Cartography & Map Design How to Make a Successful Map
URISA Certified Workshop NCGIS 2019 Winston-Salem, North Carolina February 26, 2019
Instructor Patrick Jankanish
©2019 Urban and Regional Information Systems Association
He had bought a large map representing the sea, Without the least vestige of land: And the crew were much pleased when they found it to be A map they could all understand. “What’s the good of Mercator’s North Poles and Equators, Tropics, Zones, and Meridian Lines?” So the Bellman would cry: and the crew would reply “They are merely conventional signs! Other maps are such shapes, with their islands and capes! But we’ve got our brave Captain to thank” (So the crew would protest) “that he’s bought us the best— A perfect and absolute blank!”
Lewis Carroll The Hunting of the Snark
©2019 Urban and Regional Information Systems Association
1 Workshop Introduction
Patrick Jankanish Senior Cartographer King County GIS Center Seattle, Washington
Patrick Jankanish has been creating publication-quality map and graphic products for print and online media for more than 40 years in academic, commercial consulting, freelance, and government settings. Patrick takes a holistic approach to cartography that combines bedrock cartographic theory, modern graphic design principles and techniques, and always-evolving GIS and graphic arts technology to promote effective and artful cartography.
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Workshop Introduction
Housekeeping Items
Roll call, sign-in sheet Hand out workbooks and evaluation forms Physical layout (restrooms, etc.) Breaks: mid-morning, lunch, mid-afternoon Please do not leave valuables in the session room during lunch. As a courtesy, please turn off or silence cell phones.
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2 Workshop Introduction
Workshop Overview
Section 1 – The Cartographic Process Section 2 – Map Fundamentals Section 3 – Map Data Section 4 – Making the Map
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Workshop Introduction Today’s Schedule 8:30 to 8:45 Welcome & introductions 8:45 to 9:45 Section 1 – The Cartographic Process 9:45 to 10:00 Exercise 1 10:00 to 10:15 morning break 10:15 to 11:30 Section 2 – Map Fundamentals Section 3 – Map Data 11:30 to 12:00 Exercise 2 12:00 to 1:00 lunch break 1:00 to 1:30 Exercise 3 1:30 to 2:30 Section 4 – Making the Map 2:30 to 2:45 afternoon break 2:45 to 3:45 Section 4 (continue to conclusion) 3:45 to 4:30 Exercise 4 4:30 to 5:00 Wrap-up, evaluations
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3 Section 11Section The Cartographic Process
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Section 1 Overview The Cartographic Process A. The Foundation . What is a map? — Simple Definition — Form and Function — Examples — Workshop Definition . Why use a map?
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4 Section 1 Overview The Cartographic Process B. The Process of Making a Map 1. Conceptualization 2. Planning 3. Design 4. Production 5. Editing and Quality Control 6. Output and Reproduction
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part A: The Foundation
What is a Map? — A simple definition . A map is a representation of the earth’s surface on a flat surface. . “Map” was derived from the Latin mappa: napkin or tablecloth.
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5 Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part A: The Foundation
What is a Map? — Form
. Printed . Electronic/ digital . Alternate or mixed media . Ephemeral
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part A: The Foundation
What is a Map? — Form
Printed (flat) Electronic/digital • Stand-alone maps (map sheets, • Desktop and mobile device fold-up maps) displays • Illustrations (in articles, reports, • Static or interactive books, etc.) •Animated • Bound map collections / atlases Ephemeral • Posters and murals • Digital maps created on the fly Alternate or mixed-media • Hand-drawn sketch (paper (flat or three-dimensional) napkin) • Globes • Mental maps • Engraved, molded, sculpted, • Spoken directions etc. (plastic, metal, stone, tile…) • Sticks & shells • Tactile maps (e.g., Braille maps) • Lines in the sand
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What is a Map? — Function
• Reference general to highly specific • Way-finding/navigation specialized reference • Documentation • Illustration • Analysis patterns, distributions, relationships, trends, etc. • Persuasion and propaganda • Advertising commercial propaganda • Decoration and art
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part A: The Foundation
Examples — Location reference
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Examples — Article illustration
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part A: The Foundation
Examples — Book illustration
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Examples — Informative brochure
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part A: The Foundation
Examples — Wayfinding helper
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Examples — Propaganda Political Commercial
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part A: The Foundation
Examples — Storyteller
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Examples — Sculpted form Artifact / Utility / Art
Seattle Public Utilities Sewer manholes
Fragments of the Forma Urbis Romae (a 60’ x 40’ municipal map of Rome carved in marble during the Third Century CE) Artistic map of Vashon Island, Washington, in brushed stainless steel
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part A: The Foundation
What is a Map? — Workshop Definition . A map comprises a systematic spatial correspondence between a real-world geographic extent and the map extent. . A map is an abstracted visual representation of information that can be defined or understood according to its geographic location and/or distribution in the real world.
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What is a Map? — Workshop Definition
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part A: The Foundation
What is a Map? — Workshop Definition spatial correspondence
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What is a Map? — Workshop Definition systematic spatial correspondence
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part A: The Foundation
What is a Map? — Workshop Definition
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What is a Map? — Workshop Definition abstracted visual representation
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part A: The Foundation
Why Make a Map? . What is the spatial/geographic component of the information and message? . Can the message be conveyed without a map? . Will the message be clearer or stronger if the information is presented in map form? . Is a map necessary? . Is a map sufficient? . What is the relative value of a map versus alternate ways to present the information?
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Why Make a Map? For point- to-point . When is a map not the best navigation geographic communications tool? use printed driving directions or signposts
For property boundaries use the legal description For highway distances use a table
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part A: The Foundation
Why Make a Map? . When is a map not the best geographic communications tool?
For networks or features in which a linear sequence is important, use a schematic diagram
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Why Make a Map? . When is a map not the best geographic communications tool? When you can point to the real world!
“We actually made a map of the country, on the scale of a mile to the mile!” “Have you used it much?” I enquired. “It has never been spread out, yet,” said Mein Herr: “the farmers objected: they said it would cover the whole country, and shut out the sunlight! So we now use the country itself, as its own map, and I assure you it does nearly as well.”
Lewis Carroll Sylvie and Bruno Concluded
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process
Part B. The Process of Making a Map
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Part B. The Process of Making a Map 1. Conceptualization 2. Project Planning 3. Design 4. Production 5. Editing and Quality Control 6. Output and Reproduction
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map
1. Conceptualization . Describe the information to be conveyed . Define the audience . Formulate the message . Imagine and describe how the information could be conveyed in map form: geovisualization.
