CAPITOL REEF NATIONAL PARK, UTAH by David George Christiana

Hydrology and water resources of Capitol Reef National Park, Utah : with emphasis on the middle Fremont River area

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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/192054 HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF CAPITOL REEF NATIONAL PARK, UTAH WITH EMPHASIS ON THE MIDDLE FREMONT RIVER AREA

by David George Christiana

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the DEPARTMENT OF HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE WITH A MAJOR IN HYDROLOGY In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

1991 2

STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advance degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.

Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his or her judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained by the author.

Signed:

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR

This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:

')L1 0 1 ><- 5 k Sta ley N. Davis Date Professor of Hydrology 3

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This project was funded by the United States National Park Service, Cooperative Aggreement # 8000-1-0002, Water Resources Assessment of Capitol Reef National Park. I would like express my unbounded gratitude to Dr. Todd C. Rasmussen for his assistance in every aspect of this project and for serving as a member of my graduate thesis committee. He has the patience of Job. My fieldwork was more productive and enjoyable through the efforts and cooperation of the entire Capitol Reef National Park staff, particularly Sandy Borthwick, Sharon Gurr, Gene Blackburn, Lamont Chappell, Leon Chappell, Keith Durfey, and many others. For providing instruction and guidance in the laboratory, I thank Liz Lyons, Chris Peterson, and Dr. Martha Conklin. For the "good grub" I thank Steffney Thompson. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude for the thoughtful comments of the other members of my graduate thesis committee: Dr. Stanley N. Davis, Dr. Randy L. Bassett, and Norman R. Henderson. If I have left anyone out, I am willing to be forgiven. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

LIST OF FIGURES 7

LIST OF TABLES 10

ABSTRACT 11

1. INTRODUCTION 12

Purpose and Scope of Study 12 Previous Investigations 13 Methods and Data Sources 14 Data-Site Numbering System 14

2. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA 17

Location, Political Boundaries, Physiography . 17 Location and Political Boundaries 17 Physiographic Region 17 Social Setting 19 Local Economy and Land Uses 19 Park Districts and Management Zones 20 Park Facilities and Cultural Features 20 Legislative History 23 Water Rights 24 Climate 26 Soils and Vegetation 30 Soils 30 Vegetation 30 Geology 33 Stratigraphy 33 Structure 39

3. HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES 41

Ground-Water Resources 41 Occurrence 41 Hydrologic Characteristics of Aquifers 43 Recharge 49 Discharge 50 Movement and Storage 52 Geologic Factors that Affect Hydrology 56 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

PAGE

3. HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES (continued)

Surface Water Resources 58 Major Watersheds 58 Fremont River 60 Other Watercourses 71 Floodplains 72 Springs and Seeps 74 Lakes, Reservoirs, and Tinajas 75 Surface Water/Ground-Water Interactions 77

4. WATER QUALITY 82

Introduction 82 Sampling Program 84 Field Program 84 Laboratory Program 86 Accuracy and Sources of Error 90 Water Quality 92 Geochemical Processes 94 Surface Water Quality 98 Ground-Water Quality 115 Evaluation of Potential Water Supplies 128

5. WATER USES AND WATER BUDGET 132

Water Uses, Needs, Impacts 132 Domestic 132 Recreation and Wildlife 135 Agricultural and Riparian 136 Potential Water Uses 140 Water Budget 141

6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 144

Status of Water Resources 144 Potential for Development of Water Resources 147 Recommendations 147 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

PAGE

APPENDIX A: Monthly discharge of Fremont River at Bicknell and Caineville for the period of record 150

APPENDIX B: Water-quality data from selected water resources collected by the author and from other sources 153

APPENDIX C: State of Utah stream classifications . . 164

APPENDIX D: Listing of wells and springs in the study area 167

APPENDIX E: Driller's log of deep well drilled in Capitol Reef National Park 169

REFERENCES 174 7 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

1 Data site numbering system used in Utah . 15

2 Location map of study area, land ownership, and physiographic region 18

3 Capitol Reef National Park management districts and park facilities 21

4 Mean monthly minimum and maximum temperatures, Capitol Reef National Park 27

5 Mean climate variables and extremes for weather stations in the Capitol Reef area 28

6 Mean monthly precipitation, Capitol Reef National Park 29

7 General geologic map of the Capitol Reef area. 34

8 Hydrographs of selected wells in the Capitol Reef area 51

9 Approximate potentiometric map of the Navajo Sandstone 53

10 Map showing location of piezometers constructed in the Fruita area by the author 55

11 Map of major watersheds in the Capitol Reef area 59

12 Longitudinal profile of Fremont River, from Bicknell gage to Caineville gage 61

13 Fremont River divisions used in study 63

14 Hydrograph of annual discharge of the Fremont River near Bicknell and Caineville 66

15 Hydrograph of monthly Fremont River streamflow near Bicknell and Caineville 67 16 Annual extreme discharges of the Fremont River near Bicknell and Caineville from 1968 to 1989 . 68 8 LIST OF FIGURES (continued)

