outlasts the twentieth century by 20 years (1998–2019) 236

Bibliography 254 General index 264 Index of titles 278 FIGURES

1.1 William Fox 10 1.2 Winfield Sheehan, circa 1930 20 1.3 ‘But Theda is Bara’ 22 1.4 Tom Mix and his favorite horse, circa 1927 28 1.5 The William Fox Studio in California, circa 1929 30 2.1 The Iron Horse featured title cards linking the film to the nativism of the times and the production of Americana 41 2.2 Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau on the set of Sunrise (1927) 44 2.3a Janet Gaynor is frightened by George O’Brien’s violent gestures in Sunrise (1927) 45 2.3b Murnau’s sets in Sunrise (1927) create a dynamic space in which the couple learn to trust each other 45 2.4 Warner Baxter in In Old Arizona (1928), the first Fox film to have location sound 51 3.1 Stepin Fetchit and Will Rogers in Judge Priest (1934) 68 3.2 Young Darryl Zanuck, circa 1937 70 3.3 Shirley Temple in Stand Up and Cheer (1934) is the incarnation of the new optimism of the Roosevelt administration 76 3.4 Shirley Temple in her famous stair dance number with Bill Robinson in The Little Colonel (1935). She resolves problems while also provid- ing entertainment 77 3.5 Alexander (Tyrone Power) re-makes Stella Kirby’s (Alice Faye) image to be more up-market in Alexander’s Ragtime Band (1938) 82 3.6 Tyrone Power, circa mid-1930s 83 3.7 Arthur Miller shooting The Razor’s Edge (1946) with Gene Tierney sitting. Visual style in Fox films of the period did not become as insti- tutionalized as in other studios 86 3.8 Sol Wurtzel 87 viii Figures

3.9 Lee Chan (Keye Luke) is an easy target for his father Charlie Chan (Warner Oland) in Charlie Chan in Paris (1935) 89 3.10 John Ford in 1938 91 3.11 Abraham Lincoln, portrayed as part of a frontier iconography in Young Mr. Lincoln (1939) 92 3.12 The village set from How Green Was My Valley (1941) 94 4.1a Jennifer Jones views her vision in The Song of Bernadette (1943) 100 4.1b Jennifer Jones’s vision (Linda Darnell, uncredited) in The Song of Ber- nadette (1943) 101 4.2 Alfred Newman, composing the score for The Song of Bernadette (1943) 102 4.3 Peggy Ann Garner and James Dunn in A Tree Grows in Brooklyn (1945) 107 4.4 Poster for Gentleman’s Agreement (1947) 109 4.5 Dana Andrews in Laura (1944) 111 4.6 Otto Preminger directing Gene Tierney and Dana Andrews in Laura (1944) 112 4.7 A star in the making: Jeanne Crain singing out of the window in State Fair (1945) 116 4.8 Linda Darnell, Kirk Douglas, and Paul Douglas in A Letter to Three Wives (1949) 119 4.9 Ann Baxter, Bette Davis, Marilyn Monroe, and George Sanders in All About Eve (1950) 120 4.10 Not obscuring his homosexuality Clifton Webb found stardom in Hollywood following his debut in Laura (1944) 122 5.1 Spyros Skouras, 20th Century-Fox chairman (1942–62), committed the company to CinemaScope 130 5.2 ‘The composition has been vastly improved over previous material’– Zanuck’s memo on How to Marry a Millionaire when he saw the film’s projection on CinemaScope 137 5.3 Juliette Greco and Darryl Zanuck, circa 1958 139 5.4 Harry Belafonte sings ‘calypso’ in two major set pieces in Island in the Sun (1957) 141 5.5 Paul Newman and Jackie Gleason in The Hustler (1961) 143 5.6 Dwayne Hickman and Bob Denver in The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis (CBS-TV series 1959–63) 145 5.7 Taylor’s Cleopatra was an interesting interpretation of Fox’s ‘Vamp’ legacy 147 5.8 Mankiewicz’s script rewrites brought a more psychological angle in the Cleopatra (1963) narrative, especially in terms of the representa- tion of Mark Anthony (Richard Burton) 148 6.1 Julie Andrews in the opening shot of The Sound of Music (1965) in the Austrian Alps 156 6.2 Zaniness in action in In Like Flint (1967) 161 6.3 Poster for Valley of the Dolls (1967) 164 Figures ix

