sign in sign up
<<
Home , Charlotte Corday, Regions of France, Thermidor (play)

REVOLUTION IN

In this chapter, you will examine the period of the , which lasted from the 1780s until the end of the century. By the end of the chapter, you will •describe life in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century France outline the social, economic, and political causes of the French Revolution describe the course of the French Revolution •compare and contrast the views of the use primary sources to identify point of view and editorial purpose construct rules for critically evaluating historical accounts read character in portraits o assess the importance of the French Revolution Emilie: A Tale of the French Revolution

This fictional story is set in during the height of the French Revolution—an event you will read about in this chapter, and one that shaped the modern world. The story captures the turbulent atmosphere of the period, when ordinary citizens would suddenly find themselves in danger because of their political beliefs. Emilie is a member of the moderate Girondist Party. As the story opens, she has just escaped execution by members of the more radical Party, who have seized control of the revolution and believe the Girondists must be put down.

milie was not alone in into the narrow passage. She Her escape was a miracle. A the darkness. The sewer heard shouts, splashing, and friend of , she was alive with animal curses—guards searching other had been sentenced to the Esounds. Fingers sewers—then only the metallic . But the tumbrel squeezing against the slimy dripping of water and the carrying her to certain death bricks, she pulled herself deeper scuffling of rats. broke an axle and collapsed.

Emilie knew it was a miracle that she had escaped the guillotine. "Where do you think you're going with my bread?" In a flash of panic, Emilie thought of the drain. She could slide down the tunnel and escape—but to what? Perhaps she could bluff. Surely a common thief would be safe from the guillotine. Boldly, she turned to face a burly older man, who was dusted with charcoal and flour. "Citizen," she said. "I was hungry. You charge too much for your goods." "Come, come, Citizen," said the man. "Thieves don't come out of the drains. You are the Girondin who escaped yesterday. Even this baker can put two and two together." Emilie looked frantically about the room, but the baker stood between her and the door. There was no escape. Emilie surrendered. Her legs gave way and she collapsed to the floor. "There are no here, The sewer was alive with sounds ... and danger. Citizen," the baker said, with a hint of impatience. "I'm not going Cheered by the other prisoners, above her. Carefully, she pushed to turn you over to the Emilie broke free, scrambled herself upward. The grate was Committee—but it is not safe for across the bridge, and jumped slightly domed, and she could you to be seen. Take your bread into the Seine. Musket-balls see quite well. In one corner, and eat. And take a jug of water. peppered the water as she swam there were sacks of flour. In There is a room behind the wood to a gaping sewer out-fall. another, Emilie could see freshly bin. Stay in there until I call you." The tunnels were baked loaves and a large water He showed Emilie into a illuminated at intervals by grates barrel. small room, its floor littered overhead. At length, Emilie lay With one hand, Emilie tested with sacks. A tiny, high window down, pulled herself into a ball, the grate. It moved easily. She let in the cool dawn light. and fell asleep. Nightmarish listened, but there were no The baker closed the door, images caused her to jump and sounds other than the soft roar of piled wood against it, and went start as she slept; beads of sweat the ovens. She pulled herself up. back to his work. Emilie pulled formed on her brow and upper Quickly she went to the water sacks into a pile and sat against lip. She woke to the sound of barrel, took a dipper and drank the wall. On the other side of the voices, and caught the faint deeply. Her thirst quenched, wall, from time to time, she odour of baking bread. Ravenous, Emilie ate broken bread from a could hear people talking. Now she saw a low opening in the basket. Then, clutching two and then, a woman would sing or wall and crawled through. loaves, she turned away. hum bits of folk song, and there Emilie saw patterned metal "Citizen," a voice called out. were the sounds of a working

52 The baker opened the the door and found Emilie with several loaves of bread. bakery. Hungrily, she ate her metal tub of steaming water, and denounced as a traitor, and bread and drank water from the a small table with brushes and a arrested. With no news of her jug. mirror. Some clothes hung on since Ventose, they assumed she Emilie dozed through the hooks nearby. For the first time, was dead. day falling, at intervals, into Anne-Marie spoke. Anne-Marie fussed a little restful, dreamless sleep. It was "You must wash and change over Emilie, straightening the early evening when she woke. quickly, citizen. Choose any shawl that she had draped The tiny window was almost dress and take another as a around the girl's shoulders, and dark. She could still hear the change. Make haste!" pushing the hair from her face. sounds of the street. Anne-Marie waited outside But they did not ask her to tell The baker returned late in the door while Emilie washed them her plans or where she was the evening, after the street and changed. Jacques had set a going. They gave her some above had grown silent. Emilie table with bread, cheese, eggs, assignats, enough for a few days heard the wood being removed, and wine. Both watched as travel. Jacques gave her an and then the door opened. She Emilie ate her meal—her first in official-looking paper. It was, he stood upright against a far wall. many hours. Anne-Marie rolled told Emilie, a pass that had In a moment, the baker came up spare clothes and stuffed belonged to his daughter, and it into the room, followed by a tall, them into a cloth bag. had been signed by Robespierre. haggard-looking woman carrying Jacques told Emilie that she With luck, it would allow her to a candle. was near the Marais, one of the leave the . "Citizen," said the baker, wealthier areas of the city, and Then they led her out the "my name is Jacques." He tilted that her escape had been widely back door. Emilie pulled the his head in the direction of the reported. A few months earlier, shawl closely over her head and woman. "Citizen Anne-Marie, he said, they probably would set off down the alley. No one my wife." The woman motioned have turned her over to the took any notice of Emilie as she Emilie to follow. police as a counter-. dodged between the carts. To all Anne-Marie led Emilie up But much had happened. Their appearances, she was just the narrow stairs to a room in daughter, whose clothes Emilie another young woman going back of the shop. Emilie saw a was wearing, had been about her business.

53 'I ■

That night, as she had on many others, she slept in a doorway, arising at the first light of dawn. She judged it was better to try her escape in the bustle of early evening, when many people were leaving the city for the . During the day, she constructed a story: She was a young wife whose husband had fought at , and she had had no news of him. She would find the army, and search for him. As evening came, Emilie joined the crowds of people moving towards the gate. She waited as revolutionary guards checked papers. As she approached the barrier, she started up a conversation with another woman and talked about The guard scrutinized Emilie's pass. the weather. She took her pass from her apron pocket. "How is it," the guard asked, question such a pass? May I not Charlotte Corday: a Girondist who assassinated a leading Jacobin, Jean-Paul "that you present a pass signed go through?" Ma rat by Citizen Robespierre? He has The guard raised the barrier. guillotine: an instrument for beheading by been arrested, and may already "Bonne chance, citizen." Emilie means of a heavy blade be dead." walked into the twilight. She tumbrel: a cart with sides, used to take Emilie's heart sank. "Citizen, was out of the city and, for the prisoners to the guillotine I asked for a pass to try to join moment, safe. ravenous: seriously hungry my husband, who is with the Ventose: the name of the sixth month in army, and I was given this one. revolution: an overthrow of the the Revolutionary Calendar government and social system of a How could I, a young wife, country, usually by force assignats: certificates of money in Revolutionary France

ACTIVITIES

1.Name some personal characteristics that allowed 4.Emilie had to concoct several stories in order to Emilie to survive her ordeal. escape execution. During periods of terror or revolution, many ordinary citizens must resort to 2.Why were the baker and his wife sympathetic to fabricating stories in order to save their families and Emilie? loved ones. Can you give any examples from other 3.Do you think Emilie was out of danger once she periods of history when this might be necessary? Is passed through the gates of Paris? Explain. it ethical to lie in these circumstances? Explain.

54

ac5StiiNiaeraLy = TIME LINA-

SEVEN YEARS' 1763 WAR ENDS

LOUIS XVI 1774 BECOMES KING

AMERICAN 1776 DECLARATION OF INDEPEN- DENCE

THE ESTATES 1784 GENERAL SUMMONED JUNE TENNIS COURT 1789 OATH eei01111i11111111111111111,1 JULY 14 FALL OF THE —'11E1111r. • 7---- i&Illsii.4“.4tiLiimit14.1.1.1101•WH•lini :41.111.11.1.1•1.411,“ ••. . • 1 E 1789 BASTILLE rdit — - - - —

Ani ALL FEUDAL IT.1:11j _ 1)11 11.11 17g9 PRIVILEGES 1 tj; ABOLISHED

lt11111H111111111111,1,111111111, OCTOBER DAYS .... . 1789

I{I 1' ...... I l ...... * . "!""'• • CIVIL 1790 CONSTITUTION 1.••••••E7:...,41•14T.104. OF THE CLERGY

FLIGHT TO 1791 VARENNES

MONARCHY 1741 OVERTHROWN

CONVENTION 179)i MEETS JAN LOUIS XVI 1791 EXECUTED

REIGN OF 1 745 TERROR BEGINS

OCT MARIE 1 7 ANTOINETTE EXECUTED JULY FALL OF 1794 ROBESPIERRE; THERM IDOR PERIOD BEGINS

DIRECTORY 1795 MEETS

Experience teaches us that, generally speaking, the most perilous moment for a bad government is when it seeks to mend its ways. -ALEXIS DE TOCQUEVILLE 0, Liberty, what crimes are committed in thy name! -, ABOUT TO BE GUILLOTINED, IN 1793

While revolutions are often beneficial in the long run, these quotations suggest that they can be difficult to endure. During periods of revolution, lack stability and many people do things they would never do under other circumstances. In this climate, sometimes turn on each other. After you finish this chapter, think about the French Revolution and the fate of people such as Madame Roland, and decide: Was the revolution worth all the suffering it caused?

