Dam Politics in Northern : The Case of the Kole Ahmed Shettima

Abstract ment les populations et perturbe pro- has 20,000 square kilometres and joins fondhmt le processus tcologique. the Hadejia near Gashua to form the Considerable political contention has Hadejia-Jama'are. The River Hadejia- developed over the dams and large-scale Introduction Jama'are meets the Kumadugu Gana irrigation schemes in northern Nigeria. Large scale irrigation schemes and near Geidam to form the Kumadugu The reasons are the resettlement of peo- dams dot the landscape of northern Yobe (NEAZDP 1990,9). ple that they require as well as their en- Nigeria. There are criticisms of these Nearly all of northern Nigeria is an vironmental effects, their economic projects, funded in the 1970s. Problems ecologically sensitive zone. Desert ex- inefficiency and other social conse- identified include economic ineffi- pansion is the most serious environ- quences. This article discusses these is- ciency, class-bias, health hazards and mental hazard. In recent years as much sues with reference specijically to the environmental effects (Watts 1987). as 38 percent of the land is lost to deser- Kafin Zaki Dam proposal, challeniging However, the issue of resistance to irri- tification, and about 30 million people the conventional image of an alignment gation and dam projects and especially have been affected. The rate of deserti- of international organizations and de the role of factions of international fication can be as high as 35 kilometres mestic elites on one side and grassroots agencies and some parts of the state per year. In the 1972-73 drought alone, forces on the other. The conclusion is has not been explored in this regard. cattle mortality was at 20 percent. that the political contest is carried out Indeed, most of the literature on irriga- These ecological shifts are due to cli- essentially at the elite level and that tion schemes in northern Nigeria has matic changes, population increase state and international agencies at only focused on the negative roles of and livestock pressure. According to times do oppose mega-projects that dis- international and national agencies the World Bank (1990,17), human ac- place peopleand disrupt ecologicalproc- (ibid., 1987). tivities rather than climatic changes are esses. There are many examples of inter- the most sigruficant causes of environ- national agencies, multilateral and bi- mental variation. They include bush lateral, playing negative roles of burning, human population move- Des dtdltspolitiques considkrables se environmental destruction. However, ment, overgrazing and the increased sont dheloppts autour de la question in the case of the Kafin Zaki Dam use of mechanical methods of land des barrages et de I'irrigation h grande project in the Yobe Basin, these agen- clearing. Apart from these factors, tchelle au Nord-Nigeria. Les raisons en cies worked together to successfully to major causes of environmental stress sont: les relocalisations de populations stop construction, in conjunction with are engineering and agronomic biases que ces projets entrainent, leur impact some parts of the Nigerian state and of water resource development and sur l'environnement, leur ineficacitt Nigerian organisations. This case management (Gadzama 1991,9). tconornique, ainsi qu'une kyrielle study questions the assumption of Ecological realities coupled with re- d'autres constquences sociales. Le prC- monolithic states, governments and gional politics, "developmentalism," sent article aborde ces questions en se international agencies prevalent in nationalism and the oil boom have rifkrant sptcifiquemen t au cas du projet much of the development studies lit- been invoked to make a case for dam de barrage du Kafin Zaki, et remet en erature. reservoirs in northern Nigeria. The question la conception conventionnelle construction of water reservoirs are The Geography and Ecology of the d'unface hface sur cette question entre meant for urban water supply and les organisations internationales et les Yobe Basin large scale irrigation projects. In the elites locales d'un c6tt et les forces du The Kumadugu River's Yobe Basin is Yobe Basin, there are twenty-two terroir de l'autre. La conclusion est plp- located in the northeast of northern dams existing, under construction and t6t que le conflit politique se livre prin- Nigeria and covers about 9 percent of proposed with a catchment area of cipalement au niveau klitaire, et que les the country's land. Kumadugu Yobe 31,303 square kilometres (NEAZDP agences nationales et internationales en has a catchment area of about 85,000 1990,16). Traditionally, surface water, mennent avec le temps h s'opposer h ce square kilometres. Its three main tribu- wells and small dams have been used type de mgaprojet qui delace massive- taries are the River Hadejia, the River for urban water supply. Similarly, Jama'are and the Kumadugu Gana. flooding, shadoof (a suspended pole Kole Ahmed Shettima is Adjunct Professor of The Hadejia has the largest catchment with a bucket at one end and a weight Political Science, Department of Political area of 30,000 square kilometres at the at the other), wells, calabash, and other Science, University of Toronto, Toronto. western end of the basin, the Jama'are hand-held-bailer irrigation methods