6.4 Taylor (Charlton Heston) communicates with apes Roddy McDowell and Kim Hunter in Planet of the Apes (1968) 169 6.5 The dystopic and apocalyptic nightmares of Planet of the Apes (1968) pointed the way forward to Star Wars (1977) 170 6.6 The famous speech in front of the American flag by Patton (George C. Scott) was placed on purpose at the beginning of the film 172 6.7 Richard Zanuck’s executive position at Fox ended in 1970 174 6.8 Poster for The Towering Inferno (1974) 179 7.1 Jill Clayburgh navigates life as a single woman in An Unmarried Woman (1977) 186 7.2 Artistic care on a degraded genre: unusual for a sci-fi adventure, Star Wars’ (1977) production design was cutting edge 189 7.3 Hot-rodding in Star Wars (1977) 191 7.4 High-stakes visual representation: the destruction of planet Alderaan by the Empire’s Death Star in Star Wars (1977) 193 7.5 Sherry Lansing, the first woman to be appointed as studio head in 1980 202 7.6 Rupert Murdoch became the owner of Twentieth Century-Fox in 1985 204 8.1 Ed O’Neill yelling at Katey Sagal in Married with Children (1987–97) 213 8.2 The character of Apu (voiced by Hank Azaria) created controversy when it was first introduced in The Simpsons in 1990 215 8.3 John McClane’s (Bruce Willis) hard-bodied bravado combined with an American charisma united a global audience for Fox in Die Hard (1988) 218 8.4 Bill Mechanic 226 8.5 True Lies’ over-the-top production design contributed to its inter- national outlook 228 8.6 Laura Ziskin in 2002 231 8.7 The Full Monty (1997) 232 8.8 Titanic (1997) 233 9.1 Brad Pitt and Edward Norton in Fight Club (1999) 239 9.2 X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014) was the most profitable sequel of X-Men (2000) 243 9.3 Avatar (2009) held the global box-office record for 10 years until it was topped by Avengers: Endgame (2019) 247

The author would like to thank Bill Mechanic for providing Figure 8.4 TABLES

2.1 Allocative versus operational control 55 9.1 Domestic and international box-office figures and percentage split for the X-Men film series 245 9.2 Domestic and international box-office figures and percentage split for the Ice Age film series 246 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This book gave me delusions of being Edward Gibbon but fortunately my wife Nancy Berke was of great help keeping me focused on the movies. She had much insight about the movies and now can sing Newman’s logo fanfare. The book itself was Yannis Tzioumakis’s idea and he has been a very skillful and energetic editor who has provided a vision and yet allowed his writers great leeway. Dana Polan has gone beyond generosity in providing tips and guidance as well as keeping me going. Both men give me hope that film history as a field will be making an intellectual contribution even after all the celluloid has crumbled. My office mate, Irene Sosa, provided needed inspiration as well as my col- leagues; Young Cheong, Eugene Cunningham, Brian Dunphy, Emine Gul, Mobina Hashmi, and Rochelle Miller. Peter Foges provided many colorful anecdotes. Jane Cramer was of great help in teaching an old dog the new tricks of the library. Robert Vaughn (American Film Institute) and Jenny Romero (Margaret Herrick library) were also very helpful. My text cites various people but I want to acknowledge those who were not cited and yet were of great help. These include Richard Casey, Steve Fierberg, Louise Jaffe, Bob Kizer, John Larsen, Bill Megalos, Ira Robbins, and Grady Ward. The Kansallinen Audiovisuaalinen Instituutti in Helsinki, Finland, was an unexpected treasure for research. City University of New York provided assist- ance in finishing the book and the Tow Travel fund was helpful. SERIES EDITORS’ PREFACE