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 55 • • • c • e I INTRODUCTION n Chapter 2 you read that lived lavishly, spending freely on lavishly: in an expensive England had many democratic fantastic luxuries. How did such manner; spending or owning much more than traditions before the inequality come to be? is necessary Irevolutionary period of the While France was the largest feudal system: the seventeenth century. Parliament had country in western , it was economic and social existed since Anglo-Saxon times also perhaps the most backward. The system of medieval Europe. Lords received (approximately 800-1100), and the feudal system, with privileged nobles land from the ruler and English people had never accepted the and illiterate serfs, was still a major serfs worked the land for the lord. concept of the Divine Right of Kings. part of French life. Monarchs placed illiterate: unable to read This paved the way for the reforms many restrictions on the business that eventually saw William and class—called the bourgeoisie—and privileged: having special rights and benefits not Mary cooperate with parliament and this blocked the development of the given to all people accept the English Bill of Rights. economy. The king of France was an philosophes: educated The situation was markedly absolute monarch who answered to people who had theories different in France. Here, a bloody no one but God. Very few people were about society and government revolution was required to overthrow happy about this arrangement, or absolute monarchy: rule the monarch and establish rights for about the condition of France. by a sovereign with ordinary citizens. The French In this atmosphere, the ideas of unlimited power, one who is above the law Revolution changed France forever. It some enlightened thinkers, who were also affected the rest of Europe and known as the philosophes, gradually democracy: a government that answers to the the development of democracy filtered down to all levels of society. In wishes of the people elsewhere. The revolution was not general, the philosophes opposed the unexpected. French rulers had idea of absolute monarchy, supported completely lost touch with their democracy and equality, and hated subjects. The country was heavily in injustice. These ideas would eventually debt, and taxes were high. There were take root among ordinary people. It was poor people everywhere, many only a matter of time before the spirit without hope. Yet, the upper classes of revolution would take root.

3 THE OF FRANCE rance is bordered on three sides as the RhOne, the Garonne, and the by water. It is separated from Seine, criss-cross the country, and England by the British Channel provide water and a means of Fand the Strait of Dover. On the transportation. There are many canals west coast is the Bay of Biscay, which and ports on both sides of the flows into the , and to country. the south is the Mediterranean Sea. In the seventeenth century, before France is a large country, 547 026 the French Revolution, most of the square kilometres. It has many land belonged to the aristocrats or the different regions. The climate, large royal family, who held large feudal YOU K NOWA land area, ample rainfall, and varied estates. The Catholic Church was At the pomr where England soils make it possible to grow many also a major landowner. Farming and France are separated by different crops, ranging from sugar went on as it had for centuries. Four the Strait of Dover, the beets to grapes for wine. France grows out of five people farmed for a Living distance is a mere the largest wheat crop of any western and owed the bulk of their produce to 35 kilometres. European country. Large rivers, such the seigneur, or feudal lord.

56 CHAPTER 3

uiDIBOO Testing a Hypothesis Using Maps

I n the seventeenth century, many French peasants lived (=I Lowlands in extreme poverty, while others managed to get by. Hills and plateaus There were reasons for this, some of them social and ENGLISH CHANNEL Mountains some geographic. In this Guidebook, you will look more closely at the link between geography and the AN Paris economic status of the peasants. • France has many surface land features, as HILLS B P`514 PARIS shown in Figure 3-1. One of the most fertile 4a BRITTANY areas is the northwest, especially the Paris HILLS Basin, where wheat and rye are grown. It has been estimated that a seventeenth-century French family would have needed approximately 2 hectares of land to provide enough food for themselves, pay all the required taxes and rents, and save \ft, enough seed for sowing the next year. Orchard and dairy farming took place in pockets BAY NI\ around the country. If peasants lived in the south of OF BISCAY France or in the , they might grow grapes for wine. Wine was an important cash crop. Grapes for wine thrive on the sunny slopes of hillsides in sandy, chalky soil. Deep, rich valley soils result in poor wine. 0 loo 200 km

•1 10E4, P YR F F s MEDITERRANEAN SEA • ENGLISH CHANNEL

411111 Figure 3-1 France's important physical features NI A N D Y' ‘.‘4‘

a --r- BF Peasants in wine-producing regions were \id4 A cF 4 extremely busy, tending and pruning the vines, k.#4: /V k 6,0 and harvesting the grapes during the wine- making season of October and November. Men and women picked the grapes and women carried the baskets of fruit to the manor castle. Dairying 'z Because good grape-growing land is stony, peasants in those regions grew mostly grapes and Sugar ets depended less on animals or other crops. Now consider who might have been better off in seventeenth-century France—a farmer living in the Paris Basin, or a farmer from the busy wine-

f 9 y, E NCE producing valley of ? Reread the Wine information above and look at Figures 3-1 to 3-4 before you proceed to the next section. social reasons: reasons that relate to the society in which people live

100 200 km geographic reasons: reasons that relate to the physical Wheat Rye Oats Buckwheat location in which people live cash crop: a crop that is grown for export, not to feed the Figure 3-2 France's agricultural products by population

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 57 Dt13

continued

ENGLISH CHANNEL Figure 3-3 A vineyard near the southern of Salses

MY OF BISCAY A

0 100 200 km

MI Well off el Some manage, Indigent Figure 3-4 Living standards of provincial populations in seventeenth- iN They manage others are poor 1.1 Unknown century France. This map shows the levels of wealth in the different Poor regions of France. Notice that living standards were highest on the flat — Boundary between regions of open fields and enclosures in Arthur Young's time (1787) plains at the lower reaches of major northern rivers. Limit of French border

YOUR TURN

1.a) Compare Figure 3-1, a map of France's is a proposed answer, based on actual evidence, to physical features, with Figure 3-2, a map of a question. Refer as well to the list you created by France's agricultural products by district. Then answering question 2. compare both figures with Figure 3-4, a map 4.Can you support your hypothesis using the that shows the standard of living in various materials in this feature? Remember that in order regions of France during the seventeenth to support your hypothesis, you must be able to century. say why something occurred with a good defence b) What products were grown in the poorest of certainty. regions of France? Give some reasons why farmers in these regions were poor, referring 5.With a partner, select the best statement: to to the text and maps for supporting • Our hypothesis has been supported. It is reasons. unlikely that another reason could have caused this difference in income. 2.Make a list of the conditions that might have enabled farmers to support themselves • Our hypothesis cannot be discarded. There is comfortably. some evidence that this reason caused the difference in income. 3.With a partner, develop a hypothesis that could • Our hypothesis must be modified or thrown explain why some French farmers were relatively out because other reasons for the disparity in well-off while others were very poor. A hypothesis income are evident.

58 CHAPTER 3 '71 IMO YOU KNO Farm workers in FRENCH SOCIETY IN THE seventeenth-century France paid many taxes and fees, which prevented them from SEVENTEENTH CENTURY making even a modest amount of money. For rench society had been a farms in countries such as England example, hierarchy since the early and Holland. Peasants, few of whom capitation (poll or head tax) Middle Ages. It was organized could read or write, worked hard, but dixieme(tenth of income) gabelle(salt tax) Flike a pyramid, with relatively most had little to show for their taille(direct tax) few people, the aristocrats, near the labour. Writers of the time described fees to use the lord's wine top, and many workers and serfs at the their existence as brutal. Often press, mill, and bakery bottom. The king, of course, was at victims of epidemics and famine, they the top of the pyramid. The aristocrats tended to regard life with a certain had many privileges, and paid few amount of superstition. And they had taxes. The Church was also privileged. no access to education. It had to tax peasants Peasants were forced to spend part 10 percent of their income (a tithe). of their time working on the lord's tithe: one tenth of one's annual income or property and on government projects. produce from land • IN VENOM They were forbidden to kill or drive off those animals that killed livestock THE PEASANTS or destroyed crops, because these In seventeenth-century France, most animals were often hunted by French farmers owned only small aristocrats. At times, hundreds of plots of land and still used medieval mounted aristocrats chased game farming methods. In general, their animals through planted fields. Crops farms did not produce nearly the were trampled, but the aristocrats same value in produce per hectare as owed the peasants nothing.

Figure 3-5 This painting shows the main living area of a well-off peasant family. How can you tell that they are better off than most? Look again at Figure 3-4. Where might this family live?