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2. Project Planning . Define the scope of work . Develop a work estimate . Assemble a project budget . Lay out a timeline . Commit to the project
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map
2. Project Planning . Define the scope of work . Roles and responsibilities • client staff • cartography staff . Deliverables • project planning and control documents • product content, such as data, compilation maps, final maps
more: slides 220-223
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2. Project Planning . Develop a work estimate . What has to be accomplished? • define the project phases and tasks . How long will it take to complete the tasks? • estimate the amount of time to complete each task and phase
more: slides 224-225
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map
2. Project Planning . Assemble a project budget . What are your baseline costs? • apply labor and materials costs to your estimates . How reliable are your estimates? • include reasonable contingency factors
more: slides 226-230
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19 Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map
2. Project Planning . Develop a timeline . What are your available resources? • determine how much staff time is available and how it can be utilized . What are the outside controlling factors? • allow for unavoidable downtime . What are the project milestones? • assign calendar dates to milestones based on task-time estimates more: slide 231
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map
2. Project Planning . Commit to the project . What form will your commitment take? • formal contract? • informal agreement?
more: slide 232
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20 Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map
3. Design . Assess the purpose of the map . Identify available resources . Identify project constraints . Develop and specify a production process . Develop and document the cartographic design . AND…Collaborate
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map
4. Production . Set up the map space . Compile, prepare, and process the data . Construct the spatial elements and apply the map symbology (“draw” the map) . Label the map features . Develop and construct the map marginalia
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21 Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map
5. Editing and Quality Control . Edit for accuracy . Edit for completeness . Edit for style . Edit for effectiveness
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map
6. Output and Reproduction . Prepare the production map for its display/publishing environment . Work with other creative and technical specialists . Generate a final product . Archive project materials and files
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22 Section 1 Summary The Cartographic Process A. The Foundation What is a map? — Simple Definition — Form and Function — Examples — Workshop Definition Why use a map?
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Section 1 Summary The Cartographic Process B. The Process of Making a Map Conceptualization Planning Design Production Editing and Quality Control Output and Reproduction
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23 Section 2 Map Fundamentals
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Section 2 Overview Map Fundamentals A. The Spatial Aspect of Maps Coordinate Systems and Map Projections B. The Representational Aspect of Maps Cartographic Principles C. The Parts of a Map
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24 Section 2: Map Fundamentals A. The Spatial Aspect of Maps . Coordinate Systems . Map Projections . Map Datums . Land Survey Systems
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps
Coordinate Systems . A Coordinate System is a reference framework used to define locations. . Many types, but they all have: • a set of reference lines • a set of rules for determining location relative to the reference lines. . A familiar example: the Cartesian coordinate system.
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25 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps
Cartesian Coordinate System
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps
Geographic Coordinate System . References points on a globe ─ represents the surface of the earth . Reference lines are curved ─ because they follow the surface of a globe . Locates a point using only two dimensions (like the Cartesian Coordinate System) ─ because it references only the surface of the globe
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26 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps
Cartesian Geographic Coordinate System Coordinate System
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps
The Globe
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Map Projections Problem: The Earth is not flat, maps are.
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps
Map Projections Problem: The Earth is not flat, maps are.
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28 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps
Map Projections: Definitions . The systematic transformation of the latitudes and longitudes of locations on the surface of a sphere or an ellipsoid into locations on a plane. (McDonnell) . Any orderly system of parallels and meridians on which a map can be drawn. (Raisz) . The systematic arrangement of the earth's ... meridians and parallels onto a plane surface. (Dent)
. A method of systematic transformation of the earth’s parallels and meridians (lines of latitude and longitude) onto a plane.
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps
Projection Characteristics and Classes
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Map Projections: Characteristics . The surface of a globe cannot be flattened out without stretching, so all map projections distort the surface. . Individual map projections are designed to preserve one or more of these geometric characteristics: Shape Area Distance Direction . No projection can preserve all of these characteristics. . Scale cannot be uniform for all parts of a map for any projection.
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps Projection Characteristics preservation of Shape (Conformality)
Lambert Conformal Conic
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30 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps Projection Characteristics preservation of Area (Equivalency)
Albers Equal-Area Conic
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps Projection Characteristics preservation of Distance
Azimuthal Equidistant
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31 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps Projection Characteristics preservation of Direction
Orthographic
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps Projection Characteristics
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32 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps
Map Projections: Classification . Map projections can be classified according to the manner by which the transformation is performed: • by a mathematical formula which represents the optical projection of the surface of a globe by a light source onto the developable surface of a geometric solid, i.e., a cylinder, cone, or plane • by a non-geometric mathematical transformation • by a combination of geometric and non-geometric mathematical transformations
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps
Map Projections: Geometric Classification
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Projection Classes: Cylindrical
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps Projection Classes: Cylindrical
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34 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps Projection Classes: Cylindrical
more: slides 235-244
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps
Projection Classes: Conic
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35 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps Projection Classes: Conic
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps
Projection Classes: Azimuthal
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36 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps Projection Classes: Azimuthal
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps Projection Classes: Azimuthal
more: slides 251-259
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37 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps Unclassified and Unique Projections
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps
Projected Coordinate Systems . A projected coordinate system is a system of regular, linear measurements defined for a flat surface which results from a particular map projection. . Common units are feet and meters. . There are many types of projected coordinate systems which have been created especially for particular areas of the globe. • The most commonly used in the United States are: – Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) – State Plane • Most government mapping in Canada is based on UTM (zones 7 through 22) more: slides 261-262
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38 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps
Datum: Definition . A reference system for the calculation of positions . A horizontal datum is a reference base point with defined characteristics: • Latitude • Longitude • Relation to a defined reference ellipsoid . A vertical datum is a reference surface relative to which elevations or depths are measured.
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps
Datum: Why it matters
more: slides 265-266
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39 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps Projections, Coordinate Systems, and Datums in Application: Example FGDC Spatial Reference Information for King County GIS Data Spatial_Reference_Information: Horizontal_Coordinate_System_Definition: Planar: Grid_Coordinate_System: Grid_Coordinate_System_Name: State Plane Coordinate System 1983 State_Plane_Coordinate_System: SPCS_Zone_Identifier: 5601 Lambert_Conformal_Conic: Standard_Parallel_1: 47.5000 Standard_Parallel_2: 48.7333 Longitude_of_Central_Meridian: -120.8333 Latitude_of_Projection_Origin: 47.0 False_Easting: 1640416.66667 False_Northing: 0 Planar_Coordinate_Information: Planar_Coordinate_Encoding_Method: coordinate pair Coordinate_Representation: Abcissa_Resolution: not determined Ordinate_Resolution: not determined Planar_Distance_Units: survey feet Geodetic_Model: Horizontal_Datum_Name: North American Datum of 1983 Ellipsoid_Name: Geodetic Reference System 80 Semi-major_Axis: 6378137 Denominator_of_Flattening_Ratio: 294.98 79 ©2019 Urban and Regional Information Systems Association Cartography and Map Design
Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps
Land Survey Systems . Systems for demarcation of land . Metes and bounds . Public Land Survey System
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40 Section 2: Map Fundamentals B. The Representational Aspect of Maps / Cartographic Principles . Abstraction . Data Representation . Generalization/simplification . Classification . Order . Hierarchy . Absolute vs. relative location
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part B: The Representational Aspect of Maps
Abstraction
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41 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part B: The Representational Aspect of Maps
Abstraction
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part B: The Representational Aspect of Maps
Abstraction
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42 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part B: The Representational Aspect of Maps
Data Representation . Classification . Order . Hierarchy . Generalization/simplification . Absolute vs. relative location
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part B: The Representational Aspect of Maps—Data Representation
Classification . Example: USGS topographic map feature classifications
. Examples
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43 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part B: The Representational Aspect of Maps—Data Representation
Order and Hierarchy
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part B: The Representational Aspect of Maps—Data Representation
Generalization/simplification . Example: Stream network simplification
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44 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part B: The Representational Aspect of Maps—Data Representation
Generalization/simplification . Example: Simplification of networks and reduction of detail to accommodate scale variations
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part B: The Representational Aspect of Maps—Data Representation Absolute vs. relative location
Extra: does your data (red dots) match what is on the ground (white dots)?