The eleven year period 2012–2023 marks the centennial anniversary of all seven Hollywood major studios: Universal, Paramount, 20th Century Fox, Warner Bros. Columbia, Disney and MGM. It also marks the centenary of United Art- ists, once a specialised distributor and a much honored home to top-ranked Hollywood independents. Originally self-run organisations operating within a clearly defined film industry, from the 1960s onwards these companies have become divisions of various conglomerates during a long period of corporate consolidation and, more recently, of media convergence driven by the advent of digital technology and changes in media distribution and consumption. The Routledge Hollywood Centenary book series provides a detailed and authorita- tive history of these long-standing organisations, aiming to chart their hundred- year development and their transition from film studios to divisions of global entertainment conglomerates. The genesis of this series goes back to 2011, when we became aware that 2012 would mark the centennial anniversary of Universal and Paramount. At that point we began to envisage a book series that would account for the hun- dred-year histories of the Hollywood studios, with a view to chart their evolu- tion over the decades and explore the reasons for their radical transformation. As scholars whose work has been focusing primarily on American cinema, we were fully aware that the these companies have received constant attention by the aca- demic community as part of a huge variety of topics and through the prism of a multitude of methodological approaches. However, we were also aware that the number of detailed, book-length studies that focused entirely and exclusively on individual studios was very small; miniscule if one searched for scholarly works that tried to account for the entirety of a studio’s history. The reasons behind the absence of such studies are several. Arguably the most significant is the paucity of archival sources that would help scholars to Series editors’ preface xiii construct the histories of the Hollywood majors with authority and conviction. Although some corporate records are available for the earlier incarnations of these companies – which of course has led to the publication of foundational histories that detail their operations in the so called ‘studio era’–such records do not exist for the more recent decades of the studios’ history or, if they exist, they are largely inaccessible to film scholars. Of course, the absence of corporate records can be compensated to a substantial extent by the presence of different sources (the trade and popular press, the personal papers of various industry pro- fessionals associated with individual studios) but access to these requires resources that are not always readily available to scholars. A second significant reason for the absence of comprehensive accounts that focus exclusively on the major Hollywood players is the increasing conglomer- ation of the film industry, which saw the former studios being subsumed within labyrinthine structures, as divisions of ‘filmed entertainment units’ or ‘motion picture groups.’ This has made it increasingly difficult for scholars to approach them conceptually in recent decades. While film historians who examined the Hollywood studios in the ‘classical’ era could focus on what were clearly defined companies within an easily demarcated film industry, this is not the case for scholars interested in the more recent iterations of these companies as parts of increasingly ‘post-classical,’ converged media industries. Indeed, such efforts would require separating the film division not only from the corporate parent but also from a number of sister companies and other subsidiaries which might operate in the same market but have different mandates in terms of the kinds of media products they produce and/or distribute. Indeed, this particular problem has been at the core of the rationale for this series. Having noticed that a significant amount of recent scholarly work on Hollywood film and media has been ‘collapsing’ the names (and identities) of particular film divisions of entertainment conglomerates to the ones of their cor- porate parents, we sought to redress the balance by commissioning volumes where authors have the space to make these distinctions clearly. Even though the extent to which such distinctions can be made might differ from film div- ision to film division and from corporate parent to corporate parent, the focus of each volume on one Hollywood major allows authors to delve into such mat- ters with more emphasis and discuss the extent to which it is possible to isolate the film division from its sister companies and corporate parent. With individual volumes having the space to examine in detail the evolution of the major Hollywood players over the course of a hundred-year long period, another key objective of the series is to tackle issues around the periodisation of Hollywood cinema. With some of the studios having been divisions of con- glomerates for more than fifty years, and as they have continued to evolve under changing corporate ownership and increasing media convergence, the Routledge Hollywood Centenary volumes are interested in exploring how this evolution impacts our understanding of Hollywood film history. From the xiv Series editors’ preface