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 59 his gloomy account For example, you observe a cat meowing; you infer CATALOGUE CAD Tof French country life that the cat is hungry. An opinion is a belief based on was written by an what seems to be true to you. Inferences and opinions excerpt from What is it? An English agricultural are not bad, but they should still be supported with an Englishman's journal expert. There are many good evidence. during his journey to kept facts about peasant As you are reading this account and evaluating its France life—but there are also usefulness as a primary source, think about the author's Who wrote it? Arthur many inferences and point of view and his audience—the people who would opinions. An probably get the chance to read this account. Look for Young "inference" is words that show bias—despotism, for example, a word in the When? Sometime something you for harsh rule. Also examine how much information century eighteenth conclude or decide Young tried to obtain from real people. Information based on something obtained by talking to people instead of merely observing Why? To record the events you have observed. them often strengthens the reliability of a report. he witnessed

The Misery of the Trench Peasants All over the country, girls and pronouncements of YOUR TURN women are without shoes or despotism, or the 1.List the statements and/or stockings ... There is a poverty equally detestable phrases in Arthur Young's that strikes at the root of prejudices of a feudal account that are observed facts. national prosperity.... The poor nobility...? Next, list the inferences and the people seem poor indeed; the Walking up a hill, I was opinions. How many facts are children terribly ragged, if joined by a poor woman ... there compared to inferences possible worse clad than with She had seven children ... This and opinions? What does this no clothes at all ... a beautiful woman, at no great distance girl of six or seven years would have been taken for suggest about Young's account? playing with a stick, and sixty or seventy, her figure 2.Look closely at the second smiling under such a bundle of was so bent, and her face so paragraph. What emotion does rags as made my heart ache to furrowed and hardened by Young inspire in you? To whom see her ... one third of what I labour—but she said she was is he speaking? have seen of this only twenty-eight ... rtlhe seems uncultivated and nearly countrywomen of France work 3.List several points for and all of it is in misery. harder than the men, and this. against Arthur Young's account What have king's united with the more as a reliable source of ministers and parliaments and miserable labour of bringing a information. Refer to all the states to answer for, seeing new race of slaves into the information in this feature. millions of hands that would world. destroys absolutely all be industrious, idle and symmetry of person and every starving through the stupid feminine appearance.

N UUUUUUUUU a bias: favouring one and only 145 kilometres from the viewpoint without English Channel, Paris was truly the reason CITY LIFE hub of the country. Most people who Paris was the largest city in France in lived in Paris and other had the 1700s, many times larger than the recently come from the countryside in next largest city. It had a population of search of work. Unfortunately, even 600 000 people. Situated on the Seine, those who were lucky enough to have

60 CHAPTER 3 jobs—as shopkeepers, artisans, clerks, or labourers—had to spend half their incomes on food. This meant that many people were poor and lived in slums. As a result, Paris had many beggars, vagrants, and thieves. On the other hand, prosperous merchants and aristocrats displayed their extraordinary wealth without embarrassment. Because of the great influx of cash into the cities, the cost of goods rose steeply and ordinary people had to deal with inflation. Inflation eventually made flour very Figure 3-6 This early eighteenth-century laundry service and fish shop were two expensive—a great burden, because successful businesses located on the banks of the Seine. Notice how "built up" bread was the staple diet of most Paris was by 1700. Why might these businesses choose to locate on the water's French people. edge?

■ ■ ■ ■ EMEEME• regions, guilds held special privileges artisan: a craftsperson granted by the king and could control THE BOURGEOISIE inflation: a situation in how many goods were produced and which the price of goods France did have a middle class—the how much they would cost. rises quickly bourgeoisie. This group of people was Moreover, France was divided monopoly: the exclusive right to sell a product to important to the economy because into many different , each a group of people they invested in new business with its own internal tariffs and tolls. tariff: a tax ventures. The lack of decent roads and canals toll: a charge to use a road However, laws and regulations only made the situation worse. France or bridge made it very difficult for the lacked what modern economists call infrastructure: the roads, bourgeoisie to make a profit. Some infrastructure—and the government canals, and other means people held monopolies on the seemed to be doing very little to of communication and production of certain goods. In some develop one. travel within a community

ACTIVITIES

1. Life was very hard for poor peasants in France 2.Reread Arthur Young's account of French country before the revolution. Imagine you are a local life on page 60. Most nobles would not think the official concerned about the welfare of people in same way as Young. Make a list of reasons why your district. Make up a petition requesting three these people were so poor from a nobleman's or changes or improvements that you think would noblewoman's point of view. benefit the poor. 3.What was the bourgeoisie? What economic restrictions were placed on the bourgeoisie?

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 61 • • • • • • • • • * , • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • LOUIS XIV: THE EXTRAVAGANT SUN KING ouis XIV, known as the "Sun with him. He became the centre of to simulate: to recreate King," ruled France for seventy- their lives. Everything they did two years. In an age of absolute required Louis's approval. If they were monarchs, Louis set new in Louis's favour, they were invited to Lstandards. He saw himself as the centre all the ceremonies of the royal day, of French life and culture. He was the such as the royal getting up, the royal Sun King because that was the name he breakfast, the royal lunch, the royal gave himself: he believed that he was supper, the royal going to bed, and all the source of all light in the nation. His special occasions in between. Nobles phrase, Etat c'est mai ("I am the even took daily ballet lessons in order nation"), reveals exactly how Louis saw to learn how to move and gesture himself in relation to his country. gracefully in the presence of the king. Figure 3-7 This painting of To ensure his position as the They had little else to do, since they the Palace at Versailles, by greatest monarch in Europe, Louis were not part of the government. Louis Pierre Patel, is so realistic that built a vast palace in the of depended solely on his own judgment it resembles a photograph. Why might the painter have Versailles, southwest of Paris, and and on a few important ministers in simulated an aerial view of forced important nobles to live there ruling the country. His word was law. the palace and its surroundings?

62 CHAPTER 3 Figure 3-8 An official portrait of Louis XIV is shown on page 50, the opening page of this chapter. In that portrait, Louis is shown as a serious, no-nonsense ruler. The painting's point of view forces the viewer to look up at him, giving the short Louis extra height. Louis is also showing off his leg, to prove that he is still strong and graceful in middle age. Compare that portrait to the one shown here, a later wax model. How do you know that Figure 3-8 was not an official portrait?

Louis XIV and the Origins of Ballet

Today, ballet, a highly formal kind of dance, has admirers in every country. Some ballets, such as The Nutcracker, are so popular that they are performed year after year. Ballet dancers must spend many years training, beginning in childhood. Even then, only a few people gain the strength and grace to dance professionally. The rules of ballet were first established by the dancing master to the court of Louis M. Louis insisted that the nobles learn ballet so that they could be graceful at all times. Slip-ups could mean losing one's apartment at the or being asked to leave the royal court—the end to all dreams of power and influence. Figure 3-9 Top: First Position. Middle: Second Position. Bottom: Fourth Position. Do you think that there is still These basic positions were established in the seventeenth century and are the same a place for an art form such as positions used by dancers today. Louis XIV is shown in his dance costume (left). ballet in modern life? Give reasons During the ballet other dancers, representing planets, would move around Louis. He for your answer. kept the title "Sun King" throughout his life.

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 63 s• •■ ■ was so intense that it caused a huge decline in population in some parts of THE BRINK OF the country. These Huguenots, as DISASTER they were called in France, were often business people and Louis XIV became involved in a Calvinist Protestants who entrepreneurs. These conflicts, along followed the strict number of wars so that he could with Louis's other extravagances— philosophy of John promote his own interests and expand Calvin especially the building of the Palace French . His campaigns were at Versailles—almost ruined the deficit: the money the government is short each largely unsuccessful. A series of wars economy. During Louis XIV's reign, year after it its bills with the Dutch in the late 1660s did the deficit was twice the amount of secure some territory in the government revenues. southeastern part of France, but also Louis XV came to the throne depleted his treasury. when his great-grandfather, Louis XIV, Louis also involved himself in the died in 1715. He was only five years politics of the old. During the reign of Louis XV, the by claiming that the French monarch extravagances of the court and the had special rights within the Roman failure of government to reform Catholic Church. At home, his economic and social life continued to persecution of Calvinist Protestants push France toward disaster.

• • • • • • • • • • • ••••••••••••41••••66, THE REIGN OF LOUIS XVI What I should like most is to be loved. France had been part of the Roman -LOUIS XVI Empire. Other laws were based on local customs. For example, the laws ouis XVI came to the throne in in the Paris region were called the K N OW? IMP YOU 1774. He was not prepared to "Custom of Paris." There were also One of Louis XVI's hobbies was the making and fixing be king and, though language barriers. Many people in of locks. Lpersonable, he did not have France did not speak French; they the qualities a French ruler would spoke Breton or German, or some need to cope with the troubles ahead. other local language or dialect. And, Louis was not interested in governing, as had been the case during the reign and left many decisions to others. of Louis XIV, merchants were saddled The royal court was truly a world with many taxes and duties at unto itself. countless border stops inside the Although France was in crisis country. Shipping of goods from Paris during his reign, Louis did little to to the Mediterranean Sea involved improve conditions for the middle paying thirty separate taxes. Finally, and lower classes and had limited there was the terrible poverty of contact with them. While he may many people in the country. have had good intentions, he seemed Louis did not have the support of to have no understanding of the the middle class. Yet business people problems at hand. In fairness, the and professionals, such as lawyers and problems were complicated and physicians, were the most frustrated probably beyond fixing by one person. by the system and would have For example, laws were different welcomed change. Well-educated and in different parts of the country. Some informed, they could not understand laws were based on ancient Roman why improvements were not taking laws, a legacy of the time when place.