FIGURE PAGE 17 Streamflow duration curve of the Fremont River near Bicknell and Caineville 70 18 Map showing gaging sites used for seepage study along the Fremont River 79 19 Water discharge, TDS, and salt load in the Fremont River on October 1, 1989 81 20 Map showing sites where water quality data was collected by the author 85 21 Relationship between specific conductance and total dissolved solids 89 22 Trilinear Diagram 95 23 Trilinear diagram of mean Fremont River water analyses 102 24 Trilinear diagram of Oak, Pleasant, and Sulphur Creek water analyses 104 25 Trilinear Diagram of tinajas, lakes and reservoir water analyses 105 26 Histogram of fecal coliform frequency: (a) Fremont River; (b) Sulphur Creek 107 27 Quarterly geometric mean of fecal coliforms: (a) Fremont River; (b) Sulphur Creek 108 28 Histogram of fecal coliform frequency: (a) Willow Tinajas; (b) Cottonwood Tinajas 109 29 Quarterly geometric mean of fecal coliforms: (a) Willow Tinajas; (b) Cottonwood Tinajas . . 110 30 Percent Exceedance of Fremont River turbidity . 113 31 Monthly geometric mean of turbidity of Fremont River at Gifford House 114 32 Map of TDS of ground water in the Fruita area. 117 33 Trilinear diagram of North District springs water analsyes 120 34 Trilinear diagram of Headquarters District springs water analyses 122 35 Trilinear diagram of South District springs water analyses 123 9 LIST OF FIGURES (continued)

FIGURE PAGE 36 Trilinear diagram of ground water in bedrock formations in the study area 125 37 Trilinear diagram of ground water in alluvial aquifers in the study area 127 38 Domestic water production and visitation in Capitol Reef National Park, 1983-1989 134 39 Monthly irrigation usage as a percentage of the total for the irrigation season 137 1 0 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE 1 Vegetation Zones in the Capitol Reef Area 31 2 Hydrologic Characteristics of Water-Bearing Formations in the Study Area 44 3 Hydraulic Properties of Aquifers in the Study Area 47 4 Ground Water in Storage in the Study Area. . 54 5 Depth to Water in Piezometers in Fruita Area . 56 6 Selected Morphometric Relationships of Major Watersheds 60 7 Period of Record of Streamflow Discharge (Water Years) 62 8 Log-Pearson Type III Flood Frequency Analysis, Fremont River 74 9 Classification of Springs By Discharge 75 10 Discharge of Selected Springs in the Study Area 76 11 Seepage Study along the Fremont River 80 12 Classification of Waters Based on Total Dissolved Solids 93 13 Geochemical Processes and Reactions 96 14 TDS of Selected Surface Water Sources in the Study Area 99 15 Classification of Surface Waters in Study Area by Hydrochemical Facies 101 16 TDS of Wells and Springs in the Study Area . . 116 17 Classification of Wells and Springs in Study Area by Hydrochemical Facies 119 18 State of Utah Maximum Contaminant Levels and Drinking Water Supplies in the Study Area . . 129 19 Consumptive Water Use by Cultivated Crops and Riparian Vegetation Along the Fremont River Corridor 143 1 1

ABSTRACT

The water resources of the Capitol Reef National Park area include the middle Fremont River, other perennial and ephemeral watercourses, isolated springs, tinajas, and lakes fed by precipitation on surrounding plateaus, as well as ground water in alluvial, basalt, and sedimentary aquifers fed by recharge from precipitation and stream channel losses.