‘studio’ to the ‘post-studio’ era, from ‘Classical Hollywood’ to ‘Conglomerate Hollywood,’ through changes in ownership and management regimes, and through collaborations with ever changing clusters of talent, each Hollywood studio has been a major contributor to the ways in which American cinema acquired a particular identity at different historical junctures. With each volume proposing a new periodisation of the history of each studio, the Routledge Hollywood Centenary series as a whole aims to make a strong statement in terms of how Hollywood cinema can be periodised and, effectively, understood. To materialise this vision, as editors, we approached eminent scholars with a very significant work in the field of American film history, especially the his- tory of the major Hollywood studios, as authors of these volumes. Our rationale was that such experienced authors would be able to bring to their respective projects a strong foundation from which they would then be able to move to areas and directions that have been hitherto under-researched. Indeed, we have encouraged authors to use part of their earlier work as a stepping stone for the construction of these centennial histories, and even consider revising that work if their new projects necessitated such a decision. Furthermore, and besides asking authors to ensure that their accounts covered some key areas common to all these companies (emergence/establishment of each company; house style in the studio era; place within the studio system; response to the Paramount Decree; links to the television industry; life within the conglomerate structure; impact of media convergence, and a few others), we have not tried to impose any singular approach to these studies and the ways they are constructed and presented. On the contrary, we have actively encouraged authors to approach each studio in the way they thought is the most appropriate, including the pro- posed periodisation of their respective histories. Although the volumes in the series have been conceptualised as monographs, in the case of United Artists we decided to offer an edited collection. The his- tory of the company from its inception to the late 1970s had already been the focus of two detailed scholarly studies by Tino Balio that were based on the corporate records of the company. But facets of the company’s operations invited further inquiry. And little scholarly attention had been paid to UA after its fortunes declined, beginning in the 1980s. Half the chapters in this centenary volume delve into the company’s history as a Hollywood major and the other half into the past four decades when UA functioned as a subsidiary of a faltering MGM. As editors, we also recruited an advisory board that provided significant sup- port to the series, with its members reading proposals and reviewing manuscripts to ensure that the series produced film histories of the highest quality. Finally, Routledge was instrumental in providing authors with a very generous period from the commissioning of each volume to manuscript submission, which has also contributed to the efforts of both authors and editors to produce the best possible work on the subject. Series editors’ preface xv

We hope that these volumes will become the key points of reference for all scholars interested in the history of the major Hollywood studios and American cinema more broadly.

Yannis Tzioumakis and Gary Needham The Routledge Hollywood Centenary series editors

Advisory Board

Warren Buckland (Oxford Brookes University) Peter Krämer (De Montfort University) Paul McDonald (King’s College) Eileen Meehan (Southern Illinois University) Thomas Schatz (University of Texas at Austin) Janet Staiger (University of Texas at Austin) Janet Wasko (University of Oregon) Justin Wyatt (University of Rhode Island)