64 CHAPTER 3 The following portrait of Louis XVI's character reveals CATROGIIE CAD something unique about A character character portraits: They What is it? sketch of Louis XVI usually express as much about the person who has created Manon Who wrote it? the portrait as they do about de la Jeanne Roland the person being portrayed. Piatiere Madame Roland was a leading revolutionary figure When? After Louis's reign had ended during the reign of Louis XVI. Her house would eventually Why? To explain certain become the centre of the events more moderate voice of reform, the Girondists. The Neeelml..."11.11111.1.1.111111nomm following account describes Louis as a very ordinary person who just happened to be born during the wrong period of history. Notice how Mme Roland tries to strike a balance in depicting Louis as "good" or "bad." What might this reveal about her own character?

This man was not precisely what he was depicted by those who took a pleasure in slandering him. He was . neither the brutish blockhead ... nor was he the Figure 3-10 Madame Roland seated honest, kind, and sensible creature whom his friends • .... at her writing desk. Look at this portrait praised to the skies. Nature had endowed him with ordinary again after you have finished reading faculties, which would have done him well in an obscure station; the feature. Has she been portrayed as but he was depraved by his princely education and ruined by his you imagined her? Explain, mediocrity in difficult times ... Louis XVI had, besides, an excellent memory and an active turn of mind; was never idle, and revolutionary: desiring a complete change in government or social read a great deal ... was well-versed in history. and was the best system geographer in the kingdom .... If he had been born two centuries before, and his wife had been a rational woman, he would have brutish blockhead: stupid person with no manners or education made no more noise in the world than so many other princes ... without doing much good or much harm. faculties: abilities mediocrity: in the middle, neither good nor bad

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

1.After reading Madame Roland's character portrait 3.Do you accept her evaluation that Louis might of Louis XVI, what aspects of his character are you have made less of an impact in a different era? persuaded to accept? Why? (You may want to revisit this question after you have finished this chapter.) 2.What does Madame Roland's account suggest about popular opinion regarding Louis XVI during 4.In point form, list your impressions of Madame his reign? Roland.

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 65 DID YOU KNOW!' idealized view of peasant life, and The Affair of the Diamond even built a little farm at Versailles so Necklace is a mystery that LOUIS XVI AND she could play at farming. remains unsolved to this did little to win day. The scandal involved a MARIE mysterious countess and a ANTOINETTE the hearts of her subjects. She was cardinal disliked by Marie extravagant and loved fine things, Antoinette. The countess In 1770, Louis XVI married Marie spending large sums on jewels, for told the cardinal that she could help him regain the Antoinette, a member of the Austrian example. Her alleged involvement in queen's favour. She royal family. Because Austria had the Affair of the Diamond Necklace— produced letters from the often been an enemy of France, she jewels worth more than the annual queen that suggested her income of the country of France— dislike had turned to favour was unpopular from the start. Marie and even engineered a Antoinette was very interested in the created a crisis for the government. meeting between the glittering life at court, but she People were deeply offended by the cardinal and a woman who offended many aristocrats with her idea that she would spend a fortune pretended to be Marie Antoinette. attitudes toward traditional French on herself when many French people The cardinal was duped manners and courtesies. She had an lived in poverty, often unable to feed into buying a diamond necklace for the queen on an installment plan. When he could not pay, he was brought to trial and the scandal was made public. Historians have suggested that the whole affair might have been engineered by Marie Antoinette to ruin the cardinal. But her actual role in the scandal has never been verified.

scandal: something that draws public attention and criticism

Figure 3-11 The queen's portrait was painted by one of the most famous artists of the day, Madame Vigee- Lebrun. Marie Antoinette is shown here dressed in fine silks, and wearing an expensive wig. Study her face carefully, trying not to notice her finery. What do you read in her face?

66 CHAPTER 3 VIEWPOINTS IN CONFLICT I Two Views of Marie Antoinette

istory often presents different views This flattering portrait of the queen comes to us from Madame de Stael. H about the same person. Sometimes these views are so different that it is difficult to know what that person was The Queen of France, Marie Antoinette is one of really like. Consider these portraits of the most amiable and gracious persons who had Marie Antoinette. been seen on the throne. Nothing prevented her from keeping the love of the French, because she This portrait of the queen, courtesy had done nothing to lose it. The personal characters of the Baron de Bronstadt, is more critical. Queen and King were entirely worthy of attachment; but the ..... arbitrary nature of the French The Queen is far from lacking spirit but her government ... accorded so badly education ... has been neglected. Except novels, with the spirit of the times that she has never opened a book, and has not even even the virtues of princes sought the ideas that society can give; as soon as disappeared...." conversation takes a serious turn, a look of boredom comes over her face ... she amuses herself with the day's gossip, and, above all, with the scandal of the court ...."

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

1.It is difficult to know what Marie Antoinette was 3. a) To help future generations understand you, really like from these descriptions. Why do you create a Character Profile Survey Form of ten think are they so different? questions, the answers to which will yield a good sense of who you are. Leave space at the bottom 2.If you could obtain three more pieces of of the form to write a Character Summary. information about the writers and why they wrote what they did, what information would you b) Ask two or three classmates or friends (called request? The information should help you evaluate "respondents") to complete the form. Discuss the reliability of the portrait. the Character Summary with your respondents. Would you change anything about your questions now?

their children. Others knew of portfolios, and regardless of their portfolio: the area of France's tremendous debts, and capabilities. She also worked to responsibility of a government official, for resented the high taxes, which were dismiss people she despised, even if example, defence, the being used just to keep the country's they were doing a good job for the budget economy afloat. country. For example, Marie urged A strong-willed person, Marie the firing of the controller general of Antoinette had definite opinions on finances, A. R. Turgot, because government, but no learning or Turgot wanted the court to experience on which to base her economize and had proposed that judgements. She helped to select nobles be taxed. Neither Marie nor government ministers without Louis liked the idea of curtailing their knowing the responsibilities of their spending.

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 67 ACTIVITIES

1. Create an organizer to display the leadership Mark each ruler Excellent, Good, or Poor for each capabilities of the rulers of France (refer to pages quality. Based on your assessments, give each ruler 62-67). List three headings at the top: Louis XIV, an overall rating. Then, in a paragraph, summarize Marie Antoinette, and Louis XVI. List the following their suitability as leaders. headings on the left-hand side of your organizer: 2.Imagine that you have been hired as Louis XVI's • military might personal advisor on the state of the country. Outline • economic strategy the chief problems that must be overcome (see page • national pride 64). Your letter must outline some possible solutions, and must persuade Louis of the benefits of reform. • respect for the people of France • knowledge of the country's problems 3.Read the descriptions of Louis XVI (page 64) and Marie Antoinette (pages 66-67). Write a note • control of the country from Marie to Louis, or vice-versa, about the • force of character things that are rnost important to that person.

•••• ■ ••••••• ■ •••••••••••••••••••••• ■ NEW IDEAS YOU KNOW? . he French Revolution took thinkers from the royal officials. Ideas 's place at a time when many about the rights of women were Vindication of the Rights of new ideas about society were circulating throughout Europe. The Women was published in being published and works of English writers, such as England in late 1792. A treatise on the social and discussed. Many of these ideas came Mary Astell and Mary Wollstonecraft, political rights of women, it from thinkers known as the had an influence in France. met with fiery protest "philosophes." These ideas were the catalyst for revolution. • Nissa ow-maa The philosophes were women and men who met to discuss society and THE politics, and solutions to social problems. Many French philosophes ENLIGHTENMENT rejected the idea of absolute Although France had been a Catholic monarchy and favoured democracy, country for centuries, many of the which had been won by revolution in philosophes were against any religion both Britain and, after 1776, in the that they viewed as old-fashioned or United States. They also believed in superstitious. Their ideas were, as the ability of science and scientific they said themselves, enlightened, catalyst: something that reasoning to explain the world. and they belonged to a period we now helps other things to change Women were especially important call "the Enlightenment." to the spread of new ideas. They held What did "enlightened" mean? salon: a meeting of intellectuals to discuss salons where ideas about society, Above all, it meant that science and exciting ideas religion, and government could be human intelligence were of the reason: the ability to think freely exchanged. Madame de highest importance. If a belief could critically and draw logical Pompadour, the unofficial wife of conclusions not stand up to reason—if it could not Louis XV, held many salons during be demonstrated by experiment— bigotry: prejudice her lifetime and protected free then it had to be discarded.