The difference between streamflows at Bicknell (79.2 million m3/yr) and

Caineville (67.8 million m 3/yr) can be attributed to evapotranspiration by riparian vegetation and cultivated crops and ground-water recharge, which exceeds 1.5 million m3/yr. Regional ground-water movement is eastward from Thousand Lake Mountain and southward along the Waterpocket Fold. Ground-water quality is generally brackish while surface water is fresh, both degrading east of the Waterpocket Fold due to agricultural uses, evapotranspiration and long aquifer residence times. Along the middle Fremont River agricultural use causes a mean salt load increase of 16,100 metric tons/year, turbidity increases three-fold, and fecal coliforms generally increase. 12 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF STUDY The water resources of Capitol Reef National Park provide habitat for native plants and animals, recreational opportunities for visitors, as well as a source of water for domestic, agricultural, and ranching purposes. Natural and man-made hydrological hazards and human activities within the park and the surrounding area may affect these resources or threaten life and property. This thesis is part of a Water Resources Management Plan that was prepared for the U.S. National Park Service (NPS). A management plan structures information about the hydrologic resources of the park to assist management in evaluating the range of alternatives related to the protection, conservation, use, and management of park water resources (NPS, 1989a). An assessment of the water resources of the study area is necessary to evaluate issues such as water supply, water rights, aquatic wildlife management, and mitigation of flood hazards and livestock grazing. To provide a water resources management plan for the park, this thesis describes and assesses the hydrologic and hydrogeological resources of the Capitol Reef area with emphasis on the middle Fremont River area. The focus is on the middle Fremont River because this is the most frequently visited portion of Capitol Reef, the Headquarters District. Known geology is integrated with hydrologic and water-quality data to develop an understanding of the surface and ground water and the relationship between them.

PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS While no studies have specifically investigated the geology, hydrology, or water resources of Capitol Reef National Park in depth, 13 portions of the study area are included in several publications. Gilbert's (1877) and Dutton's (1880) classic reports on the geology of the Henry Mountains and High Plateaus of Utah include portions of the study area. Other geological studies have resulted from the extensive searches for uranium and petroleum in the area; e.g., Gilluly and Reeside, 1928, Gregory and Anderson, 1939, Hunt, 1953 and Smith et al., 1963. A comprehensive geologic map of Capitol Reef National Park is also available (Billingsley et al., 1986). Information regarding water resources of the park is less abundant. Marine (1962) discussed water-supply possibilities for Capitol Reef National Monument (from which the Capitol Reef National Park was formed). A limnological study of the Fremont River in Capitol Reef National Monument was completed in 1963 (Woodbury and Musser, 1963) and the Fremont River was studied by the Utah Department of Natural Resources (1975) for state water resources planning purposes. The botanical, aquatic, fish, and wildlife resources, water quality and quantity of the Fremont River have been studied recently as part of the permit process for a proposed water resources development within the study area (Welsh, 1988; Hardy et al., 1989; Hansen et al., 1989; Murdock, 1987). Bjorklund (1969) described the ground-water resources of the upper Fremont River, adjacent to the study area. Huntoon (1978) and Hood and Danielson (1979, 1981) also investigated ground-water resources in the study area. The chemical quality of surface water and fluvial sediment of the Dirty Devil River Basin, of which the Fremont River is tributary, is discussed by Mundorff (1979). Envirosphere (1981) conducted a water quality survey of the park under contract with the NPS. 14 METHODS AND DATA SOURCES Information regarding physiography, topography, soils, vegetation, and geology were obtained from published sources and are referenced where appropriate. Climate data were obtained from the U.S. West Climatedata database, which provides access to the National Climatic Data Center files of daily observations by the Cooperative Observer Network on CD-ROM (U.S. West, 1988). Streamflow data were obtained from U.S. Geological Survey National Water Data Storage and Retrieval System Daily Values tables for stations named Fremont River near Bicknell, Utah (#09330000), Fremont River near Caineville, Utah (#09330230), Pine Creek near Bicknell, Utah (#09329900), and Pleasant Creek near Caineville, Utah (#09330210). Additional streamflow data along the Fremont River, smaller watercourses, and springs were obtained by the author using a Teledyne Gurley No. 625 Pygmy Current Meter. Water quality data were obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey Water-Quality File and the Environmental Protection Agency STORET water- quality files. Additional water quality data were collected by the author. A detailed description of the sampling and laboratory program is provided in Chapter 4.