INTRODUCTION

This is the first scholarly history of the Fox Film Company from the beginning to the end. At times it becomes a history of the century itself. In the twenty- first century we need to prod our imagination to re-enact the utterly unique phenomenon that was film. In some way the tragedy of Fox was the eventual reduction of film into just another way of distributing visual thrills across multi- media platforms. But for the first half of Fox’s lifespan we can sense the utter astonishment of people who were shaping a business and an art that had never existed before. This was the spirit of William Fox and Darryl Zanuck and the myriad others of the first and even second generation of people who worked in the company. In later years, the same spirit animated Richard Zanuck and Alan Ladd Jr., although already the diminishing power of film was driving the studio towards its end. The hope of this history is to tell the story of Fox as part of the general story of contemporary culture. The scale of the company at the beginning was that of a closely held corporation, which meant that it was easy to determine who was culturally responsible for the films it released. As distribution formats multiplied, especially since the 1980s, the responsibility for the product was dissipated. This was the milieu in which executives lost their excitement for film as a phenomenon. Executives took over who never felt the excitement of anything except making money and accumulating power, and it was their leader, Rupert Murdoch, who would sell the studio to The Walt Disney Company. It may have only been because of a few men but the decay of Fox mirrors an entire western culture that has lost its commitment to moral empathy and to film as a democratic art form. The early history of the Fox Film Corporation was somewhat scattered but has recently been organized by Aubrey Solomon. Solomon has produced, writ- ten, and edited numerous television shows at various studios including Fox. He 2 Introduction has, over the course of 30 years, written several books about the studio with very useful guides to the Fox releases, their production costs, and box-office returns. His most recent book The Fox Film Corporation: 1915–1935 (2011) is a remarkable account, almost month by month, of the company with short syn- opses of each film released. This almost begins to compensate us for the fact that most of these films no longer exist. William Fox is the subject of several biog- raphies and the recent one by Vanda Krefft (2017) is the most authoritative one. Upton Sinclair was actually commissioned by Fox to write his story and the drama of that book (1933/1970) is described in Chapter 2. Glendon Allvine was a publicist who knew Fox and wrote a very chatty and somewhat suspect biog- raphy in 1969. Sol Wurtzel and Winfield Sheehan still await their own scholarly studies, although Wurtzel’s descendants have gathered his correspondence with Fox and had it published (Wurtzel Semenov and Winter 2001). Speaking of des- cendants, the great grand-daughter Susan Fox and Donald Rosellini have written a vivid imaginary retelling of the Fox story (2006) but its fictional standing pre- cludes its use in this history. Darryl Zanuck was rather well documented in his own lifetime in the popular press as well as later in the academy. I found George Custen (1997) to be most useful for his pre-war career while Peter Lev has put out an admirable study of his career as it overlapped with Spyros Skouras’s after the war (2013). Lev’s study was perhaps the last to take advantage of the Fox archives that were avail- able in the UCLA library, as well consult the Spyros Skouras Papers recently made available at Stanford University. The News Corporation subsequently withdrew the former and has denied public access. It did not explain its reasons for doing so. There is no corporate history of the latter period of Fox, although Yannis Tzioumakis has a very useful chapter about the specialty divisions at Fox in his monograph Hollywood’s Indies (2012). There are several histories of the Fox TV network and of Barry Diller and Rupert Murdoch. But the recent his- tory of the film division has yet to be written. Individual papers and archives are scattered at various libraries. The University of South Carolina has the Fox News and Fox Movietone reels, and is digitizing the images and clips. The Mar- garet Herrick Library has extensive production files and personal papers, notably Richard Zanuck’s archives. Columbia University in New York and the Ameri- can Film Institute have some of the more interesting and diverse collections of oral history transcripts, while as I mentioned above Stanford University holds the personal papers of Spyros Skouras, chairman of the company from the early 1940s to the early 1960s. Researching this book I visited a number of these libraries and archives. I often resorted to the trade press such as Variety and Motion Picture Herald and in later chapters Broadcasting, which helped me understand the company’s evolv- ing relationship with the U.S. television networks from the 1950s onwards. For such research the Media History Digital Library has been invaluable.1 For the chapters covering the studio’s more contemporary times, I was able to secure Introduction 3 a number of interviews with film practitioners associated with the company, including Bill Mechanic, chairman and CEO of Fox Filmed Entertainment between 1994 and 2000 (2012). Periodization is a difficult question for any historian. There are a number of options that I could have followed. For instance, important industry develop- ments such as the beginning of the studios’ vertical integration (1922), the intro- duction of sound (1927), the Paramount Decree (1948), the introduction of widescreen technologies (1952), the beginning of the industry’s conglomeration (in 1959 with the takeover of Universal by MCA), the major Hollywood studio recession (of 1969–71), the introduction of video technology as an ancillary market (1977), all provide interesting turning points for the evolution of the stu- dios. On the other hand, broader historical events and their impact on American society and culture such as the two World Wars, the Great Depression, the wave of suburbanization of the 1950s, the political turmoil of the late 1960s, the deregulative laissez-faire politics of Ronald Reagan and other developments also provide important variables around which the studios’ navigation of political, economic, social, and cultural events can be discussed. And then of course there is a more insulated but neater approach of periodizing the studio according to its internal politics, succeeding ownership and management regimes and even cycles of films. In considering all these options I decided to organize the studio’s history by examining the various executives’ efforts to construct a national and inter- national audience. These efforts became turning points that were often studio- specific, industry-specific, as well as informed by broader historical events. For instance, Chapter 3 begins with Fox’s merger with Twentieth Century Pictures (1935), an event important in the company’s internal history but finishes in 1941 just before the United States’ entry to World War Two, a global turning point. The chapter focuses on how Fox negotiated the politics of the New Deal as introduced in 1933, with a view to make films for the ‘common man’ that constructed as large a national audience as possible at a time when the country was battling to come out of the Great Depression, with Shirley Temple vehicles and B films helping the company have a continuous flow of product and stable profits. Again, in Chapters 7 and 8 the Fox takeovers, respectively by Marvin Davis and Rupert Murdoch, were internal events that were ultimately the result of external political deregulation and the general expansion of global finance credit and transnational corporations. Fox television operations took advantage of as well as facilitated the cultural shift away from broad mainstream consensual narratives towards crudity and confrontation. Periodization illuminates the fact that movie making posed new challenges for each succeeding generation. William Fox was a pioneer who had to improvise the building of a corporation from nothing and constantly altered his manage- ment style. His ouster coincided with other Hollywood pioneers leaving the scene. Spyros Skouras and Darryl Zanuck were younger but also had no 4 Introduction guidance when solving the problems of visual storytelling with dialogue and how to compete with the new phenomenon of broadcasting. They were suc- cessful in keeping their mainstream American audiences together until the 1960s. It was yet another generation of filmmakers who had to put together audiences when the mainstream disappeared in that decade, fragmented into various smaller demographics. Richard Zanuck was part of this movement, although he was forced out before finding a stable formula that was perfected by film directors-producers such as George Lucas. Lucas’s generation had limited loyalty to any one studio and the studios largely lost their personalities at this time. This set the stage for the current period when studios turned their atten- tion to a global audience with a counter balance strategy of setting up specialty divisions to cater to specific groups of viewers. Industrial, technological, and aes- thetic innovation continue to occur, almost never driven by Hollywood studios or their corporate overlords. Chapter 1 explores the origins of the company. William Fox, an immigrant Jewish entrepreneur, had successfully resisted the Motion Picture Patents Com- pany’s attempt to put his movie distribution company out of business in 1914. He decided to build on the monetary rewards of this resistance to actually pro- duce films. This period is characterized by the rise of an audience for moving pictures and the pioneers (mostly immigrants such as Fox) realizing that audi- ences wanted to see movies that told stories. They built national distribution companies during World War One and set up international distribution after the war. Fox and the other studio moguls financed the rapid expansion of movie theaters. They transformed leisure by catering to all classes, even the poorest ones. Fox in particular scored early successes with Theda Bara, using her image as the ‘Vamp’ in a string of films and the cowboy star Tom Mix. Fox and his two key production executives Winfield Sheehan and Sol M. Wurtzel combined sensational journalism techniques with old fashioned moralism. Following the example of other film companies, Fox purchased west coast production facilities. Filmmaking was organized as a corporate activity and included weekly releases of newsreels. The chapter ends as Fox matures as a vertically integrated film corporation. Chapter 2 begins not with a new period but a shift in emphasis by examining how the American audience had started to turn inward and immigration became restricted in the 1920s. At the same time, Fox decided to engage with better written and directed pictures, with John Ford’s The Iron Horse (1924) capturing both the inward mood of the audience and Fox’s higher ambition for quality filmmaking. The Iron Horse continued the cycle of American Western epics started by Paramount. Fox followed this with Raoul Walsh’s highly acclaimed What Price Glory (1926). Fox’s move towards artistry culminated in F.W. Mur- nau’s Sunrise (1927), with other notable entries directed by Frank Borzage as well as Ford. These works of art represent the leading edge of the general movement by various crafts in Hollywood to perfect filmic representation. Introduction 5