68 CHAPTER 3 Events in Britain influenced the Rousseau, , philosophes. They knew about and English physicist Isaac Newton (1642-1727), who had formulated the Rousseau, Voltaire, and law of gravity. They knew the Montesquieu were writings of English philosopher John philosophes with international reputations. Locke (1632-1704), who had created a Each had new ideas about new branch of philosophy known as society and followers in other "empiricism." (For more on Locke's ideas about politics, see page 48.) parts of Europe and in Empiricism meant that knowledge America. was possible only through experience Voltaire, the most famous of the world. In other words, you philosophe, was against the could not know anything unless you Church and for freedom of thought. Many of his ideas experienced it through your senses. were accepted by rulers of Religious beliefs, of course, could not be proved in this way. They required other nations, such as and demanded faith, as did long- Frederick of Prussia, who standing ideas about the monarchy. believed himself to be an enlightened monarch. In fact, Who could prove that the monarch had a God-given right to power? Voltaire believed that absolute monarchy was, for It is easy to see how the Figure 3-13 This portrait of philosophes came into conflict with the most part, good for society. However, he hated injustice, often Rousseau shows him as a the Church and refused to accept its true lover of nature. defending people because they were teachings. The Church, on the other Rousseau became a very victims of superstition and bigotry. popular writer, particularly hand, gave its support to the country's with educated women, many rulers. To many philosophes in Montesquieu, on the other hand, believed that the ruler had to work of whom sent him gifts. France, the church and the monarchy with elected parliaments. His ideas were holding up progress: they either had to change or go. were not so well received by European monarchs, who had little interest in sharing powers with the people. Jean Jacques Rousseau believed that society needed a social contract—an agreement—in which everyone agreed to abide by certain rules. For example, each citizen would have to agree to what the majority wanted. He believed in what he described as "natural" law, in other words, that people have a naturally good will that is destroyed by government and modern society (see feature on page 71). Many of

Figure 3-12 Even in pictures, it is possible to see the humour and intelligence in Voltaire's face and eyes, and to imagine the biting wit he used to attack his critics and enemies, such as Rousseau,

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 69 Figure 3-14 This portrait of Figure 3-15 A salon hosted by Madame Geoffrin. imagine this group of people a young woman reading a gathered in your living room to discuss all the newest ideas. In what ways would novel was painted in 1776. your gathering look different? What do these differences communicate about your Perhaps she was one of the society? many women interested in the ideas of Rousseau and the other philosophes. Rousseau's ideas have survived into newspapers and discussing ideas the twentieth century. People who about politics, science, and religion. believe that we should live in Even though books and newspapers harmony with nature are followers of were censored by the Church and Rousseau. government, writers pushed the For the most part, philosophes limits of the law. Many were arrested and their supporters were fashionable or exiled. Voltaire, for example, fled censored: something one is forbidden to see, hear, and economically privileged. They the country several times to escape or read had time to sit in cafes, reading prison.

Figure 3-16 Philosophes and other educated people of the Enlightenment took a keen interest in the natural world. In eighteenth-century science, many concepts taken for granted today were unknown. People of all ages found science immensely intriguing—from the hypnotism of Franz Mesmer to the discovery of oxygen. This painting by Joseph Wright shows people watching an experiment to see if a lark can survive in a vacuum. How is scientific experimentation different today? Hint: Examine where the experiment is taking place and who is observing.

70 CHAPTER 3 VIEWPOINTS IN CONFLICT I Back To Nature or On All Fours? Nature never deceives us; it is Rousseau believed that accepted by the skeptics, we who deceive ourselves. feelings were more important than philosophes who hated all forms of thinking. In this he differed from superstition. A skeptic is someone —JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU the philosophes who placed who refuses to accept ideas or fThf all the philosophes, Rousseau emphasis on the importance of reports unless they can be held up %..-1 is one whose ideas seem scientific reasoning. His ideas were to scientific examination. They particularly powerful today. He romantic, not scientific at all. In thought Rousseau's ideas were thought that civilization was bad the following passage—the more about the way he would like because it destroyed the goodness opening of his book Emile— things to be than the way they in human beings. In his view, it Rousseau writes about haw people really are. They also resented his also cut people off from nature, cut themselves off from nature. attack on reason because, to them, with harmful results. Rousseau's ideas were not it was reason that made human beings noble and free. Without the power of reason, the skeptics God makes all things good. Man [people] meddles argued, people would accept any [with them and they become evil. He forces one soil to idea that appealed to them, yield the products of another, one tree to bear including a bad one. another's fruit. He confuses time, place and natural Voltaire, in particular, disliked conditions. He mutilates his dog. his horse, his slave. He Rousseau and his ideas. He wrote destroys and defaces all things; he loves all that is deformed and to Rousseau in 1755. His letter monstrous; he will have nothing as nature made it, not even appears in the excerpt below. man himself. have read, monsieur, your new book against the human race. I thank you for it. No one has ever used so much intellect to prove us beasts. A desire seizes us to walk on all fours when we • ... read your work. Nevertheless, as it is more than sixty years since I lost the habit, i feel, unfortunately. that it is impossible for me to resume it.

Figure 3-17 Concern about the destruction of much in the natural world alarms many people today. Some people reconnect with nature by taking an interest in non-scientific pursuits, such as alternative healing, spiritualism, and new-age music. Here, a young woman has acupuncture at a youth clinic. romantic: someone who has an unrealistic view of life and expects "story-book endings" skeptic: one who questions or raises doubts irony: a form of ridicule in which the speaker intends exactly the opposite of what he or she says

WHAT DO YOU THINK? 1.How did Voltaire use irony to insult Rousseau? 3.Would you consider yourself more a follower of 2.Write a short note from Rousseau to Voltaire Rousseau or of the skeptics? Explain why you think defending your (Rousseau's) ideas. Explain how so. Voltaire misinterpreted your philosophy.

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 71 . ACTIVITIES ......

1. Create a hall of fame for the philosophes that 2. Browse through some newspapers and magazines illustrates why they were important to the French in your school library, With a partner, collect Revolution. Construct a panel out of cardboard or clippings about trends, events, and attitudes that some stiff material to hold the display. You could would appeal to Rousseau. Collect other clippings make a photo collage that includes all the that show how the scientific method has philosophes and use display type around the permanently altered our way of thinking. Paste your collage to discuss the contributions of each clippings on poster paper, under appropriate titles. thinker. Or you could display individual photos, with a brief description underneath.

THE REVOLUTION BEGINS

ill MI- - - TAO - ME: • 1:! were outlined in the American Declaration of Independence (see page A CRISIS 48 for excerpts). To the philosophes and their followers, France was republican government: All the money spent by Louis XIV and a government in which his successors came mostly from embarrassingly backward. Compared all power rests with the to the absolute monarchy of France, citizens who vote to elect taxing and exploiting the lower and their leaders middle classes, not from profits made the republican government of in new business. During the reign of America—or even the constitutional Louis XVI, France was almost monarchy of England—seemed much bankrupt. The revolution was close at more advanced. hand. France's problems were made Led by the philosophes, many worse by a series of famines and other French people openly expressed their disasters in the 1780s. Thousands of displeasure with the government— French people were close to sometimes with riots. The royal court starvation. Families, the most split into two groups, one that important institution in society, supported the king and changes to the broke up because parents could not economy, and another that supported provide for their children. During this Marie Antoinette and more power for period, more than 40 000 children the nobles. The middle class, the were abandoned each year. working class, and a few aristocrats Britain's Industrial Revolution— demanded some kind of democracy, which you will read about in more much like the limited democracy that detail in Chapter 5—was also putting had existed in England for almost a French people out of work. For the century. first time, textiles could be made Many French officers and soldiers with the assistance of machines and had taken part in the American imported cheaply, so fewer hands Revolution (France had helped the were needed. Unemployment was one American colonists fight against of the government's most serious Britain.). The Americans were problems. France's unemployed democratic in their views and had people were starving, and were very made a point of protecting the unhappy, with nothing to lose. They freedoms of the individual, which demanded change, and they wanted it

72 CHAPTER 3 Figure 3-18 This sketch depicts the life of the very poor before the revolution. This man is competing with several dogs for the carcass of an animal. List all the evidence in the sketch that communicates how hard life was. Do think this picture is an exaggeration? Why or why not?