- -- I, Rq#kge, VoL 16, No. 3 (August 1997) The Upper Komadougou-Yobe Basin

.\- .\- RIVER ( C A FORMAL I ~RR~GA~ION SCHEME

Source: Hadejia-Nguru Wetlands Conservation Project and the National Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies, Workshop on the Management ofthe Water Resources ofthe Komadugu-Yobe Basin, Kuru, 1st-2nd April 1993 (Kuru: National Institute Press, 1993), 35.

have been used in agriculture. Later, The Kafin Zaki Dam Proposal NEAZDP 1990). The 1972-74 drought diesel-driven pumps and tube wells in the Sahel was the proximate impe- were introduced for the purpose of The damming of the river systems in tus for the project. But it was only dur- small-scale irrigation. northern Nigeria has instigated de- ing the Shagari regime (1979433)that a There are three major dams in the bates on the merits and demerits of contract was awarded for the project to upstream region of the Yobe Basin. such projects. A case in point is the Julius Berger, a German construction These include Tiga, Challawa and Kafin Zaki Dam. On the one hand, a company. In 1984, the Buhari regime Bagauda. All these dams are around disparate interest group has been dog- (1984-85) terminated the contract as . They provide water to the city of gedly championing the cause of the part of its budgetary control measure, Kano and the Kano Irrigation Project project. On the other hand, aloose stra- but that decision was reversed in De- Phase 1. The biggest of the dams is Tiga tegic alliance of various institutions, cember 1992 by the Babangida regime which was constructed 1971-74 individuals and organisations, foreign (1985-93). The latter requested Julius (NEAZDP 1990,16). River regulation and domestic, successfully lobbied Berger to continue the project at a cost has potential beneficial effects of re- against the construction of the Kafin of N10 billion.' It was expected that on ducing harmful flooding of agricul- Zaki Dam. I shall name and discuss the completion of the project an area of tural land downstream, but could have groups in the debate on the merits and &4,000 hectares would be irrigated. In the negative effects of undermining demerits of damming in the Yobe Ba- 1994, the Abacha regime (1993- flooding of the large fadama (flood sin, and the strategies and arguments present) terminated the contract and plain) on which millions of people de- invoked. later appointed a judicial commission pend for traditional agriculture and The Kafin Zaki Dam has an intellec- of inquiry under Justice Sanusi Ciroma irrigation, livestock grazing, and the tual origin in the Schultz report funded Yusuf. The Commission was man- recharging of the aquifers. Social con- by the Canadian International Devel- dated to look into the origin and scope flicts due to loss of livelihood and the opment Agency and an earlier study of the project, the manner and worth of threat of displacement are some of the funded by the United States Agency its contract, as well as the role of staff in consequences. for International Development the Ministry of Water Resources and (HNWCP and NIPSS 1993, 19;