Data-Site Numbering System

The system for numbering wells and springs in Utah is based on the cadastral land-survey system of the U.S. Government and is illustrated in Figure 1. The number designates the well or spring and describes its location within the state. The state is divided into four quadrants by the Salt Lake base line and meridian, and are designated by the upper- case letters A, B, C, and D, indicating the northeast, northwest, southwest, and southeast quadrants, respectively. Numbers designating the township, and range follow the quadrant letter, and all are enclosed 15

section Sections within a townshiP Tracts within a

R.8E. Sec 29

6 5 4 3 2 1

a 7 8 9 10 11 :2 b

18 17 16 15 14 13 T. 28 1 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 b 1 a I d 30 29 28 27 • 26 25 ell --, 1 b 1 a cI-----d----- 31 32 33 34 35 36 -\ c 1 d k7j Well ------1 F------6 miles (9.7 kilome te rs)------1 1 mile (1.6 kilometers)

(D-28-8)29odc-1

Figure 1: Data-site numbering system used in Utah (from Hood and Danielson, 1979). 16 in parentheses. The number after the parentheses indicates the section, and is followed by three letters indicating the quarter section, the quarter-quarter section, and quarter-quarter-quarter section, approximately 4 hectares, ha (10 acres). The letters a, b, c, and d indicate, respectively, the northeast, northwest, southwest, and southeast quarters of each subdivision. The number after the letters is the serial number of the well or spring within the 4 ha tract; the letter "S" preceding the serial number designation denotes a spring. The serial number may be followed by the letter "W" to indicate a petroleum- test well that has been converted to a water well, or an "S" to indicate a well that has been abandoned. 17 CHAPTER TWO DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

LOCATION, POLITICAL BOUNDARIES, AND PHYSIOGRAPHY Location and Political Boundaries The study area is mostly in Wayne and Garfield counties in south- central Utah, with small portions in Emory and Sevier Counties (Figure

2). The park encompasses approximately 980 km 2 and is surrounded mostly by public lands administered by the U.S. National Forest Service, U.S. Bureau of Land Management, and the U.S. National Park Service. Small parcels of land near the park are state administered or in private ownership. State school trust lands account for 8% of the land within the park boundaries.

Physiographic Region Capitol Reef National Park lies at the transition of the High Plateaus and Canyonlands sections of the Colorado Plateau physiographic region (Figure 2). The High Plateaus of Utah are plateaus in the truest sense in that the rocks are horizontal, have broad undulating surfaces, and are capped by lava flows which have aided in maintaining their height by protection from erosion (Fenneman, 1931). The three prominent plateaus in the Capitol Reef area, the Aquarius, Fish Lake, and Awapa Plateaus, are west of the park. The highest plateau, the Aquarius, in Dixie National Forest, is a lava-covered remnant bounded by retreating cliffs. With a maximum altitude of 3500 m, the Aquarius is high enough to have supported glaciers during the Pleistocene Epoch, as evidenced by the presence of numerous lakes fed by melting snow. Within Fishlake National Forest is the Fish Lake Plateau, a narrow, forest-covered strip at approximately 3350 m elevation. West of the study area is the Awapa 18

R4E R5E R6E R7E R8E R9E R1OE T26S &mg, c*. --ivry;;•—ai— • " osu 10 15 T27S

Fishiake National Forest

War* Co. Oid Co.

38'00'

—1111'15'

Area of Study Escaiante Resource Area

Glen Canyon National Recreation Area

Figure 2: Location map of study area, land ownership, and physiographic region. 19

Plateau, which at an elevation of 2800 m, is covered with volcanic rocks and vegetated with sagebrush and grass communities. The Canyonlands section of the Colorado Plateau region is adjacent to the High Plateaus section. Surface features of the canyonlands in Utah are more deeply eroded than in Arizona and New Mexico to the immediate south, although they have similar geology, structural history, and climate. The greater dissection is due to perennial streams such as the Fremont River which are fed by the larger rainfall of the surrounding highlands. Prominent geologic features of the Canyonlands section in the vicinity of the park are the Waterpocket Fold and the Circle Cliffs Upwarp. The Waterpocket Fold is an eastward-dipping monocline that extends from the Colorado River to Thousand Lake Mountain. Associated with the Waterpocket Fold is the Circle Cliffs Upwarp, an elongated structural dome along the southwest border of the park, dipping gently westward and more steeply eastward.