Figure 3-19 This cartoon means something if you know that French soon. During the revolution, the Paris mob, as aristocrats paid few taxes and lived off wealth created by peasants and it was called, was violent and unpredictable. It workers. To people of the day, it needed no caption. How would this supported some extreme measures that cartoon be perceived by a French aristocrat in the eighteenth century? resulted in the coming . How do you think he or she would justify their lifestyle? Louis responded by allowing critics of the government to be imprisoned or, occasionally, killed. When crowds rioted in Paris against the high price of bread, the king's troops responded by shooting several dozen people. The king's popularity fell even lower. When he had begun his reign, people thought he could save France. Now, he had no solutions to offer. Even his supporters were disappointed. Desperate for money and ideas, he called together the representatives of the people, the Estates General, to try to find solutions to France's problems.

mmmmmmm III S E M THE ESTATES GENERAL We will not leave except by force of the bayonet! -COUNT MIRABEAU, AT THE ESTATES GENERAL FOR THE THIRD ESTATE France had a kind of parliament known as the "Estates General," which met only as a result of a royal command. The Estates General

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 73 bloc: a group included representatives from the would help raise money and put an three estates (or social levels) of end to widespread rioting. France. The members of the First Louis realized that the Estate were the clergy. Aristocrats representatives gathered would want formed the Second Estate. The middle some say in government. However, he class made up the Third Estate. was not prepared to surrender his The Estates General met very absolute power to the people. Instead, seldom—in fact, their last meeting he planned to give the Estates some had been held in 1614! Although the small, token responsibilities, such as Third Estate had twice as many allowing them a say in fixing the tax delegates as either of the other two system. But when the Estates General estates, each estate voted as a bloc. finally met in May, its members would This meant that the privileged not bow to the king's wishes. Despite classes, the aristocrats, and the clergy, some internal conflicts, there was still had twice as much voting power as great hope that progress would be the middle class. made toward democracy in France. Louis XVI called the Estates General together only when his • government was in a serious crisis. His controller general of finances, A. THE SPIRIT OF R. Turgot, had tried to reform the economy but had been forced out of REVOLUTION office by Marie Antoinette. Now the GROWS country was bankrupt. Louis ordered Figure 3-20 Why has the artist paid so much attention the Estates General to meet at Ordinary people in France sensed that to the surroundings in this Versailles in 1789. He and his new great things were happening and drawing of Tennis Court director of the treasury, Jacques quickly caught the revolutionary Oath? Why do you think the Necker, hoped that this meeting spirit. Thousands crowded the town delegates are so small by of Versailles, anxious to comparison? learn the latest news and anxious, too, for democracy. People knew that history was being made. They had great expectations of the delegates who were meeting to decide the fate of France. After six weeks of little progress, the Third Estate broke with the other Estates. Led by Count Mirabeau, a brilliant speaker and leader, its members declared that they would form a new government known as the National Assembly. Their real goal was a new constitution for France. Delegates

74 CHAPTER 3 retreated to the Royal Tennis Courts, angry after the king tried to lock up the site of their meeting. Here they took the the , a pledge that they would continue meeting until France had a new form of government. Louis responded with some democratic reforms, but his offer was rejected. He was forced to back down and order the other two estates to join the National Assembly. Joyful crowds filled the streets of Versailles and Paris. It seemed certain that the French Revolution had been a success.

SMNI VimalzumagmillOm THE FALL OF THE Figure 3-21 The Bastille BASTILLE represented the power of the king and was suspected of The calm did not last long. More foreign mercenary troops to Paris and holding many political riots, over the high price of bread, Versailles. People assumed that the prisoners. It was attacked broke out in Paris and other cities. king would use the soldiers against and destroyed, with the help the revolution and began to arm of rebel French soldiers. Why The mob began attacking the city's do you think the people of prisons in a bid to free political themselves. Paris destroyed the Bastille prisoners. The revolution was quickly On July 14, 1789, a great mob when the revolution seemed going beyond the control of its attacked the royal prison and fortress to be going so well? original leaders and taking on a life of known as "the Bastille." Troops sent its own. Louis responded by sending to disperse the mob joined it instead, and the Bastille was soon captured. There were only seven prisoners in mercenary: a paid soldier the Bastille, but they were all cockade: an ornament worn on top of a hat released. The mob cut off the governor's head and paraded it through the streets. The fall of the Bastille frightened YOU KN Louis. He agreed to send his mercenary In honour of the French soldiers away. Citizens, determined to Revolution, the National keep order in Paris, formed a new army Guard and the people wore red, white, and blue called the "National Guard," which cockades and sashes. Later, was commanded by the Marquis de when Louis visited Paris and Lafayette, a hero of the American met with its new , he too wore a revolutionary Revolution. cockade. He was greeted with cheers of Vive le Rol "Long Live the King"). Figure 3-22 Many North Americans of French heritage also celebrate democracy on July 14— . Bastille Day commemorates the fall of the Bastille prison, and the official beginning of the French Revolution. Festivities include fireworks, concerts, parties, cultural events, and military displays.

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 75 ELTI=Mal=t1WEIRMIMVINEMOIMMENE6=5.WEV - THE PARIS AND THE

châteaux: the mansions Although the revolution had occurred KING and great estates of the mostly in Paris and Versailles, On August 4,1789, the National rich revolutionary feelings spread quickly. Assembly met in Versailles. In one In the countryside, peasants were aware that enormous changes were stroke, it abolished all feudal rights and privileges and ended serfdom. taking place, but they were also fearful. They believed that the king's Next, it declared all people equal before the law. soldiers and the aristocrats would These changes were stop the revolution. These feelings extraordinary. Much had been resulted in a panic called the "Great accomplished in a short time, but Fear," which spread rapidly through people began to feel that the king and parts of rural France. Peasants the assembly might be out of touch stormed the châteaux of the with conditions in the cities. They aristocrats, burned them to the felt that the government needed to ground, and killed hundreds of people. come to Paris, and not be isolated in They invaded offices and burned Versailles. Nor could the assembly feudal certificates and papers that solve the continuing food crisis, felt recorded their obligations to the lords. most acutely by women and children. The Great Fear spread through In October, crowds of women large areas of France (see Figure 3-231, meeting in Paris decided to to but did not really affect isolated Versailles to meet the king, a distance Normandy or Brittany, the peninsulas of approximately 50 kilometres. As to the south of the English Channel. Figure 3-23 Study this map Nor did it affect the lowlands of they marched, the women were joined for a few moments, then by hundreds of others and followed, at Flanders. Many people from these review Figures 3-2 and 3-4 a distance, by Lafayette and the on pages 57 and 58. Suggest regions did not support the revolution. National Guard. In Versailles, the some reasons why peasants Look back at Figures 3-2 and 3-3 (on living in Normandy, Brittany, women—covered in mud from their pages 57 and 581 and suggest some and Flanders might not have walk—attacked the National been supporters of the reasons why this was the case. revolution. Assembly and stormed the palace. Reluctantly, the queen and king ENGLAND CELTIC GERMAN appeared and agreed to go back to Paris. SEA STATES 411 IAN •NETHE LANDS L lrl) lt,=•=vonwitut- ,:m.--•=raimmaincWamiamorMan 0605H CHANNEL F

/111...7* Valmy DECLARATION OF Paris ATLANTIC THE RIGHTS OF OCEAN MAN AND THE

150 300 km FRANCE CITIZEN

Lycins Later in August, the Declaration of Area of the Great Fear revolts, July 1709 the Rights of Man and the Citizen 11 Rordeauk A Counterrevolutionary centre, 0 was passed by the National 1792-1793 Antirevolutionary forces Assembly, which now met in Paris. Prorevolutionary forces This document, like the American ArealTh of the Vendee uprising, A A Declaration of Independence, sets out

— French frontier, 1793 MEDITERRANEAN SEA basic human rights that governments SPAIN may not overlook. It contains ideas

76 CHAPTER 3 Figure 3-24 There are many paintings and drawings of the march to Versailles, but this is one of the most famous. What might the woman in the gold dress be thinking? What about the woman who is tugging her arm? taken from English philosopher John emigres were working outside France LD1D YOU KNOWS Locke and the philosophes you to restore the old system. In 1791, the In documents such as the learned about in this chapter— queen and king and their children French Declaration of the Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau. tried to escape from the country in Rights of Man and the Citizen and the American The declaration guaranteed freedom disguise. Louis's motive was to obtain Declaration of Independence, of thought, speech, religion, security, foreign aid in order to restore his the word "man" means and property, and it put limits on the monarchy. This was the worst thing everybody, regardless of sex. power of the government. he could do. It proved that the Once in Paris, the National monarchy would not support the Assembly worked quickly to establish democratic changes that had occurred, a new constitution. Most of the old and that they could not be trusted. system was swept away, and all noble The royal family was recognized titles were declared obsolete. at Varennes, arrested, and imprisoned. Everyone was given the title Louis was forced to accept France's "citizen." The government seized new constitution. control of the Church and its The newly formed Legislative property. Certificates of money, Assembly convened for the first time called assignats, were issued, to be on October 1, 1791. It tried to redeemed when Church lands were establish a workable government, but constitution: a document that sets out the major sold. The new government believed it it was doomed to failure; too many laws and principles of a was well on its way to solving the groups were struggling for power. government country's financial problems. Radicals wanted a republic; emigres: people who leave In the meantime, Louis had moderates wanted a constitutional one country for another noticed that many aristocrats were monarchy; and monarchists wanted radical: someone who wants major change departing for other countries, such as to restore most of the king's powers. quickly England and Switzerland. These Could the revolution ever survive?