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Rural Development (New Nigerian benefits of the project. The problem, tection of Birds, the Nigerian Conser- April 8,1993). according to the government, is vation Union, the Finnish Association Support for the Kafin Zaki Darn drought and not irrigation schemes. for Nature Conservation and the This conclusion was reached despite World Conservation Union. The The argument in support of the dam is the fact that the Ministry has not car- World Bank is also funding a small led by a powerful interest group. The ried out environmental impact sur- fadama (flood plain) irrigation project Schultz report intellectually rational- veys. Dubious figures are officially which covers some of the area in the ises the need for the project while used to minimise the impact of the Yobe Basin that could be negatively JuIius Berger, the most important con- projects on the downstream users, e.g. affected by the Kafin Zaki Dam. The struction company in Nigeria, lobbies that the Kafin Zaki Dam is only 10.6 Dam restricts the water that would in its support. Most of the important percent of the catchment area of the have been used for small-scale irriga- constructions in Abuja, the new fed- Yobe Basin. Furthermore, faith is tion projects. The FEPA is the environ- eral capital, are executed by the cam- placed in technology: better utilisation mental watchdog of the government. pany. Indeed, the new capital is often through controlled releases. In a con- At the time of strong opposition to referred to as Berger city. Similarly, the cluding commentary by Aminu (1991, Kafin Zaki, the chairperson of the company has on its board some of the 1805), even environmentalismis again board of the FEPA was Bukar Shaib most powerful individuals in the coun- appropriated: "we will also ensure that who is an indigene of the area most try. the environment is fully protected, in- likely to be negatively affected by the Another important source of sup- cluding the Ngwu [sic] Wetland which dam construction. port for the project is political/bureau- provides sanctuary to the migratory Opposition to the project is based on cratic. In December 1992 when the birds from Europe during the winter technical, economic and environmen- government authorised the company months." Aminu is deliberately men- tal arguments. In a meeting initiated to proceed, the Minister responsible tioning Europe because the article he by the NCF with Ernest Shonekan, the for water resources was Abubakar was referring to was written by a Euro- NCF argued that, while controlled re- Hashidu. Hashidu was the former pean. lease could have a beneficial effect to General Manager of the Hadejia- Dam downstream users, the technical effi- Jamalare River Basin Development Opposition to the Kaf'in Zaki ciency and management of the Kafin Authority. In fact, the contract was Much of the prominent opposition to Zaki Dam is suspect in light of previ- awarded within the last week of his the project comes from the Nigerian ous experiences with similar projects. tenure as Minister. In addition, both Conservation Foundation (NCF), There is no guarantee that there is the Hashidu and the then Governor of the Borno and governments, technical and managerial capacity to CentraI Bank, Abdulkadir Ahmed, the North East Arid Zone Develop- release an adequate, timely water sup- come from the area where the projects ment Program (NEAZDP), the ply to downstream users. For example, are located. Hadejia-Nguru Wetland Conserva- when the was completed, Geopolitically, the dam is situated tion Project (HNWCP),and the Federal the Federal Government guaranteed in an area which has always provided Environmental Protection Agency 1,350 million cubic metres of water to political support to the mainstream of (FEPA). International agencies such as pass through Gashua annually but this northern Nigeria politics. They also those of the European Union and the has not been implemented (HNWCP belong to the Hausa-Fulani ethnic World Bank are also opposed to the and NIPSS 1993,3). In fact, even farm- group. In contrast, the downstream project. The alliance does not involve ers in the upstream of the Kano River users in Yobe and Borno states are la- grassroots organisations but works Project suffer great losses. Similarly, belled as minority ethnic groups. Po- primarily through the structures of the the was closed litically, this group generally supports state to influence policy makers. The in 1992 without any warning to the parties that oppose the mainstream of NCF consists of some of the top elite of downstream users, leading to massive northern Nigerian politics. Nigerian society. For example, the losses. The support for the project is in- former chair of the National Transi- The economic problems relating to voked by bureaucrats using national- tional Government, Ernest Shonekan the dam have been identified as high ist rhetoric. Irrigation is justified as a (August-November 1993), was a capital cost, low yields, underestima- strategy for national food security. The former chair of the NCF. A. P. Leventis, tion of the volume and values of exist- alternative to irrigation is character- of the Leventis conglomerate, is chair ing production, high management ised as undermining national self-reli- of the Scientific Committee of the NCF. costs, and especially poor returns for ance. For example, in reaction to The NEAZDP is partially funded by small irrigating farmers. The Kafin criticisms of the project Aminu (1991, the European Union and is implement- Zaki project is at best a "cathedral in 1805) accuses the critics of Kafin Zaki ing several other projects in the coun- the desert," just like its counterparts in Dam of needlessly involving environ- try. The HNWCP is a collaborative many other parts of the country. The mental issues and losing sight of the project of the Royal Society for the Pro- returns of the project promise to be