1: Data points for transit facility 2: Data points locations. symbolized, but we can’t 3: Symbols with read all of the relative offsets; symbols. okay, but where are the facilities rela- 4: Symbols and tive to the streets? data points.points; data points nudged. 90 ©2019 Urban and Regional Information Systems Association Cartography and Map Design
45 Section 2: Map Fundamentals C. The Parts of a Map
. Map container . Map content . Marginalia
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals a C. The Parts of a Map
. Map container a) page b) border b c) neatline c
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46 Section 2: Map Fundamentals C. The Parts of a Map
. Map content
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals C. The Parts of a Map
. Marginalia
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Marginalia . Title / subtitle . Legend . North arrow . Scale . Publication date . Map notes • Data sources • Author information • Disclaimer . Branding . Inset map(s)
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part C: The Parts of a Map
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48 Section 2 Summary Map Fundamentals A. The Spatial Aspect of Maps Coordinate Systems and Map Projections B. The Representational Aspect of Maps Cartographic Principles C. The Parts of a Map
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Section 3 Map Data
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49 Section 3 Overview Map Data A. What Is Map Data? Definition B. Data Fundamentals Spatial Data Geometry Feature Attributes C. Data Acquisition and Capture D. Metadata
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Section 3: Map Data
A. What is Map Data?—Definition . Map data is any information about features or entities in the real world that can be represented in map form. • Information that can be displayed within a map space • Information that can be represented by map symbols
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50 Section 3: Map Data
B. Data Fundamentals . Spatial Data Geometry Information about a feature that describes its location and form in the real world . Feature Attributes Information that describes intrinsic characteristics of the feature
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Section 3: Map Data; Part B: Data Fundamentals
Spatial data geometry—two categories:
. Vector • Discrete geographic locations and extents. . Raster • Locations are approximated by assigning them to grid cells in a matrix that is made to overlay a spatial extent. • Each grid cell represents a discrete attribute. • Because the cells are small, in aggregate they can represent continuous variations in attributes.
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51 Section 3: Map Data; Part B: Data Fundamentals—Spatial Data Geometry
Vector-based geometry, three fundamental types:
Points Lines Polygons
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Section 3: Map Data; Part B: Data Fundamentals—Spatial Data Geometry
Vector-based: Points . Points have location but no extent . Point data represent: • Features in the real world that have a negligible spatial extent (e.g., mountain peaks, instrument sample sites) • Features that have non-trivial spatial extents but which can be represented logically as singular, discrete locations (e.g., fire hydrants, cities on small-scale maps)
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52 Section 3: Map Data; Part B: Data Fundamentals—Spatial Data Geometry
Vector-based: Lines . Strings of connected points . Line data represent: • Features that have a linear geometry (e.g., streets, river courses, geologic faults) • Demarcations (boundaries) between adjacent areas of distinctly different character or value (e.g., a shoreline) • Iso-values (e.g., elevation contours)
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Section 3: Map Data; Part B: Data Fundamentals—Spatial Data Geometry
Vector-based: Polygons . Areas that are completely enclosed by lines whose beginning and end points coincide . Polygon data represent: • Features that have areal geometry and whose spatial extents each comprise a singular entity (e.g., a building footprint, a political jurisdiction, a geologic or soil type)
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53 Section 3: Map Data; Part B: Data Fundamentals—Spatial Data Geometry
Vector vs. Raster
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Section 3: Map Data; Part B: Data Fundamentals
Feature Attributes: Qualitative vs. Quantitative
Quantitative attributes are numerical values. Here, for example, Qualitative attributes are the population, number of households, descriptive characteristics of and number of housing units per a feature. Here, for example, census block group. school type.
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54 Section 3: Map Data
C. Data Acquisition and Capture The scope of work defines the data to be used
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Section 3: Map Data; Part C: Data Acquisition and Capture
How and where to get data . Request data from clients . Download data from public agencies, universities, libraries, commercial vendors, etc. may be free or available for purchase . Buy packaged GIS data . Purchase paper maps . Access enterprise and project data internally . Access online map and feature services . Capture your own data
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55 Section 3: Map Data; Part C: Data Acquisition and Capture
Methods for developing your own data . Digitize paper maps; Scan and vectorize paper maps . Heads-up digitize from on-screen maps and imagery . Record GPS and other mobile GIS points and tracks; Input associated attributes . Convert tabular data; Geocode addresses or latitude/longitude coordinates . Develop/Run image-analysis algorithms.
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Section 3: Map Data
D: Metadata—What is Metadata? . Information that describes the characteristics of a data or information resource. . The who, what, when, where, and why about data.
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56 Section 3: Map Data; Part D: Metadata
What is metadata? A geospatial metadata record includes: . Core library catalog information, such as title, abstract, and publication details . Spatial information, such as geographic extent and projection specifications . Database information
See: www.fgdc.gov/metadata
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Section 3: Map Data; Part D: Metadata
Why metadata? . Helps the cartographer choose valid and appropriate data . Helps the mapmaker apply the data properly and effectively . Helps users understand the focus and appropriate uses of the map
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57 Section 3 Summary Map Data A. What Is Map Data? Definition B. Data Fundamentals Spatial Geometry Feature Attributes C. Data Acquisition and Capture D. Metadata
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Section 4 Making the Map
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Section 4 Overview Making the Map 1. Conceptualization 2. Project Planning (covered in Section 1) 3. Design 4. Production 5. Editing and Quality Control 6. Output and Reproduction
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Part 1. Conceptualization . Describe the information to be conveyed . Define the audience . Formulate the message . Imagine and describe how the information could be conveyed in map form
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Describe the information to be conveyed . What is the primary information? . What other information will you be including? . Of all the information to be contained in the map, which is content—the message, and which is context—i.e., the spatial context (base map)? . What are your data sources and what are the characteristics of your data?
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Define the audience . How broad or narrow is your audience? . How refined are your audiences map- reading skills? . Does your audience have specialized knowledge of the map subject? . Is your audience prone to any physical or technological restrictions? . Where is your audience and how will they access the map?
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Formulate the message . Why are you making the map? . Is the map intended to show or to persuade? . Do you understand what the map is supposed communicate? . Can you state the purpose of the map in words? . What will you title your map?