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 77 A French Declaration and a Canadian Charter

ere are excerpts from two documents written 200 H years apart: the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, and The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, enshrined in the Canadian constitution in 1982. How are they similar? How are they different? Excerpts from the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms ..... Whereas Canada is founded upon The Declaration of the principles that recognize the supremacy of Rights of Man and the God and the rule of law: Citizen I . The Canadian Charter of Rights and The representatives of the French Freedoms guarantees the rights and people, constituted as a National Assembly, freedoms set out in it subject only to considering that ignorance, forgetfulness, or such reasonable limits prescribed by contempt for the rights of man are the sole law as can be demonstrably justified in causes of public misery and the corruption a free and democratic society of governments, have resolved to set forth in 2. Everyone has the following a solemn declaration the natural. fundamental freedoms: inalienable, and sacred rights of man .... a)freedom of conscience and religion; Article I Men are born and remain free and b)freedom of thought. belief, opinion equal in rights ... and expression, including freedom of Article 4 Liberty consists of the freedom to the press and other media of do all that does not injure others ... limits communication; can only be determined by law. c)freedom of peaceful assembly; and Article 7 No man can be accused, arrested, d)freedom of association. or detained except in cases determined by 3. Every citizen of Canada has the right to law ... vote in an election of members of the Article 9 Every man is presumed innocent House of Commons or a legislative until he is declared guilty assembly and to be qualified for Article 10 No one should be disturbed membership therein. because of his opinions, even in religion, 6.Every citizen of Canada has the right to provided their manifestation does not disturb enter, remain in, and leave Canada. public order as established by law. 7.Everyone has the right to life, liberty. and security of the person and the right not to be deprived thereof except in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice. 9. Everyone has the right not to be DID YOU KNOW? arbitrarily detained or imprisoned. Today, we use the terms depending on th 1 2. Everyone has the right not to be "right," "left,' and "centre" ideas. Those on the right subjected to any cruel or unusual to describe the views of wanted to keep the king and politicians and other people. have a strong monarchy. The punishment. These terms are a heritage of centre wanted a the French Revolution. At constitutional monarchy. that time, delegates to the Those on the left wanted a French National Assembly republic,• some evene„71xlitical wanted took seats to the right or left the death of the king. inalienable: something that cannot be taken away or of the speaker's podium, transferred

78 CHAPTER 3 ION11 Figure 3-25DiagramoftheFrenchNationalAssembly 2. 4. 1. 3. b 47). Aretheysimilar?Inwhat ways? Imagine youareadelegatetotheEstatesGeneral. the CitizenwithEnglishBill ofRights(seepage the accomplishmentsofindividualsorgroups cooperate withtheking? representative ofonetheEstates,willornot Leadership, Action,andLastingImpact—itemize Women playedimportantrolesintheyearsleading Write astatementexplainingwhyyou,as Compare theDeclarationofRightsManand reasons behindtheMarchonVersailles orthe up totherevolution.Usingthreeheadings— With apartner,createrole play thatexplainsthe women. Pu lic Gallery (extremeJacobins) Secretaries ACTIVITIES Tribune BAR The Jacobins 6. 5. two womennotedinthecaptionofFigure3-24. they want?Whatarethemain goalsofright-wing in Canadawantsocialchange. Whatchangesdo dress isreluctant? could startbycreatingsomedialoguebetweenthe Great Fear.First,writesomedialogueforpeople Canvass yourteachersorparentsandfindout which modernpoliticiansandpoliticalparties who haveopposingviewsoftheseevents.You would becalledleft-wing,centre,orright-wing. How doyouknowthatthewomaningold Like left-wingpartiesinrevolutionary France,those List someofthese. parties? Presiding Deputy REVOLUTION INFRANCE

)!Iqnd 79

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• A REVOLUTION DEVOURS ITS OWN CHILDREN n its final stages, the French R 1N:a,•,-UM•UO Revolution seemed to turn on its leaders. A split occurred between THE SANS- Imoderates and radicals, and CULOTTES leaders who wanted less than a full revolutionary republic fell under The sans-culottes were mostly poor suspicion. They were arrested and people from Paris and the larger executed as the revolution entered a cities. They resented the bourgeoisie new and violent phase. and were against reforms that would benefit the business class. Instead, they wanted the national government ONOM•ONII•ll to lower prices and supply bread to THE POLITICAL the poor. The sans-culottes were very violent. They formed mobs that CLUBS roamed Paris, attacking anything or Democracy was new to France and anybody suspected of being against many traditions had yet to be the revolution. established. There were no political The sans-culottes supported the parties, for example. Instead, people radicals who wanted to execute the joined a political club to be with king and aristocrats. They were led by people who shared their views. Clubs the fiery pamphlet writer, Jean-Paul published pamphlets and held regular Marat. They considered the leaders of meetings. Eventually, they would the original revolution to be far too lead of the revolution. moderate, and arrested and Two of the most important clubs guillotined many well-intentioned were the Girondists, many of whose people, including Madame Roland, a members came from an area of France leader of the Girondists. (For more on called the "," and the Madame Roland, see page 65.) Jacobins, who met at the Paris monastery of Saint Jacques. Both • MMMMM •. MN- clubs started out moderate and middle-class. In fact, the Girondists MARAT, DANTON, were originally a branch of the AND Jacobin Club. Though the Girondists originally wanted sweeping changes ROBESPIERRE in government, they were viewed as Jean-Paul Marat, Jacques Danton, and too conservative by some were the revolutionaries. The Jacobins became radical leaders of the revolution. They radical and were responsible for the were opposed to any deals with the coming Reign of Terror. The two monarchy, and were prepared to bring factions became involved in a power the king to trial and execution. They struggle, which the Girondists lost. set out to destroy anyone who seemed Most of them were sent to the to have sympathy for the old system. guillotine. Marat, the most radical of the three, was murdered in his bath by Charlotte Corday, a Girondist, in

80 CHAPTER 3 _ .SR055 CURRENT Fashion and Politics

he manner in which people dress Fashion designers also Tsays a great deal about who they caught the spirit of change. are—and who they think they are. Before the revolution, rich Today, people often dress a certain people, including children, way to display their identity, or as a dressed in elaborate, stiff way of showing that they identify clothing. They wore enormous with a certain group. wigs made of human hair. During the French Revolution, During the eighteenth century, the sans-culottes (literally, "without many women began styling britches") were the poorest class. their own hair and wore simpler They identified themselves by dresses based on designs from refusing to wear the knee breeches ancient Greece and Rome. They worn by the rich. Instead they wore chose this period of history long trousers. They also wore special because it represented the caps, the same as those worn in noble ideals of good ancient Rome by freed slaves. government and freedom.

mom Figure 3-27 This woman and little girl belong to the bourgeoisie. They would be trying to imitate the style of the court at Versailles. Their costumes would have been entirely hand-made of the most costly fabrics. Notice how the girl is dressed as a tiny adult. Like most men and women of the period, they wear wigs made of human hair, which was probably bought from a young peasant woman. Today, hair for wigs is bought from women who live in developing nations.

Figure 3-26 The sans-culottes distinguished themselves from the bourgeoisie by wearing distinctive clothing—in this case, long pants instead of short breeches.

WHAT DO YOU THINK? 1.How would the clothing shown in Figure 3-28 change the lifestyle of women used to wearing the clothing shown in Figure 3-27? 2. Do you think it is still possible for one person to start a fashion trend? Can you give an example? Figure 3-28 This family wears clothing in the "modern" 3. Name three groups in society and summarize the style of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Notice the simple main features of their clothing that help to clothing and natural hair. This portrait was painted by identify them. Vigee-Lebrun.

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 81 Figure 3-29 This gold 1793. Damon and Robespierre, with country was about to be invaded by enamel pocket watch the help of important Jacobins, would forces that included many European features the portraits of Robespierre and Marat. As a eventually take control of the emigres who wanted to restore the young lawyer, Robespierre National Assembly and the revolution. king's power. France declared war on was opposed to the death Austria in the spring of 1792. Even penalty, but as a leader of though the French lost the first the revolution he agreed to ■ MMMMMMMMMM the executions of hundreds battles, the people's faith in the of people. Robespierre also THE revolution never waned. In fact, the tried to protect the queen opposite happened. Marat, Danton, and many Girondists, but REVOLUTIONARY Robespierre, and others made failed. Yet he demanded the patriotic speeches, telling the people execution of Danton and WARS other revolutionaries. What that foreign troops would destroy the might have been his motives? By now, many European regimes were country and all their hard-earned nervous about what was happening in rights. Finally, at Valrny, the French France. It became obvious that the armies won a victory.

Figure 3-30 This painting of Marat is by Jacques Louis David, a former court painter for Louis XVI. In this picture, Marat is made to look almost like a saint. He is seated in a bathtub because he contracted a skin disease while hiding in the sewers of Paris and the bath relieved his discomfort. He holds a note from his assassin, Charlotte Corday, The knife wound is also clearly visible. What conclusions can you draw about David's politics from viewing this painting?