I 20 Wge,Vol. 16, No. 3 (August 1997) minimal based on previous experi- basis for debt relief (Ogbonnaya l993a, fodced to migrate southward towards ences. For instance, the three major 81-2; Ogbonnaya 1993b, B4). the Middle Belt which would only in- irrigation schemes in northern Ni- The ecological and human impact of temrfy the existing conflict in the re- geria, Bakolori, Kano River Project and the Kafin Zaki Dam project would gion. Rural-urban migration would South Tchad, were expected to irrigate have been very serious. In many cases, increase. This would only compound 320,000 hectares and 2 million hectares dams have resulted in extensive dis- the current situation and probably lead in 1982. But by 1982, the actual irri- placement, costly resettlement and to further social conflicts. On the other gated land was 30,706 hectares. By discontent among those who are reset- hand, pressure on tudu farming (up- this same year, on the other hand, tled. Other negative impacts include land), which is already overstretched, 800,000 hectares were irrigated by sea- the collapse of traditional farming would increase. The lack of flow of the sonal flooding. A study by Barbier practices, its replacement by more vul- river system would only accelerate the (NEAZDP 19954) shows that net ben- nerable monocultural agriculture, process of sand dune formations and efits in wetland small-scale irrigation threat to fishing, destruction of the these would increase the process of are N239 per hectare compared to only wildlife sanctuaries in the wetlands desertification. N19 per hectare in the irrigated area of and especially the Nguru and Dagona While the opposition to the project the Kano River Project. If the net ben- bird sanctuaries, and threats to has a formidable argument, the alter- efits are assessed in terms of water pro- transhumance (Synge 1991,1536). native has not been clearly defined. ductivity, then the net benefits per There are various experiences of There is, however, a wide feeling that 1,000 cubic metre of water used in the water loss due to large dams in north- there must be a mechanism to harness wetland is N31.80 while in the Kano em Nigeria. For example, when the the water resources of the Yobe Basin River Project it is N1.lO. Indeed, stud- Tiga Dam was completed in 1976, the by a single agency. At present the Yobe ies by Kirnmage and Adams (1992) river flow at Gashua was reduced by Basin is under the jurisdictions of the have shown the superiority of indig- about 100million cubic metres per year River Development Au- enous use of wetlands in terms of not by irrigation and by more than 50 mil- thority and the Hadejia-Jama'are River only the economics of production but lion cubic metres by evaporation. If the Basin Development Authority. This ecological sustainability. (The com- Kafin Zaki Dam is constructed it has led to several difficulties. For ex- parison is made because of the negative would result in the reduction in flow at ample, when the latter decided to close impact Kafin Zaki would have had on Gashua by 1,275 million cubic metres the Challawa Gorge Dam, this was not small-scale irrigation in the wetlands). per year. Moreover, Kafin Zaki would communicated to the former. Sec- NEAZDP, which more than any stretch 17 kilometres and create a res- ondly, there is a need for a national other organisation worked quietly to ervoir of 235 square kilometres which policy on water resources. Thirdly, the protect the Yobe Basin, estimates that would evaporate up to 450 million cu- opposition expects independent current loss in production due to the bic metres of water per year. The losses environmental reviews of projects dam from rice, small-scale irrigation, due to evaporation to downstream us- (NEAZDP 1993). livestock production and fisheries at ers would be US$1 million per annum N730 million to N1.35 billion per year. (Martin 1993, 2; NEAZDP 1993, 2-3; Conclusion The potential loss to production due to Thompson 1993, 12). This is a major This article shows that, while in many the dam from small-scale irrigation, loss of water. instances state and international agen- livestock production, and fisheries is The construction of the Kafin Zaki cies play a destructive role by funding between N1.65 billion to 3 billion per Dam would have negatively affected mega-projects, this is not always the year in 1990 in the Yobe state alone. ground water recharge in the basin. case. The politics of the Kafin Zaki Yobe and Bomo States, two major The recharging of the Tchad aquifer Dam proposal shows that factions states that provide livestock in the depends on the flood of the River within these structures at times play a country, will be adversely affected. It Jama'are. The consequences of a dis- progressive oppositional role as the is estimated that 1.5 million cattle and ruption would be the shortage of water socially and environmentally disrup- other livestock are in danger. for human consumption, livestockand tive effects become apparent. There are international dimensions small-scale irrigation. The livelihood of the economic losses as well. Hun- of about three million people would be Notes dreds of Niger Republic small-scale- jeopardised in Borno and Yobe states 1. The value of the Nara to US dollar was: irrigation cultivators and pastoralists alone. N10 to US$1 in 1990, N21 to US1in 1992, depend on the flow of the river There are several other implications and N85 to US1 in 1996. (NEAZDP 1992). Similarly, the imple- of the effects of the Kafin Zaki Dam. References mentation of the project would worsen Identity conflicts would be intensified the budgetary situation and damage in the region, especially between Aminu, Abdul Ganiyu. 1991. "Livelihoods at the relationship between Nigeria and pastoralists and small-scale-irrigation Risk." WestAfricn (October28-November its creditors who would not see any farmers. The pastoralists may be 3): 1805.