Meanwhile, competition from other studios continued. Fox tried to dominate the business by building and buying theaters, financing the development of sound on film and of a widescreen format named Grandeur. All this expansion climaxed when he arranged to gain controlling shares of his rival Loew’s com- pany in the months before the stock market collapse of 1929. The crash forced Fox out. But Hollywood had become entrenched in the national culture with the adoption of sound on film. All the companies weathered the first year of the Great Depression with sound films and then the box office dropped. Fortu- nately, Fox had the highly popular Will Rogers star in a series of films that spoke to the new political formations. The company merged with a small but incredibly successful production company, Twentieth Century, in 1935. The merger gave opportunity to a new cohort led by Darryl F. Zanuck. Chapter 3 focuses on the aftermath of the Twentieth Century-Fox merger. Darryl F. Zanuck’s Nebraskan background and his instinct for the evolving mix- ture of hokum and realism had already led to success while he was at Warner Bros. Movies in general negotiated the tensions between modern life with its new patterns of romance and work and traditional church-based values. Zanuck responded to this and to the various problems of Americans suffering from hard- ship. At the merged Twentieth Century-Fox, writers from general interest magazines such as the Saturday Evening Post targeted Americans with middle- brow movies. The Great Depression had inspired movies to take on politics. Race also became visible in the movies of this period, although compromised by heavy negative stereotyping. Americans were also increasingly confronted by the deteriorating world situation. Hollywood developed a formula for neutraliz- ing the exotic racial ‘other’ in the rather benign figure of Charlie Chan and the mysterious yet ultimately helpful Mr. Moto. Zanuck promoted his own inter- nationalism in his production choices as World War Two took shape. The stu- dio’s high-mindedness resulted in a remarkable trio of films directed by John Ford: Young Mr. Lincoln (1939), The Grapes of Wrath (1940), and How Green Was My Valley (1941). Zanuck, Ford, and many others were then enlisted to help on the war front. Chapter 4 begins with Hollywood in the time of war. The studio used the moviemaking apparatus to represent spirituality in The Song of Bernadette (King, 1943). After the end of the war, filmmakers constructed the audience as more mature than before and open to thoughtful stories. One example of this effort was Zanuck’s arrangement of theater director Elia Kazan to work together with the newsreel producer Louis de Rochemont to make authentic movies on loca- tion. On the other hand, Fox released Gentleman’s Agreement (Kazan, 1947) and even Pinky (Kazan, 1949) to engage Americans with issues of bigotry and segre- gation. Soon the tide was turning the other way as Americans returned to com- placency and the Red blacklisting put pressure on Hollywood. Zanuck and his producers shifted their boldness away from social problems to pushing the limits of the Production Code’s prudery. The studio took advantage of Linda Darnell’s 6 Introduction sexiness to adapt the bodice-ripper best-selling novel Forever Amber (Preminger, 1947) to the screen. From the early 1950s there was also increased competition from television. Movie going came under increased pressures from the growing post-war affluence and other leisure opportunities in advanced industrial countries. The fifth chapter describes the campaign to make movies ‘better than ever.’ This included the innovative CinemaScope widescreen format, which was used for the first time in the company’sswordandsandalfilm The Robe (Koster, 1953). Also successful and eye-catching was a new generation of movie stars. For example, How to Marry a Millionaire (Negulesco, 1953), showcased rising star Marilyn Monroe on the widescreen. All About Eve (Mankiewicz, 1950), was part of an intriguing cycle of women’s films. Inde- pendent production and producers became more powerful than in previous decades. Darryl Zanuck, who in 1955 left his position as head of the studio to become an independent producer, and Jerry Wald were prominent examples. Their films often challenged American attitudes about sex and mar- riage. On the other hand, an older generation of filmmakers who dated back to the silent era could still get a big audience. Cleopatra (Mankiewicz, 1963) was made with a combination of old school show business values and the new ones of sexed-up stars and the ‘swinging sixties.’ Chapter 6 features the various efforts Fox made to deal with a turbulent cul- tural and political period. The politics of de-colonization led to America’s increasing involvement with Vietnam, which alienated large segments of the American audience. Affluence had helped create a teenage market, which also meant that viewers were dividing into separate age clusters. Darryl Zanuck returned to Fox to save a company in trouble, although this time he put his young son Richard in charge of operations. Richard Zanuck managed to find a huge audience for The Sound of Music (Wise, 1965) but this movie’s saccharine formula was not repeatable for a fickle audience. Sometimes the audience responded to a certain zaniness, as with In Like Flint (Douglas, 1967) and TV’s Batman (ABC 1966–68), or even the over the top sex and satire of Myra Breck- inridge (Sarne, 1970) and Beyond the Valley of the Dolls (Meyer, 1970). The latter titles alienated other segments of the audience yet efforts to reach an all-family audience often missed, as with Doctor Dolittle (Fleischer, 1967). Hollywood largely avoided polarizing references to the Vietnam War, although Fox man- aged one successful anti-war vehicle when it released M*A*S*H (Altman, 1970). The way forward was with properties that played to both sides of the culture wars as in Patton (Schaffner, 1970). Planet of the Apes (Schaffner, 1968) also proved to have a lasting influence on Hollywood. However, American cor- porations generally were being taken over by conglomerates which introduced managers who were increasingly removed from understanding their own prod- ucts. Fox was no exception when business executives finally ousted the Zanucks. Introduction 7