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Imagine and describe how the infor- mation could be conveyed in map form . What is an appropriate map scale? . What technologies & techniques would best handle the data inputs and representation. . What are your skill sets & production tools? . What display, output, and/or reproduction modes can you employ? Which one(s) are practical, and which will best serve your audience?
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Part 2. Project Planning (from Section 1) . Define the scope of work . Develop a work estimate . Assemble a project budget . Lay out a timeline . Commit to the project
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Part 3. Map Design . The Purpose of Design . Map Design Steps . Map Symbology . Map Design Considerations . Characteristics of Effective Design (see the Appendix, slides 278-283)
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The Purpose of Design The core design task of the cartographer is to create an encoded version of the real world in the compact, abstract form of a map.
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Effective design ensures that the reader can decode the map to accurately discern its purpose and message.
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. Design represents intent. . A map design represents a series of intentional choices and decisions that support the purpose and message of the map. . The cartographer should be able to explain and defend those choices and decisions.
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Map Design Steps The ability to design a successful map depends on an understanding of what is desired and what is possible. A. Assess the purpose of the map B. Identify available resources C. Identify project constraints D. Develop and specify a production process E. Develop and document the cartographic design
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A. Assess the purpose . Define the message. . Define the audience. . Define the map project goals. . Specify the final product.
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A. Assess the purpose Example: a different purpose can result in two very different maps of the same area.
Public lands map Highway map
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B. Identify available resources . Tools . Data / information sources . Personnel / available skills and experience . Production resources, for example: • templates • symbol collections • style guides • script libraries
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C. Identify project constraints . Client preferences and requirements . Budget and schedule . Data limitations • availability • accuracy, precision, reliability . Resource limitations . Standards, styles, and conventions . Output media
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D. Develop and specify a production process Good design includes choices about the most efficient ways to construct a particular map. . Map design choices influence production techniques. . Conversely, the available map production environment constrains design.
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E. Develop and document the cartographic design . Develop / create symbology • develop design samples / mock-ups / prototypes • create project resources, e.g., symbol styles, map templates, etc. . Documenting the design specifications and project resources ensures that the effort is transferrable and repeatable without having to re-invent everything.
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Map Symbology: The Visual Language of Maps . The principal vehicle for conveying information on a map is its symbology. . The cartographer uses a map and its symbology to represent the real world in a way that reveals and communicates spatial aspects, attributes, patterns, and other characteristics of a place, especially those that are not readily discernable through direct observation.
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There is a correspondence between spatial data and map symbols Spatial Data (is repre- Map Symbols (represent sented by map symbols) spatial data) • spatial geometry: • graphic geometry: feature location and shape symbol location and shape are captured and defined in are drawn in a map space a geographic space • feature attributes: • graphic attributes: feature characteristics are symbol characteristics are recorded as text or assigned to represent text numbers or numbers
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There is a correspondence between spatial data geometry and map symbol geometry.
Spatial data have discrete, precise geometry
Map symbols have represen- tative geometry which is modi- fied by graphic attributes
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Graphic symbol types . Vector-based (discrete geometry; for representing vector data) • Points • Lines • Areas (circles/ellipses, polygons) . Grid-based (AKA, raster- or pixel-based; for representing raster data) . Text (typography; for representing or supplementing data attributes)
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Graphic symbol attributes . Shape / Pattern . Size . Color Text symbol attributes . Typeface, font, and style . Label size . Label color
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Use shape and pattern variations To indicate and differentiate qualitative attributes. • Point features ─ range from simple geometric shapes to highly pictorial icons • Linear features ─ simple, compound, or patterned lines ─ icons attached to lines as markers • Area features ─ areal patterns
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Point symbol shape variations
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Line symbol shape & pattern variations
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Area symbol pattern variations
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Use size variations . To represent quantitative attributes, e.g., population values, flow volumes, or earthquake intensity. . To establish a hierarchy among a related set of features, such as highway types, regional vs. branch business offices, or branched networks (e.g., rivers and streams). This is often accomplished with coordinated variations in shape and/or color.
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Size variations (continued) . Some mapping software will support sizing symbols according to data attribute values. . If a range of fixed symbol sizes is used, make the sizes proportional to the numerical class groupings of the data.
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Symbol size variations
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Color Theory: The stuff that mapmakers ought to know Color theory is a complex subject that goes beyond the scope of this workshop. The following slides are designed to cover key facts about color that mapmakers should know in order to use color wisely. Refer to the bibliography for additional information and resources.
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Characteristics & limitations of color . The physical stimulus for what we see as color is light at particular wavelengths striking receptors in our eyes. . Factors that determine the colors that we see include: • sources of illumination • technology of direct image display • material that light passes through • material that light is reflected from
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The basic color component model: HSV Individual colors can be selected from a palette, like picking crayons from a box. But most mapping and graphic software allows the user to individually adjust the three basic components of color. . Hue is determined by the dominant wavelengths of light that we see; it corresponds to the names we give colors, such as red, purple, green, etc. Think rainbow colors—the whole range of visible light. . Saturation is how vivid a color is; where it falls on the range from full hue to no hue (gray). . Value is how light or dark a color is.
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The Hue, Saturation, and Value Model
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Color display models 1. RGB = Red–Green–Blue . aka Additive color . RGB is an illumination model, i.e., colors are formed by adding light of different colors together. Equal amounts of the primary colors red, green, and blue add up to white. . Video displays use RGB.
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Color display models 1. RGB = Red–Green–Blue
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Color display models 2. CMYK = Cyan–Magenta–Yellow–Black . aka Subtractive color . CMYK is a reflective model, i.e., colors are formed by the absorption of light reflected by cyan, magenta, and yellow inks, dyes, pigments, toners, etc. We see the part that isn’t absorbed, which is a mixture of red, green, and blue light. . Printing technology uses CMYK. ⃰ Black (K) is included because cyan, magenta, and yellow alone cannot produce a true rich black.
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Color display models 2. CMYK = Cyan–Magenta–Yellow–Black
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Color display models
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78 Section 4: Making the Map; Part 3: Map Design—Symbology Mapmakers Color Spaces and Gamut Beware! . Color space • the full range of colors described by a particular color model . Gamut (or device color space) • the range of colors within a color space that a given display or printer can produce . The “Gotcha”—color gamuts vary widely from device to device • chosen colors may shift dramatically • chosen colors may not be printable
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Mapmakers Beware! Color Spaces and Gamut
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Characteristics & limitations of color (2) . Factors that affect how we perceive color include: • color context: adjacent and surrounding colors • the physical composition and texture of materials and surfaces, e.g., coated vs. uncoated papers, inks vs. dyes vs. toners, etc. • physiological differences from person to person, especially and most dramatically, varieties of color vision deficiency, i.e., color blindness • cultural interpretations of color
more: slides 267-272
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Using color variations . Clearly detectable differences in symbol color can represent qualitative differences, quantitative classes, or ordered hierarchies. . Continuous variations in color across an area or surface can represent continuously variable quantities, such as, elevations and depths, temperature ranges, or population density. . Use color for contrast. . Color variations are especially useful for enhancing variations in symbol shape and size.