SOCIAL SETTING Local Economy and Land Use Wayne and Garfield Counties are sparsely populated, with approximately 2000 inhabitants each. The local economy is primarily agricultural, with a few small businesses, mining operations, and a small lumber and timber industry. Tourism contributes significantly to the local economy. The largest employer in the area is the federal government, contributing 46% to total earnings in Wayne County and 28% in Garfield County. In the two counties, income per capita are $5459 and $6476, and median household income are $11,047 and $12,364, respectively (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1988). Most of the land in the region is used for recreation and agricultural purposes, the latter being predominantly livestock but including crops and forest products (NPS, 1982). 20 Park Districts and Management Zones The General Management Plan (NPS, 1982) for Capitol Reef National Park divides the park into three districts: (1) The Headquarters District, the most accessible and frequently visited district; (2) The North District, with difficult access from Thousand Lake Mountain and the River Ford near Notom; and (3) The South District, with moderate access along Notom Road (Figure 3). Four management zones are further designated:

1. Natural Zone - management emphasis is on conservation of natural resources and processes (877 km2 );

2. Historic Zone - emphasis is on preservation, protection, and interpretation of cultural resources, including archaeologi- cal sites, prehistoric art panels, historic period structures, and the historic scene (1.05 km 2 );

3. Park Development Zone - emphasis is on provision and main- tenance of park development to serve the needs of park visitors and management (0.134 km 2 ); and

4. Special Use Zone - this zone covers uses carried out by other government entities, both state and federal, utility rights-of-way, mining claims, stock uses, and private interests (101 km').

Park Facilities and Cultural Features Park Service facilities and activities affect or have the potential to affect the water resources of the park. Water use, both domestic and agricultural, is proportional to the extent of development and level of visitation. Park facilities include administrative offices, a visitor center, and employee housing (9 single-family residences and 4 apartments) in the Fruita Headquarters area, with additional office space and storage in the Pendleton-Gifford House and Barn in the Fruita Campground area. A campground along the Scenic Drive has seventy sites and includes provisions for group camping. Primitive campgrounds are in the North and South Districts. Sleeping Rainbow Ranch, a private inholding near Pleasant Creek at the Scenic Drive, consists of a main house, two motel- 21

R4E R5E R6E I R7E R8E R9E R1OE T26S

North District T27S

CANEVLLE T28S

T29S Headquarters District T3OS

T31S

3800' 11f15' •nnn•11 miles 111111 1 T33S 0 5 10 15 20

1....1 1 1 1 1 0 5 10 15 20 25 T34S km A Fruits Campground ---4 A Primitive Campgrounds T35S • -r% Paved Roads Unpaved Roads - • — District Boundary 0 Sleeping Rainbow Ranch T36S

Figure 3: Capitol Reef National Park management districts and park facilities. 22 like buildings, and a trailer (NPS, 1982). The potable water supply for the park is processed at the water treatment plant on the Scenic Drive at the Fremont River. The average treatment rate is 95 1/m. A 380 m3 (100,000 gal) capacity storage tank is on the stream terrace 75 m above the treatment plant. Drinking water for Sleeping Rainbow residents is pumped from a nearby spring and stored in a 38 m3 (10,000 gal) cistern under their house (NPS, 1982). The wastewater system consists of septic tanks and leach fields. Five sub-systems serve the Headquarters District: the Visitor Center area, Sprang Cottage, the Pendleton-Gifford house and campgrounds, the Chestnut-Pierce house, and the Sleeping Rainbow Ranch (NPS, 1982). As of 1991, thirteen underground storage tanks are in service in the Headquarters area of the park. Two of the tanks contain automotive fuel, while the remaining contain heating oil for park residences. Although their age and condition are unknown, they are believed to be greater than 25 years old and may be in poor condition. The NPS Regional Office has plans to test the tanks and repair or replace as necessary. Agricultural areas in Fruita and along Pleasant Creek consist of orchards and fields (Figure 3). The orchards, introduced by Mormon settlers (members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints) in the late 1880s, are remnants of Fruita settlement days and are considered significant as historic structures. The 2,500 fruit trees bear apples, peaches, apricots, pears, and cherries. Fruit-picking is a popular visitor activity in the orchards. Hay is grown in the fields and is used as feed for NPS horses. The horses are grazed in pasture near the campground and Sleeping Rainbow Ranch (NPS, 1982). The orchards and fields are watered by furrow irrigation. The NPS has a water right for 0.228 m3/s or eight ft 3/s (cfs) on the Fremont

River and 0.0283 m3 /s (1 cfs) on Sulphur Creek. Water is withdrawn from 23 the Fremont River into a concrete sluice channel and settling pond and delivered to orchards and fields by gravity flow through open ditches and a buried pipeline (NPS, 1982).