Chapter 7 examines the company’s fortunes in the second half of the 1970s and the first half of the 1980s. It starts by examining the efforts of new manager and CEO Dennis Stanfill to cut budgets and streamline operations. But the audi- ence was responding to the expensive disaster film cycle, perhaps as a way to abate increasing anxieties over the direction of industrialization. At Fox the suc- cess of The Poseidon Adventure (Neame, 1972) convinced Stanfill to provide a bigger budget for The Towering Inferno (Guillermin, 1974). Fox also responded to the increased interest in feminist politics with a cycle of women’s films iron- ically all helmed by men, ranging from Three Women (Altman, 1977) and The Turning Point (Ross, 1977) to An Unmarried Woman (Mazursky, 1978). But the biggest reunification of Hollywood with a large profitable audience was the release of Star Wars (Lucas, 1977). Its staggering commercial success solidified a new function of moviemaking, the creation of fictional universes spawning franchises. The auteur of Star Wars, George Lucas, moved from directing to actively producing the next two sequels. This was indicative of changing indus- try roles. Lucas used his revenues to improve film techniques while the studio used its profits to play stock market games, again part of a macro-economic trend. However, the studio made one fateful technological decision. It became the first Hollywood major to release feature films into the emerging home video market. This pointed again to a future when increasingly large segments of the audience used film as home entertainment rather than as an occasion to go out. This domestication of leisure was a global phenomenon that was expanded at the beginning of the twenty-first century but which was already being facilitated by the industry wide conglomeratization of the movie studios. A key example of this was when Rupert Murdoch’s News Corporation bought Twentieth Cen- tury Fox in 1985. Rupert Murdoch wanted to move into American television. Chapter 8 describes his creation of the fourth American network, Fox Television. This was key in the emergence of transnational media conglomerates. All the traditional film studios became divisions of media oriented companies with other divisions typically in some combination of print, broadcasting, cable, video (DVD), music, and other media. None of these companies were localized but sought to operate in the Americas, Europe, Asia, and Oceania, with residual interests in Africa and the Middle East. The News Corporation was one of the most prom- inent. The overt reactionary political slant of its print and cable operations had repercussions for its film and television productions, which were cynical and vulgar. This was the period in Fox’s history when feature filmmaking came to overlap with television. For instance, executives in charge of the film division came from television such as Larry Gordon and TV actors such as Bruce Willis starred in action franchises such as Die Hard (McTiernan, 1988). Other film dir- ectors such as James Cameron and John Hughes continued to adhere to older (pre-TV) Hollywood traditions, tweaked with increasing use of sophisticated computer enhanced images. The fracturing of the audience continued and Peter 8 Introduction