82 CHAPTER 3 MMMMMMMMMMM for his crimes against the country and u KP41111111 executed. He had already been The guillotine was originally THE END OF THE removed from the royal palace, which invented by a humane had been sacked and burned by the doctor to stop the suffering MONARCHY of condemned prisoners. It Paris mob. The king, now called became an ideal killing The war and other events had made "Citizen Louis Capet," was tried for machine for the revolution. many people even more suspicious of his crimes and found guilty. He was In Paris, over 1500 people the royal family. A newly elected were guillotined in two guillotined January 21, 1793. Marie months in 1794—an body—the — Antoinette was guillotined in astonishing number. decided that the king should be tried October.

The Execution of Louis Capet

This eyewitness account I comes to us from Henry are going to shed may Essex Edgemont de Firmont, The path leading to the guillotine the man who led Louis XVI to was extremely rough and difficult never be visited on his execution. Louis was to pass; the king was obliged to France." executed by the guillotine. lean on my arm. and from the He was proceeding slowness with which he when a man on horseback, in proceeded, I feared for a moment the national uniform, and with a that his courage might fail; but ferocious cry, ordered the drums what was my astonishment, to beat. Many voices were at the when arrived at the last step. I same time encouraging the Figure 3-31 The movie Dead Man felt him suddenly let go my arm, executioners ... [who] in seizing Walking recounts the true-life story and I saw him cross with a firm with violence the most virtuous of an American nun (played by foot the breadth of the whole of kings, they dragged him Susan Sarandon) who opposes the death penalty. Canada abolished scaffold; ... I heard him under the axe of the guillotine, the death penalty in 1976. Examine pronounce distinctly these which at one stoke severed his the Canadian Charter of Rights and memorable words: "1 die head from his body ... the Freedoms (page 78) and the English innocent of all the crimes laid to youngest of the guards, who Bill of Rights (page 47). Can you my charge; I pardon those who seemed about eighteen, find the phrase that would support have occasioned my death; and I immediately seized the head, the abolition of the death penalty? pray to God that the blood you and showed it to the people as he walked around the scaffold ... some cries of "Vive la Republique" were heard. By degrees the voices multiplied, and ... this cry, a thousand times repeated, became the universal shout of the multitude, and every hat was in the air.

scaffold: the raised platform for the guillotine or gallows

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 83 • 00•41190••••••••••••••CO••• , 11111•• THE REIGN OF TERROR he trial and execution of the Few people dared stand up to this speculator: a person who king happened because the government. Danton, for example, deals in a product and hopes to take advantage more moderate members of was beheaded in 1794. Before his of a sudden rise or fall in the government had lost out death, he predicted that Robespierre prices T to the Jacobins and the sans-coulottes. would soon follow. He told the All enemies of the revolution—and all executioner to hold his severed head the Girondists—were arrested and high so the crowd could look at it. It imprisoned. was, as he said, "worth seeing." Other The years 1793 to 1794 are known people who challenged Robespierre— as the "Reign of Terror." During this even the leaders of sans-culottes— period, the revolutionary government were guillotined. It is estimated that had extraordinary powers. It passed a over 37 000 people were guillotined number of harsh laws designed to during the Reign of Terror. After intimidate or eliminate anyone who Danton's execution in 1794, disagreed with the radical Jacobins. Robespierre ruled France with the The , for example, powers of a dictator. provided for the arrest of anyone of noble family or who had held office before the revolution. Being unable to produce a signed certificate of THE FALL OF citizenship would result in immediate arrest and execution. ROBESPIERRE There was also a complete Robespierre destroyed all opposition reorganization of the armed forces, to the government and made sweeping and new legislation was passed to changes in France. The country was regulate business. Food speculators modernized in many ways. The were guillotined and all granaries and was introduced, as well bakeries placed under state control. as a Revolutionary Calendar. The

Figure 3-32 This engraving depicts several Girondists on their way to the guillotine during the Reign of Terror. Many people are reacting in different ways. What are some of the emotions shown?

84 CHAPTER 3 army was made more efficient, and omrsownsgmmuswAromplilremINFAIMOPAmemmOsmaam, new schools and universities were set up to educate the population. THE DIRECTORY Robespierre also confiscated all the The rule of Robespierre was replaced property of the emigres. with the Directory, which was As France grew stronger, people controlled by the middle class. The began to fear a dictatorship by new government gave most of the Robespierre. To everyone's surprise, power to people of property, which when Robespierre tried to condemn signalled a return to special privileges more people, he himself was also for people with money. Only this condemned. After a failed attempt to group could vote and elect members shoot himself, he was quickly to government. arrested and guillotined with his The days of equality—and the closest friends. title "citizen"—were over, and many The Reign of Terror was over. of the advances made by the poor Robespierre, once a sincere opponent were swept away. But soon the of the death penalty, had brought Directory itself would be swept away about the bloody deaths of thousands. by Bonaparte, a man who Radical Jacobins were immediately would establish a new type of replaced by the Thermidoreans, monarchy by calling himself named after the eleventh month in "Emperor of France." the revolutionary calendar (see feature below). This group was anxious to bring peace to the revolution.

The Revolutio Calendar

he Revolutionary Calendar Autumn Twas established by the National Convention in 1793. Vendemiaire (month of vintage) September 21-October 22 It was one of many Brumaire (month of fog) October 22-November 20 revolutionary changes meant Frimaire (month of frost) November 20-December 20 to issue in a new age of history. The calendar, Winter however, was not very Nivose (month of snow) December 21-January 19 scientific, and four or five days—called sans-culottides— Pluviose (month of rain) January 20-February 18 were left over each year. Ventose (month of wind) February 19-March 20 Spring Germinal (month of budding) March 21-April 19 Floreal April 20-May 19 (month of flowers) Prairial (month of meadows) May 20-June 18 Summer Messidor (month of harvest) June 19-July 18 Thermidor July 19-August 17 (month of heat) Fructidor (month of fruit) August 18-September 16

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 85 ACTIVITIES

1.What role did the political clubs play in the Terror, what would he say? Write a short speech revolution? Select one club—Jacobin, Girondist, or that Robespierre might have given to the Royalist—and create an imaginary membership Committee of Public Safety asking for the Reign of card that includes an oath of allegiance to the Terror. Be sure to mention the . club. Design an appropriate logo to appear beside 4.Propose some reasons why women were unable to the oath. Both the oath and the logo should keep leadership positions during the Reign of communicate the club's goals and distinguish it Terror and its aftermath. from the two other political clubs. 5.With a partner, propose four or five criteria for 2. Make up three goals for the new government of judging whether a revolution was "worth it." One France with which Madame Roland would agree. example might be the number of innocent people Do the same for Marat and Robespierre. Why do killed. According to your criteria, was the French you think Madame Roland was executed? Revolution "worth it"? How is this different from 3.What was the Reign of Terror? If you asked judging whether or not the revolution was a Robespierre how he, a man once opposed to the "success"? death penalty, could then approve of the Reign of

allegiance: a formal declaration of loyalty logo: a graphic symbol often used in advertising

86 CHAPTER 3 CONCLUSION

he French Revolution was an important Revolution had an important effect on the history event in the history of civilization. The of Europe. Ideas about democracy and about the people of the largest, most influential rights of the individual spread quickly and were Tcountry in Europe created a republic based very worrisome to absolute monarchs in Austria on the principles of freedom, democracy, and and in other countries. The concept of war also equality. Even though there were set-backs, such as changed because all the resources of countries were the Reign of Terror, and even a return to monarchy being used to fight the enemies of the revolution. under Napoleon, much of the progress made during This differed from the traditional system of wars, the Revolution survived. Many of the important which had been fought between professional institutions in France—the colleges and schools, for armies. Napoleon Bonaparte would take this example—are the direct result of events that took process even further. Under his leadership, the place during the revolution. forces of the French Revolution would change the Like the English Revolution, the French map of Europe completely.

SUMMARY ACTIVITIES

1.The Dauphin, or crown prince, of France disappeared 3.Formally debate the resolution "A revolution is always under mysterious circumstances during the revolution. necessary to change society." Each side of the debate Create an imaginary diary that describes his escape should present well-reasoned, well-researched from prison and flight to freedom. arguments. 2.Using a tourist map of the city as a guide, create a large-size map of Paris during the revolution, showing the sites of major events.

YOUR OWN

1.Research in more detail one of the people mentioned 3.From the pages of history, select another revolution in this chapter, and then write an essay on their life that occurred at some point from 1500 to the present and achievements. day. Write a report that illustrates the similarities and differences between that revolution and the French 2.Write a play centred on one incident in the French Revolution. Revolution. The play should demonstrate your knowledge of the life and issues of the period. 4.Arrange to have your class view or The Scarlet Pimpernel, movies about the era of the French Revolution.

87