Legislative History The geology of the Capitol Reef area has long been recognized as unique and unusual. Capitol Reef National Monument was established as a unit of the National Park Service by President Franklin Roosevelt

(Presidential Proclamation No. 2246) on August 2, 1937 because of its "narrow canyons displaying evidence of ancient sand dunes of unusual scientific value, and have situated thereon various other objects of geological and scientific interest." The Monument was later enlarged by

12 km2 in 1958 by President Eisenhower (Presidential Proclamation #3249,

July 2, 1958) to include "adjoining lands needed for the protection of the features of geological and scientific interest" and to 870 km2 by

President Johnson in 1969 (Presidential Proclamation #3888, January 20,

1969) to include "other complementing geological features." In 1971, Congress expanded the park to its current size and changed the designation of the Monument and created Capitol Reef National Park (Pub. L. 92-

207; 85 Stat. 739). An aspect of the enabling legislation that makes Capitol Reef unique with regard to most other National Park units is a provision for continued grazing within the park for the duration of existing leases and one renewal period, and the perpetual right of stockmen to trail and water their herds on traditional courses used by them on the date of enactment. The grazing phase-out expiration date has been extended to

December 31, 1994 (Pub. L. 97-341, October, 1982). 24 Water Rights The National Park Service holds both state appropriative and federal reserved water rights in the park. State water rights in Utah are based on the doctrine of prior appropriation in which the party who first utilizes water for a beneficial use (i.e., appropriates the water) has a prior right to use, against all other appropriators. The water must be put to beneficial use as defined by the state. Beneficial uses in Utah include irrigation, domestic, stockwatering, municipal, power, mining, wildlife, instream flow, and other uses. An appropriative water right is a property right; it can be bought and sold, and its place of use, purpose, and point of diversion may be changed without loss of priority provided there is no injury to the water rights of others (Water Laws of Utah, 73-1-10). Two basic types of appropriative rights in Utah are diligence and statutory water rights. Water appropriated before the passage of the 1903 state water rights statute are termed diligence rights. Legisla- tion has provided a procedure for filing claims for diligence rights with the State Engineer and such claims shall be evidence of the claimed rights (Water Laws of Utah, 73-5-13). The current method of appropriating water in Utah is based on the 1903 statute as revised in 1919. A person must file an application with the Utah State Engineer before appropriating water. If unappropriated water is available, the permit will generally be approved and the applicant may commence water development. Proof of construction must be made within a given period, and if the appropriation is perfected in accordance with all requirements, the State Engineer issues a certificate of appropriation (Water Laws of Utah, 73-3-2). Federal reserved water rights arise from the purposes for the reservation of land by the federal government. When the federal government reserves land for a particular purpose it also reserves, by 25 implication, enough water unappropriated at the time of the reservation necessary to accomplish the purposes for which Congress or the President authorized the land to be reserved, without regard to the limitations of state law. The rights vest as of the date of the reservation, whether or not the water is actually put to use, and are superior to the rights of those who commence the use of water after the reservation date. General basinwide adjudications are the means by which the federal government claims its reserved water rights. The McCarren Amendment (66 Stat. 560, 43 U.S.C. 666, June 10, 1952) provides the mechanism by which the United States can participate as a defendant in an adjudication. Once adjudicated by the state, the reserved or appropriated water rights of the United States fit into the state priority system with those of all other appropriators. Both federal reserved and state appropriative water right claims for the park have been filed in a general water rights adjudication of the Colorado River begun in 1983 (Utah Civil No. 435). State appropriative water rights were claimed for stock watering directly on streams and for irrigation and domestic uses. Federal reserved water rights were claimed for water necessary to fulfill reservation purposes. The Federal reserved water rights have not yet been quantified. In addition to Park Service claims, more than 60 water right claims are held by other governmental agencies and private individuals. The status and validity of these claims, as well as the potential impacts on management of the park resources, are unknown.

CLIMATE Climate varies greatly within the study area due to large differ- ences in elevation, which range from 1200 m at the southern boundary of the park to 3500 m at the summit of Boulder Mountain (the Aquarius Plateau). Within the elevation zone of the park the climate is classi- 26 fied as arid, which is generally dry with mild winters and warm to hot summers (Trewartha, 1980). Temperatures at Capitol Reef Headquarters range from a mean high of 34°C in July to a mean low of -7°C in January (Figure 4). Midsummer daytime temperatures often exceed 38°C. Mean daily temperatures and extremes vary with elevation throughout the area; mean monthly maximum temperatures generally vary inversely with elevation (Figure 5), while Hanksville (elev. 1314 m) and Sandy Ranch (elev. 1616 m) generally have lower minimum temperatures than at Capitol Reef Headquarters (elev. 1676