Chernin and Bill Mechanic responded by creating various specialty film divi- sions, such as Fox 2000 and Fox Searchlight. This paralleled the growth of a global audience attracted to the highest level of big-budget filmmaking, in par- ticular to Cameron’s Titanic (1997), a huge gamble and an unprecedented success. The final chapter begins with the aftermath of Titanic. The new question for the film industry was the global audience and the opening up of China. Such international distribution patterns were greatly helped by the development of the internet. This crystallized cultural shifts such as the domestication of leisure and the concentration of the culture industries. The biggest cultural players were not always the older conglomerates but newer online distributors such as Netflix, Amazon, and Google, along with Disney and Warner Media (formerly Time Warner). The News Corporation reacted to these and other pressures by first splitting, and then by selling, its film operations to Disney in 2019. In the immediate aftermath of Titanic, Bill Mechanic green-lighted Fight Club (Fincher, 1999), a film that can be seen as an expression of the anomie induced by trans- national corporations. Even Hollywood insiders noticed a loss of passion as the industry turned towards big-budget action-adventure franchises. Fox Searchlight and Fox 2000 put out several non-action films that won acclaim and Academy Awards but these did not seem to be the essence of the company. Indeed, it is hard to say that there was any essence as executives came and went, and Mur- doch gained in political influence. But Fox only had rare successes aside from its two Marvel properties, X-Men and Deadpool. George Lucas retired by selling his company to Disney so that the limited participation that Fox had in the Star Wars universe dwindled to none. Disney was dominating and seemed to under- stand the global market better than its rivals, despite the long term efforts of Murdoch to operate in China. At the same time, the entire industry was shaken by the rapid expansion of subscriber video on demand form of distribution championed by Netflix. Murdoch and his sons failed in a bid to own Sky Broadcasting, which they could have used to compete against Netflix and rather suddenly decided to sell the film operations to Disney. This 2019 merger sub- stantially means the end of William Fox’s company although the name Fox will still be used as a brand. This end mirrors a change in the function of film and only the future will give a verdict as to whether there is a significant continuum between the classical phase of film and its current conglomeration.

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