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Using color variations
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Using color
Green Ink Have you ever seen The green ink That comes In dots And spots And lots of odd-shaped woodlot plots On topographic maps of places Clogging up the soggy spaces And the steep unpeopled traces Where the air is sometimes clean? —Dan
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Map Typography: Text as Symbol Letterforms possess the graphic attributes of shape, size, and color, all of which can be manipulated, as they are with other map symbology, to serve a variety of functions, such as: . Conveying qualitative, quantitative, or hierarchical information about map features. . Increasing legibility through enhanced contrast. . Controlling emphasis (increase or decrease). . Contributing to the overall visual appeal of the map.
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Map Typography: Text as Symbol Typography is the design, construction, and use of type. Some basic terminology: • character (or glyph) ─ The basic unit of type; can be a letter, a numeral, a punctuation mark, or a symbol. • typeface ─ A coordinated, distinctive set of graphical design elements as applied to a set of characters. • font ─ A set of characters which share a uniform subset of a typeface’s design elements, such as size and weight. • font family ─ A collection of fonts, each of which represents a distinct variation of the same typeface.
more: slides 271-273
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Character Shape: Type Styles Most typefaces fall into one of many styles that are classified according to the general construction and appearance of their characters. Common styles are serif, sans serif (i.e., without serifs), and decorative (or ornamental).
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Character Shape: Typefaces
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Character Shape: Fonts and Families
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Typeface and Font Choice Selecting typefaces for a map is more of an art than a science. The tips and guidelines on the next several slides can help the mapmaker make good choices.
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Unless a map is intended to be used primarily as an artistic illustration, the best typefaces to use have simple, clean designs, fairly uniform character weight, and high legibility.
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Typefaces that have many font variations are especially useful for maps, because the variations can be used to label different types of features while maintaining a coordinated look.
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Pay attention to the subtleties of a typeface that can affect the legibility of type on a map, for example, the height and openness of the lower case letters.
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. Due to the vast range of typeface designs, characters from different typefaces that have the same nominal point size may have very different apparent sizes. . The width of a word or length of a line of text can also vary dramatically depending on the typeface.
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The legibility of a typeface can vary dramatically between screen display and printed output. Some typefaces have been designed for optimal legibility on-screen, and should be considered if a map will be viewed primarily on-screen.
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More tips… . Choosing from among the standard fonts that are installed on most computers can help ensure the portability of your digital maps as they are shared or distributed to other staff and clients, or if they are to be displayed or hosted on other computers. However, this might severely limit your creative choices. . When choosing commercial type fonts, be aware of whether licensing restrictions will allow you to share the fonts or embed them in your digital map files.
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More tips… . It is accepted practice to use more than one typeface family on a map to provide a variety of labeling options. For example, a sans serif typeface usually makes the best choice for street names. On the same map, a serif typeface might be a good choice to provide contrasting and distinctive labels for cities, parks, and other cultural features. . A good rule of thumb is to use no more than one serif and one sans serif face on a map or in a map series. A third typeface, such as a decorative one, might be used sparingly for special uses, such as titles.
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Sample of typeface variety on a map
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Labeling features: Size tips . Label size can be varied to represent a quantitative aspect of the labeled features. For example, city names could be sized in relation to city population. . Varying the label size for polygon features that have a wide range of areas, such as water bodies, will maintain pleasingly balanced proportions of label size relative to feature size.
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Labeling features: Size tips
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Labeling features: Size tips . A commonly cited rule of thumb for minimum type size is that most people cannot read type smaller than 4-point. Even so, 4-point type is a real challenge for most people, especially within the visual clutter inherent in most maps, and definitely in low-light situations. 6-point is a safer minimum. . For a very crowded map, decide which labels must be large for easy, quick recognition and high legibility, and which labels you might be able to reduce. The information will still be accessible, but will intrude less on the main content and message.
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Labeling features: Color tips . Apply color to labels to: ─ represent a qualitative aspect of the labeled features ─ enhance the visual association between features and their labels . Choose colors for good contrast with: ─ map backgrounds (colors and patterns) ─ features the labels might cross . Highest legibility = black text on white background
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Labeling features: Color tips
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Labeling features: Placement tips . Readability is enhanced by consistent label placement. Like features should be labeled in a like manner. . Readability is impaired if labels are placed ambiguously. Make sure the reader can tell which feature the label is referring to. . Use increased letterspacing and word spacing carefully and sparingly. In general, words and lines of text that are spaced out are harder to read compared to standard spacing.
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. When aligning multiple labels of the same kind with map features, such as street names, try to keep the direction of rotation consistent within the map, or at least within regions of the map. For example, have street names read consistently from bottom to top and left to right. . Do not rotate labels past 90-degrees unless it just can’t be avoided.
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. Positioning text along curved lines to label broad features can artfully enhance the look of a map. But it can look bad if the spacing of the characters isn’t controlled well. . Avoid allowing text labels to overprint point symbols, and vice versa. Do not allow text labels to overprint other text labels.
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Type for map marginalia . Use the same typeface(s) that are used for the map labeling, or at least compatible ones. . Follow a consistent style for headings, capitalization, paragraph justification, etc. . Give your text plenty of breathing room (white space). . Don’t set extremely long lines of text. A good rule of thumb is a maximum length of about 60 characters. . Create a hierarchy of information by varying text size, body weight, vertical white space, etc., but make sure the hierarchy is logical and the variety limited.
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Map Design Considerations . Figure/ground relationships . Color palettes . Hierarchy, contrast, and proportion . Subjective representation of data . Standards and conventions . Factors in human visual perception . Layout considerations . Media considerations and limitations
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Figure/ground relationships
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Figure/ground relationships
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Color palettes
• Limited or broad? • Bright, saturated, and vivid, or soft and subdued? • Conventional? e.g., blues for water • Associative? e.g., greens for vegetation • Symbolic? e.g., reds for high temperature • Abstract? e.g., purple for soil type
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Hierarchy, contrast, and proportion
• Is there a clear hierarchy of streets and highways? • Why is Woodinville emphasized and Bothell not? • Do the colors and shapes make the point symbols easy to differentiate? • Do the street names, icon text labels, park names, and other text labels seem suitably proportionate to one another? • Is the hillshading too light? Too dark? • Can you easily spot the Sammamish River Trail?
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Subjective representation of data . Design choices about hierarchy, contrast, proportion, and other design factors reflect subjective judgments that influence the map reader’s interpretation and understanding of map data/content. . Are your choices fair and defensible? Are your choices misleading?