m ). The park receives, on the average, 183 mm of rain and 427 mm of snow annually. Approximately half of the annual rainfall at Capitol Reef Headquarters occurs within the four month period of July through October (Figure 6). Mean monthly rainfall ranges from 6 mm in December to 29 mm in August. Mean annual snowfall at Capitol Reef is temporally distributed as shown in Figure 6. Mean annual precipitation as both rain and snow generally increases with altitude (Figure 5). The surrounding highlands receive as much as 834 mm of precipitation annually (Loa, elevation 2150 m), while Capitol Reef Headquarters, Sandy Ranch, and Hanksville receive 700 mm, 770 mm, and 300 mm of precipitation annually, respectively. Winter snowpacks often accumulate to more than 2500 mm on the higher plateaus and are the principal source of runoff in the late spring and early summer. Summer precipitation generally results from localized, convective storms of short duration that are driven by moisture-laden storm systems from the south (Lines et al., 1983). High summer temperatures, low relative humidity, vast areas of exposed rock with sparse vegetation, and dense riparian areas result in high evapotranspiration rates, with potential evapotranspiration vastly exceeding precipitation. Hood and Danielson (1981) estimated that 96 27

TEMPERATURE (degrees C) 40

-10 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Max 5 9 14 19 25 31 34 32 28 20 12 6

Min -4 o 3 8 14 17 17 12 6 - 1 -6 MONTH

Figure 4: Mean monthly minimum and maximum temperatures, Capitol Reef National Park (U.S. West, 1988). 28

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PRECIPITATION (mm) 150 134 RAIN SNOW 125 -

100 - 93

80 75 75 -

54 50 38 29 32 26 25 - 19 19 11

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec MONTH

Figure 6: Mean monthly precipitation, Capitol Reef National Park (U.S. West, 1988). 30 percent of precipitation in the area is consumed by evapotranspiration. Significant sublimation of the winter snowpack probably occurs in the high plateaus which are unprotected from dry winds that are common in this region (Lines et al., 1983).

SOILS AND VEGETATION Soils The soils in the study area are generally shallow, friable eolian and alluvial deposits. Soil patterns within the area include deep and moderately deep soils derived from sandstone formations, shallow to deep soils that overlie shales, shallow rocky soils, and deep sand along the numerous desert washes. The soils are well drained and have medium to fine textures. Bare rock surfaces are also common throughout the study area (NPS, 1974). Little or no soil development occurs in many places due to high erosion rates. Deep alluvial soils have become established in wide stream valleys in which the stream flows through soft, erodible geologic substrates such as the Entrada Sandstone, Moenkopi, or Chinle Formations (NPS, 1987).

Vegetation Nearly 700 plant species known to exist in the park area including ten that are listed as threatened, endangered, or are candidate species for threatened or endangered status. The vegetative communities are defined mainly by the availability of moisture as dictated by elevation, slope, aspect, temperature, substrate, and drainage patterns. Communi- ties in the park include desert shrubland, sparse desert grassland, pinyon-juniper, slickrock-canyon wall, and riparian (NPS, 1982; NPS, 31 1987). At higher elevations, vegetative communities range from pine forest to subalpine vegetation (Smith et al., 1963). Table 1 summarizes the vegetation zones in the Capitol Reef area.

TABLE 1 VEGETATION ZONES IN THE CAPITOL REEF AREA

VEGETATION ZONE ALTI- DOMINANT VEGETATION SUBORDINATE VEGETA- TUDE TION (m) Subalpine >3000 Grasses in meadows; Alpine fir. sedges and rushes around swamps and ponds; Engelmann spruce on ridges. Mountain forest 2700- Douglas-fir, white Dense fir forest with (aspen-fir) 3000 fir, aspen, blue some grassy meadows spruce. and aspen groves. Pine forest 2000- Ponderosa pine, juni- Willow and narrow- (yellow pine- 2700 per, scrub oak, leafed cottonwoods oak) (Gambel oak), spruce, along streams; Doug- fir, other pines. las-fir near seeps, pines on ridges; mountain mahogany. Semi-desert 1600- Pinyon pine, Utah Willow and narrow- (Pinion-juni- 2500 juniper, one-seed leafed cottonwoods per) juniper; sagebrush along streams. Iso- and grasses in open lated groups of pon- glades. derosa pines near seeps and springs. Desert (north- <2000 Sagebrush, shadscale, Low cactus and yucca, ern desert rabbitbrush, grasses, saltbush; broad- shrub) Mormon tea, herba- leafed cottonwoods ceous plants. along streams. (after Smith et al., 1963)

