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Critical Inquiry on the Use and Value of 19Th and 20Th Century Travel Diaries for Environmental History Reconstructions in General and South Sinai in Specific

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Critical Inquiry on the Use and Value of 19Th and 20Th Century Travel Diaries for Environmental History Reconstructions in General and South Sinai in Specific Critical inquiry on the use and value of 19th and 20th century travel diaries for environmental history reconstructions in general and South Sinai in specific Caroline D. Servaes, MSc, MA Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy November 2017 93271 Words To Cedric, Celientje & Sibylle “Empty spaces - what are we living for Abandoned places - I guess we know the score On and on, does anybody know what we are looking for...” (Fragment from Queen’s “The show must go on”) i Contents List of Tables ......................................................................... vii Table of Figures ..................................................................... viii Abstract ................................................................................. ix Acknowledgements ................................................................... x Preface ................................................................................. xii Introduction ............................................................................. 2 Historical written sources of South Sinai ...................................... 4 The aim of this thesis ................................................................ 5 Data sources & context ............................................................. 6 Thesis structure ....................................................................... 7 Chapter 1 Literature review ................................................... 10 1.1. Introduction ............................................................. 10 1.2. The topics and the importance of environmental history 11 1.2.1. Current topics in environmental history ................. 11 1.2.2. Environmental and climatic strengths and challenges of the MENA ..................................................................... 13 1.2.3. Climatic and environmental challenges in South Sinai .. ........................................................................ 15 1.3. Reconstruction of environmental and climatic histories .. 20 1.3.1. Data used for the reconstruction of environmental and climatic histories ............................................................... 20 1.3.2. Available data records from the MENA ................... 22 1.3.3. The value of travel writing for the reconstruction of South Sinai’s environmental history .................................... 23 1.4. What is known about the environmental and climatic history of the MENA and South Sinai ...................................... 28 ii 1.4.1. Available information about the climatic history of the MENA ........................................................................ 28 1.4.2. The weather systems of the MENA ........................ 30 1.4.3. Environmental imaginations of the MENA ............... 33 1.4.4. The environmental & climate history of South Sinai . 36 Chapter 2 Methodology ......................................................... 40 2.1. Introduction ............................................................. 40 2.2. Locating information sources...................................... 41 2.3. Data collection ......................................................... 43 2.3.1. Textual data ....................................................... 43 2.3.2. Non-textual data: maps, photographs and art-works ... ........................................................................ 44 2.3.3. Methodological and data issues ............................. 46 2.4. Data analysis ........................................................... 48 2.4.1. Analysis of the routes .......................................... 48 2.4.2. Qualitative analysis of the environmental and climatic data ........................................................................ 51 2.4.3. Quantitative analysis of the climatic data ............... 53 2.5. Data interpretation and the role of the researcher ........ 54 Chapter 3 Traveller routes ..................................................... 56 3.1. Introduction ............................................................. 56 3.2. Biblically inspired routes ............................................ 57 3.3. Starting point for most of the travellers: Cairo ............. 59 3.4. Routes to the Monastery of St Katherine through western Sinai .............................................................................. 61 3.4.1. The western north-central route ........................... 61 3.4.2. The western south-central route ........................... 63 3.4.3. The western southern route ................................. 64 iii 3.4.4. Mount Sinai and post-Monastery routes ................. 65 3.5. Routes between the Monastery of StK and Nakhl .......... 66 3.5.1. The western central route .................................... 66 3.5.2. The eastern central route ..................................... 66 3.6. Routes between the Monastery of StK and ‘Aqaba through eastern Sinai ....................................................................... 67 3.6.1. The eastern north-central route ............................ 67 3.6.2. The eastern south-central route ............................ 68 3.6.3. The eastern southern route .................................. 69 3.7. Geographical issues with the positions of wadies in South Sinai .............................................................................. 69 3.8. Introduction to the chapters 4-7 ................................. 72 Chapter 4 Reconstruction of environmental changes through Biblical comparisons along the routes ........................................ 74 4.1. Introduction of the flora used for the environmental reconstruction of South Sinai ................................................ 74 4.2. Reconstruction of the (“Biblical”) landscape along the main routes .............................................................................. 78 4.2.1. The arrival of Moses and the Israelites and the wells of Naba and ‘Ayn Musa .......................................................... 78 4.2.2. The “Wilderness of Shur” and the area south of ‘Ayn Musa ........................................................................ 81 4.2.3. The well of Marah: ‘Ayn howara or ‘Ayn Suweira? ... 82 4.2.4. Elim and its potential candidates: Tor and the wadies Gharandel, Useit and Tayiba ............................................... 84 4.2.5. The projection of the “Encampment by the sea”, the “Wilderness of Sin” and “Rephidim” pre- and early 19th-century .. ........................................................................ 93 iv 4.2.6. The projection of the “Encampment by the sea”, the “Wilderness of Sin”, “Dophkah and Alush”, and “Rephidim” during the 19th-century ...................................................... 95 4.2.7. Mount Sinai, the encampment of the Israelites and the Burning Bush ................................................................. 105 4.2.8. How Moses and the Israelites continued from Mt Sinai to Jerusalem .................................................................. 111 4.3. Discussion ............................................................. 116 Chapter 5 Interpretation and representation of South Sinai’s landscape ......................................................................... 118 5.1. Landscape imaginations of the travellers ................... 118 5.1.1. The declensionist narrative in South Sinai ............ 118 5.1.2. The Bedouin and tree ownership ......................... 123 5.1.3. The redemption narrative in South Sinai .............. 125 5.1.4. The declensionist and redemption narratives further dismantled ..................................................................... 129 5.2. Representations of South Sinai in art, writing, and on maps ............................................................................ 131 5.2.1. Representation of South Sinai in writing............... 131 5.2.2. Representation of South Sinai in art .................... 140 5.2.3. Representation of South Sinai on maps ................ 141 5.3. Discussion & conclusion ........................................... 144 Chapter 6 Reconstruction of weather events along the routes .. 148 6.1. Introduction ........................................................... 148 6.2. Reconstruction of South Sinai’s 19th and 20th century (extreme) weather events .................................................. 150 6.2.1. Data used for the reconstruction & seasons of events .. ...................................................................... 150 6.2.2. Reconstruction of the 19th-century weather data ... 152 v 6.2.3. Reconstruction of the 20th century weather .......... 158 6.2.4. Some conclusions and thoughts on the 19th and 20th- century weather data ...................................................... 161 6.3. Indicators for weather prediction based on traveller data ... ............................................................................ 163 6.3.1. Wind direction as an indicator of khamseen and precipitation ................................................................... 164 6.3.2. Clouds and other signs of humidity in the air ........ 168 6.3.3. Temperature and remnants of snow and ice as indicator of weather events .............................................. 170 6.3.4. Visibility of weather events in the landscape ......... 172 6.4. Challenges and adaptations of travellers and Bedouin to environmental and weather ................................................ 174 6.4.1. Hot and dusty challenges
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