Refuge, Vol. 16, No. 3 (August 1997) 21 Gadzarna, N. M. 1991. "Sustainable Develop- ment inNigeria's Dry Belt." In Sustainable Development in Nigeria? DyBelt, edited by K. 0. Ologe, 518. Ibadan: NEST. HNWCP (Hadejia-Nguru Wetlands Conser- vation Project), and NIPSS (National In- stitute for Policy and Strategic Studies). 1993. Workshop on the Management of the Water Resources of the Komadugu-Yobe Ba- sin. Kuru: NIBS. Kimmage, Kevin, and W. M. Adams. 1992. "Wetland Agricultural Production and River Basin Development in the Hadejia- Jama'are Valley, Nigeria." Geographical Journal 158, no. 1,l-12. Martin, Alice. 1993. "Lake Chad in Danger of Disappearing." New Nigerian on Sunday (May 2): 7-8. New Nigerian. 1993. (April 8): 16. NEAZDP (North East Arid Zone Develop- ment Program). 1990. Water Resources Report. Damaturu: NEAZDP. -. 1992. Water Resources in the NEAZDP Area. Gashua: NEAZDP. -. 1993. "Report to the Committee on Water Management in the Komadugu Yobe Basin." Darnaturu: NEAZDP. Ogbomaya, Obasi. 1993a. "Dams of Death." The Guardian on Sunday (August 1): B1- B2. -. 1993b. "Those Dams Could be Dam- ming." The Guardian on Sunday (April 18): B4. Synge, Richard. 1991. "Livelihoods at Risk." West Africa (September 16-22): 1536. Thompson, Henry. 1993. "Damming Niger- ia's Wealth." World Rivers Reuiew (Fourth Quarter): 12-3. Watts, Michael, ed. 1987. State, Oil and Agri- culture in Nigeria. Berkeley: University of California. World Bank. 1990. Towards the Development of an Environmental Action Plan for Nigeria. Washington: The World Bank. a

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