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Subjective representation of data example: classification method
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Standards and conventions . General cartographic conventions . Thematic conventions . Company or agency standards and styles
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Factors in human visual perception . Empirically demonstrated factors that influence legibility . Visual limitations and impairment, especially color vision deficiency, i.e., “color blindness” . Cultural factors
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Layout principles . Figure/ground relationships . Eye scanning and recognition . Alignment . Proportion . Density . Overall interrelationship of parts
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Media characteristics and constraints . Page size and orientation . Display devices and reproduction modes • LCD (and other video) screens, desktop and mobile • laser, thermal, and inkjet printers • offset lithography . Storage, publishing, and distribution • digital: file formats • analog: papers, including synthetics
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Part 4. Map Production . Process: Map Production Steps . Tools . Resources
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Process: Map Production Steps . Set up the map space . Compile, prepare, and process the data . Construct the spatial elements • represent the data geometry . Apply the map symbology • represent the data attributes . Label the map features . Develop and construct the map marginalia
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Tools . GIS and mapping software • commercial • open-source • desktop • web-based, mapping in the cloud: SaaS = software as a service . Graphic design/production software • mapping plug-ins
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Resources . Data libraries: content . Software-specific and metadata design resources, such . Online map servers as style sheets, style files, color palettes, . Style guides and symbol collections, etc. standards documents . Software-specific . Symbol libraries production resources, . Font collections such as actions and scripts, code clips, etc. . Map templates and layout guides . Cartography websites and blogs
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Part 5. Editing and Quality Control . Edit for accuracy . Edit for completeness . Edit for style . Edit for effectiveness
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Edit for accuracy . Proofread the text . Check the data • Is it current? • Is it correct? . Does the legend match the map content? . Verify the scale
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Edit for completeness . Is all of the specified data included? . Is all of the data symbolized according to the design specifications? . Is the labeling complete? . Are all of the required marginalia elements present?
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Edit for style . Does the map satisfy agency or company styles? . Is the map internally consistent with regard to graphic and typographic styles? . Is the map design compatible and consistent with its publication environment? • Print publication (report, book, or other printed document type) •Website
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Edit for effectiveness . Is the map content legible? . Are the various data elements clearly distinguishable from one another; is there sufficient contrast and hierarchy throughout the map? . Does the map design reveal a particular spatial pattern or distribution? . Does the map’s title make intrinsic sense, and does it correspond to what the map actually shows? . Does the map have a clear purpose, and does the apparent purpose align with the intended purpose? more: slides 278-283
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Part 6. Output and Reproduction . Prepare the production map for its display/publishing environment . Work with other creative and technical specialists . Generate a final product . Archive project materials and files
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Prepare the production map for its display/publishing environment . Optimal color modes • RGB for screen display, e.g., web browsers and mobile apps • CMYK for offset printing . Differentiate between working content and final content . Will others, and you in the future, be able to understand and work with the contents of your map?
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Work with other creative and technical specialists . Writers . Graphic designers . Interface designers . Web designers and programmers . Application developers . Print services vendors, including digital pre-press specialists
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Generate a final product Some digital software and file formats: . GIF, JPEG, PNG image files for web and mobile apps . PDF for scalable online viewing, for downloading, and for printing (including geospatial PDF) . Commercial software formats for various types of intermediate and final output, such as Esri ArcGIS (map services for online map viewers and applications) and Adobe Illustrator (pre-press proofing and plate making)
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Generate a final product (cont.) Commonly used printing methods: . Digital desktop printers (laser, thermal, inkjet) . Large-format inkjet printers . High-volume direct digital printing . Offset lithography
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Archive project materials and files Plan and preserve for multiple use, revision, and re-use of maps to maximize and extend the initial investment. . Publish in multiple formats and media . Anticipate re-publishing after data updates and revisions occur
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Section 4 Summary Making the Map 1. Conceptualization 2. Project Planning (covered in Section 1) 3. Design 4. Production 5. Editing and Quality Control 6. Output and Reproduction
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Workshop Developer King County GIS Center Seattle, Washington
Lead Author Patrick Jankanish
Authors Greg Babinski, GISP Lisa Castle Dennis Higgins, GISP Mary Ullrich Cheryl Wilder, GISP
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107 URISA Workshop Reviewers •David Baron • David Lanter • Jefferey A. Murphey • Jon Stahl • Jennifer Weisser • Alexandra Fredericks
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Selected Bibliography
Brewer, Cynthia A. Designing Better Maps: A Guide for GIS Raisz, Erwin. Principles of Cartography. New York: Users. Redlands, CA: Esri Press, 2005. McGraw-Hill, 1962. Designed Maps: A Sourcebook for GIS Users. Redlands, Robinson, Arthur H., Morrison, Joel L., Muehrcke, Phillip C., CA: Esri Press, 2008 Kimerling, A. Jon, and Guptill, Stephen C. Elements of Campbell, John. Introductory Cartography. Englewood Cartography. 6th rev. ed. Hoboken, N. J.: John Wiley & Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1984. Sons, 1995. Dent, Borden D. Cartography: Thematic Map Design. 2nd Sebert, L. M. Every Square Inch: The Story of Canadian rev. ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1990. Topographic Mapping. Ottawa: Department of Energy, Harmon, Katherine. You Are Here: Personal Geographies Mines and Resources – Surveys and Mapping Branch, and Other Maps of the Imagination. New York: Princeton 1970. Architectural Press, 2004. Slocum, Terry A., McMaster, Robert B., Kessler, Fritz C., Krygier, John, and Wood, Denis. Making Maps: A Visual and Howard, Hugh H. Thematic Cartography and Guide to Map Design for GIS. New York: The Guilford Geovisualization. 3rd rev. ed. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Press, 2005. Prentice-Hall, 2008. Menno-Jan, Kraak, and Brown, Allan, ed. Web Cartography: Tufte, Edward R. Envisioning Information. Cheshire, CT: Developments and Prospects. New York: Taylor and Graphics Press, 1990. Francis, 2001. Visual Explanations: Images and Quantities, Evidence Monmonier, Mark. How to Lie with Maps. Chicago: The and Narrative. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press, 1997. University of Chicago Press, 1991. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Cheshire, Peterson, Gretchen N. GIS Cartography: A Guide to CT: Graphics Press, 1999. Effective Map Design. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Turchi, Peter. Maps of the Imagination: The Writer as 2009. Cartographer. San Antonio, TX: Trinity University Press, Cartographer’s Toolkit: Colors, Typography, Patterns. 2004. Fort Collins, CO: PetersonGIS Press, 2012. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. Map Projections. egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/MapProjections/projections.html
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108 Selected Internet Resources Cartography Resources Design Tools Cartographica, The International Journal for Geographic Coblis—Color Blindness Simulator, http://paletton.com Information and Geovisualization ColorBrewer, a web tool for selecting color for maps http://www.utpjournals.press/loi/cart colorbrewer2.org NACIS, North American Cartographic Information Society Paletton.com (formerly Color Scheme Designer), a general- http://nacis.org/ purpose web tool for selecting color schemes (RGB based) Cartographic Perspectives, NACIS journal http://paletton.com http://nacis.org/initiatives/cartographic-perspectives/ TypeBrewer, a web tool for selecting type for maps The British Cartographic Society www.cartography.org.uk typebrewer.org The Cartographic Journal, the official journal of the British Typetester, online tool for comparing on-screen display of type Cartographic Society, fonts (free, but account required) www.typetester.org http://www.cartography.org.uk/product/the-cartographic-journal/ Data Sources Cartotalk, A Public Forum for Cartography and Design www.cartotalk.com Data.gov, U.S. Federal government data portal (filter by geospatial, topic, location, etc.) catalog.data.gov Esri ArcGIS Blog: Mapping and Visualization https://blogs.esri.com/esri/arcgis/category/mapping/ GeoGratis, Natural Resources Canada geospatial data portal geogratis.gc.ca Books Living Atlas of the World, Esri, a broad collection of online Cartography – an introduction, The British Cartographic maps, layers, scenes, apps, and tools livingatlas.arcgis.com Society http://www.cartography.org.uk/product/cartography-an-introduction/ NCEI, NOAA’s National Centers for Environmental Information GIS Cartography: A Guide to Effective Map Design and (formerly the National Geophysical Data Center, NGDC) Cartographer’s Toolkit: Colors, Typography, Patterns, www.ngdc.noaa.gov Gretchen Peterson gretchenpeterson.com The National Map, “A collaborative effort among the USGS and Mark Monmonier, cartography professor, editor, and author of other Federal, State, and local partners to improve and deliver books on mapping, including, How to Lie with Maps, Spying topographic information for the Nation” With Maps, and Cartographies of Danger http://nationalmap.gov/ www.markmonmonier.com OpenData.arcgis.com, a clearinghouse for spatial data from all Making Maps, A Visual Guide to Map Design for GIS, Third over the world shared through the Esri ArcGIS.com Open Data Edition, John Krygier and Denis Wood makingmaps.net/book/ platform opendata.arcgis.com USGS map and data products https://www.usgs.gov/products/maps/overview
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Contact
Patrick Jankanish [email protected]
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109 Appendix Supplemental Slides
©2019 Urban and Regional Information Systems Association
Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map, 2. Project Planning (supplement to Slide 36)
Define the scope of work . Roles & Responsibilities • Client staff – project manager – technical/subject-matter lead – project staff
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110 Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map, 2. Project Planning (supplement to Slide 36)
Define the scope of work . Roles & Responsibilities • Cartography staff – project manager – lead cartographer – lead designer – data specialists – programming specialists – production staff – QA/QC lead
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map, 2. Project Planning (supplement to Slide 36)
Define the scope of work . Deliverables • Project planning documents – work plan – project management plan – communications plan – QA/QC plan – progress/status reports
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111 Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map, 2. Project Planning (supplement to Slide 36)
Define the scope of work . Deliverables • Content deliverables – client-supplied map data (optional) – client-supplied collateral content (optional) – map prototype(s) – map draft(s) – client mark-up(s) – final approval map(s) – finished map product
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map, 2. Project Planning (supplement to Slide 37)
Develop a work estimate . Project phases and tasks — What has to be accomplished? • “project decomposition” into tasks and subtasks • design versus execution • pilot project / prototype(s) / proof of concept • review cycle(s) • client role: expectations and participation • project management
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112 Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map, 2. Project Planning (supplement to Slide 37)
Develop a work estimate . Time — How long will it take to accomplish all of the tasks? • based on detailed work breakdown structure and task list • based on record of past projects • based on past staff performance • based on project staff resource loading • get buy-in from the project team
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map, 2. Project Planning (supplement to Slide 38)
Develop a budget . Develop a base budget • most simply: the base budget cost will equal the number of estimated hours multiplied by an hourly rate • based on detailed work breakdown structure and task list • based on project staff resource loading (different hourly rates for different staff members) • based on deliverables: include the cost of all materials used to generate the deliverables
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113 Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map, 2. Project Planning (supplement to Slide 38)
Develop a budget . Calculate risk • develop a risk likelihood for each task (high, medium, low) • develop a potential risk for each task (10 hours, 50 hours, 200 hours, etc.) • calculate risk (hours/dollars) for all tasks – this will be your contingency • add management reserve . Develop a final, fully loaded budget • add contingency, management reserve, and other costs (such as, travel, equipment usage, profit, etc.) to the base budget
227 ©2019 Urban and Regional Information Systems Association Cartography and Map Design
Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map, 2. Project Planning (supplement to Slide 38)
Develop a budget
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114 Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map, 2. Project Planning (supplement to Slide 38)
Develop a budget . Risk Management • Known Knowns • Known Unknowns • Unknown Unknowns
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map, 2. Project Planning (supplement to Slide 38)
Develop a budget
Known Knowns Known Unknowns
Unknown Unknowns 230 ©2019 Urban and Regional Information Systems Association Cartography and Map Design
115 Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map, 2. Project Planning (supplement to Slide 39)
Develop a timeline . Considerations in projecting the estimated workload over time • realistic expectations of staff availability – other project commitments – planned time off – allowance for unplanned absences – overtime availability • production down-time during client review cycles • tasks that can occur in parallel • critical path and task/deliverable dependencies
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Section 1: The Cartographic Process; Part B: The Process of Making a Map, 2. Project Planning (supplement to Slide 40)
Commit to the project . Submit a proposal and/or negotiate a contract • include a narrative of the full scope of work in your proposal • include an itemized list of deliverables • include a timeline • include enough budget detail for the client to have confidence in the value of the service and products to be provided • if price negotiation occurs, do not deviate from your budget estimate without making realistic adjustments to your budget inputs, such as reductions in the scope of work • defend and protect your contingency and management reserve; if possible, negotiate risk with the client
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116 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slide 60)
Projection Characteristics Preservation of Shape (Conformality)
. Referred to as conformal or orthomorphic . At any point the scale is the same in every direction . Shapes of small areas are preserved, but shapes of large areas are distorted • meridians intersect parallels at right angles • although scale is the same in all directions from any point, scale varies across the map • areas are distorted • distortion increases away from the map’s point or line of true scale
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slide 61)
Projection Characteristics Preservation of Area (Equivalency)
. Referred to as Equal-Area . Areas of all regions on the map are shown in the same proportion to their true areas • angles and shapes are distorted • distortion increases away from the map’s point or line of true scale
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117 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slide 62)
Projection Characteristics Preservation of Distance
. Referred to as Equidistant . Distances from the central point of the projection to all other points are true • for some equidistant projections there is more than one point from which distances are true • when the projection is centered on a pole, the parallels are spaced in proportion to their true distance along each meridian
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slide 63)
Projection Characteristics Preservation of Direction
. The angular directions from the central point to other points along a straight line are true • true direction is not preserved for other pairs of points • when the projection is centered on a pole, the meridians are spaced at their true angles, and are straight radii of concentric circles which represent the parallels
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118 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 67– 69)
Projection Classes: Cylindrical . The globe is projected onto a cylinder that is wrapped around the globe. • The cylinder is tangent to the globe, usually along the equator, or it cuts through the globe, resulting in two lines of intersection (e.g., Gall’s projection intersects the globe at 45 degrees north and south latitude). • The cylinder is usually aligned with the axis of the globe, but it may be transverse.
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 67– 69)
Cylindrical Projections: Mercator
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119 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 67– 69)
Cylindrical Projections: Mercator
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 67– 69)
Cylindrical Projections: Miller Cylindrical
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120 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 67– 69)
Cylindrical Projections: Miller Cylindrical
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 67– 69)
Cylindrical Projections: Transverse Mercator
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121 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 67– 69)
Cylindrical Projections: Transverse Mercator
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 67– 69)
Cylindrical Projections: Cylindrical Equal Area
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122 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 67– 69)
Cylindrical Projections: Pseudocylindrical / Robinson
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 67– 69)
Cylindrical Projections: Pseudocylindrical / Robinson
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123 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 70– 71)
Projection Classes: Conic . The globe is projected onto a cone that is tangent along a line in the mid-latitudes, or intersects the globe along two parallel lines. • Generally, the axis of the cone is aligned with the axis of the globe, but this is not always the case. • If the tangent is the equator, then the cone becomes a cylinder (cylindrical projection); if it is at a pole, then the cone becomes a plane (azimuthal projection).
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 70– 71)
Conic Projections: Albers Equal-Area Conic
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124 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 70– 71)
Conic Projections: Albers Equal-Area Conic
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 70– 71)
Conic Projections: Lambert Conformal Conic
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125 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 70– 71)
Conic Projections: Lambert Conformal Conic
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 70– 71)
Projection Classes: Polyconic . The globe is projected onto multiple nested cones. • Neither conformal nor equal-area. • The central meridian is a straight line; other meridians are complex curves that are equally spaced. The equator is a straight line; other parallels are non-concentric circular arcs representing the arc of the cone that is tangent at that latitude.
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126 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 72– 74)
Projection Classes: Azimuthal . The globe is projected onto a plane. • The plane may be tangent to the globe or it may intersect the globe. • Great circles that pass through the center are represented as straight lines with correct bearings. • There are three types of aspects or cases: polar, oblique, and equatorial
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 72– 74)
Azimuthal Projections: Orthographic
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127 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 72– 74)
Azimuthal Projections: Orthographic
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 72– 74)
Azimuthal Projections: Gnomonic
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128 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 72– 74)
Azimuthal Projections: Gnomonic
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 72– 74)
Azimuthal Projections: Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area
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129 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 72– 74)
Azimuthal Projections: Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 72– 74)
Azimuthal Projections: Azimuthal Equidistant
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130 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slides 72– 74)
Azimuthal Projections: Azimuthal Equidistant
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slide 75)
Unclassified and Unique Projections . Highly specialized for specific uses . Some are attempts to mitigate distortions inherent in other map projections . Some are novelties
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131 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slide 76)
Projected Coordinate Systems . Universal Transverse Mercator • Not a single projection; rather a series of 60 specifically defined secant transverse Mercator projections 6 degrees of longitude in width • Capable of mapping a large north-south region with minimal distortion • A location is referenced by UTM zone, northing, and easting
263 ©2019 Urban and Regional Information Systems Association Cartography and Map Design
Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slide 76)
Projected Coordinate Systems . State Plane • 126 geographic zones in the U.S. • Uses a Cartesian coordinate system, simplifying surveying and calculations • Highly accurate within each zone • Most are based on either a Transverse Mercator or a Lambert Conformal Conic projection, which depends on whether the state is longer in the north–south or the east–west direction
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132 Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slide 78)
Datum: Why it matters Magnitude of horizontal shift between NAD 83 and NAD 27 in seconds of arc across the United States
latitude shift longitude shift
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Section 2: Map Fundamentals; Part A: The Spatial Aspect of Maps (supplement to Slide 78)
Datum: Why it matters Magnitude of vertical shift between NAVD 88 and NGVD 29 in centimeters across the United States
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133 Section 4: Making the Map; Part 3: Map Design—Symbology (supplement to Slide 159)
Characteristics & limitations of color (2)
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Section 4: Making the Map; Part 3: Map Design—Symbology (supplement to Slide 159)
Characteristics & limitations of color (2)
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134 Section 4: Making the Map; Part 3: Map Design—Symbology (supplement to Slide 159)
Characteristics & limitations of color (2)
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Section 4: Making the Map; Part 3: Map Design—Symbology (supplement to Slide 159)
Characteristics & limitations of color (2)
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135 Section 4: Making the Map; Part 3: Map Design—Symbology (supplement to Slide 159)
Characteristics & limitations of color (2)
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Section 4: Making the Map; Part 3: Map Design—Symbology (supplement to Slide 159)
Characteristics & limitations of color (2)
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136 Section 4: Making the Map; Part 3: Map Design—Symbology (supplement to Slide 164)
Typography: Typesetting . When setting type digitally, the mapmaker will usually manipulate a variety of typographic settings, including but not limited to the following. • The unit of measure used to indicate the height of characters in a font is the point, which equals 1/72-inch. • The vertical space between lines within a block of text is called leading. • To increase or decrease the letterspacing for a string of text is to add or subtract space uniformly between characters (also called tracking). • Kerning is the space between individual character pairs.
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Section 4: Making the Map; Part 3: Map Design—Symbology (supplement to Slide 164)
Typography: Typesetting
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137 Section 4: Making the Map; Part 3: Map Design—Symbology (supplement to Slide 164)
Typography: Typesetting
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Section 4: Making the Map; Part 3: Map Design—Design Considerations (supplement to Slides 187–188)
Figure/ground relationships
What is the figure and what is the ground?
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138 Section 4: Making the Map; Part 3: Map Design—Design Considerations (supplement to Slides 187–188)
Figure/ground relationships
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Section 4: Making the Map; Part 3: Map Design—Design Considerations (supplement)
Characteristics of Effective Design 1. Attractive 2. Legible 3. Unambiguous 4. Efficient / Restrained 5. Appropriate
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139 Section 4: Making the Map; Part 3: Map Design—Design Considerations, Characteristics of Effective Design (supplement)
1. Attractive The map evokes an aesthetic response that is strong enough to make the intended audience want to pick it up and look at it.
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Section 4: Making the Map; Part 3: Map Design—Design Considerations, Characteristics of Effective Design (supplement)
2. Legible . The map is not too complex or dense for the subject matter or the available map space— it doesn’t try to do too much. . The symbology is distinct, and it is keyed to a sufficiently populated, well-organized legend. . The map symbols are clearly and logically differentiated from one another.
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140 Section 4: Making the Map; Part 3: Map Design—Design Considerations, Characteristics of Effective Design (supplement)
3. Unambiguous . Variations in graphic and text styles are meaningful and consistent. . Map colors and patterns can be matched readily to the corresponding patches in the legend.
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Section 4: Making the Map; Part 3: Map Design—Design Considerations, Characteristics of Effective Design (supplement)
4. Restrained and Efficient . The reader’s attention is focused on the information and its message rather than the design. . Every graphic element serves a purpose (which may include calling attention to the map in a holistic sense—attractive design serves a purpose, but it is not usually the purpose of a map).
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5. Appropriate . The symbol choices and overall design support the purpose of the map. . The map symbology doesn’t distort or misrepresent the data it represents. . Conventions and standards are adhered to when they are applicable and when they are not countermanded by some other logical, defensible purpose, e.g., color water areas blue.
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