At lower elevations, the shrubland is the most common plant community type. Some common plants in this community include sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus), Mormon tea (Ephedra torreyana), prickly pear cactus (Opuntia polycantha), and rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus). Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), 32 Russian thistle (Salsola kali), and Six Weeks Fescue (Vulpia octoflora) are common invaders in disturbed areas (NPS, 1982; NPS, 1987). A gradual transition from the dry desert shrubland communities on the eastern side of the park to the semiarid vegetation found on the reef and at higher elevations to the west occurs. Juniper is often the dominant form of vegetation in the bottom of washes, at higher elevations, and along north-facing slopes. The higher elevations are more conducive to tree growth because of higher precipitation rates and cooler temperatures (NPS, 1982; NPS, 1987). Extensive riparian areas occur along perennial streams such as the Fremont River and Oak and Pleasant Creeks, less extensively along other watercourses. Shrub and tree species found in these areas, among others, include sandbar willow (Salix exigua), silver buffaloberry (Shepherdia argentea), river birch (Betula occidentalis), thinleaf alder (Alnus tenuifolia), and Fremont cottonwood (Populus fremontii) (Welsh, 1988). Russian olive (Eleagnus angustifolius) and salt cedar (Tamarix pentandra) are the most common exotic species. Much of the riparian area along the Fremont River and Sulphur Creek in Fruita have been replaced with irrigated fields and orchards by the Mormon settlers (NPS, 1982; NPS, 1987). At higher elevations surrounding the park, types of vegetation found are Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), Utah juniper (Juniperus osteoperma), scrub oak, blue spruce, Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), white fir, willows (Salix sp.), narrow-leafed cottonwoods (Populus angustifolia), and mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus). At the summits of Boulder and Thousand Lake Mountains, subalpine vegetation include various grasses in meadows, and sedges and rushes around swamps and ponds (Smith et al., 1963). 3 3 GEOLOGY

The geology of the Capitol Reef area was first described in the early reports of G.K. Gilbert (1877) and C.E. Dutton (1880). Later geologic investigations that include parts of the study area were conducted to study oil and gas resources (Gilluly and Reeside, 1928), coal and uranium deposits (Gregory and Moore, 1931; Smith et al., 1963), and general studies conducted upon the creation of Capitol Reef National Monument (Gregory and Anderson, 1939) and of the Henry Mountains region (Hunt, 1953). The erosional and structural features such as Navajo Sandstone domes and the Waterpocket Fold, similar to those found throughout the Canyonlands section of the Colorado Plateau, are the essence of Capitol Reef. The geologic units also form cliffs, slopes, benches, and natural bridges (Gregory and Anderson, 1939; Hunt et al., 1953; Smith et al., 1963).

Stratigraphy The stratigraphy of the study area has been characterized by Gregory and Anderson (1939), Hunt (1953), and Smith et al. (1963). The strata exposed in the study area (Figure 7) span geologic time from the Permian to the Cretaceous Period, beginning where the upper layers of the Grand Canyon terminate, with some overlap. The Cutler Formation (previously called Coconino Sandstone) and Kaibab Limestone, the top two layers present at the north rim of the Grand Canyon, are present as the lowest stratigraphic features in the park. Subsequent formations were deposited in shallow marine environments, on broad flat floodplains, and from eolian processes. 34

R4E R5E R6E R7E T26S

T27S

T28S

T29S

T3OS

T3iS

T32S

•n••n••4

T33S

T3 4S

J JURASSIC Morrison Formation Summerville Formation Curtis Formation Entrada Sandstone T35S Carmel Formation Navajo Sandstone T TRIASSIC Kayenta Formation Wingate Sandstone T36S Chinle Formation Moenkopi Formation

Figure 7: Generalized geologic map of the Capitol Reef area. 35 Permian System Rocks of Permian age include the Cutler Formation and Kaibab Limestone. The Cutler Formation is exposed only in the deeper canyons west of the Waterpocket Fold, particularly the Fremont Gorge, along Sulphur Creek at the Goosenecks, and Pleasant Creek. The exposed thickness ranges from 185 in in Pleasant Creek to 250 in in the Fremont Gorge with a total thickness of about 380 m. The Cutler Formation forms steep slopes and cliffs that are relatively inaccessible and is presumed to be eolian. Kaibab Limestone is found where it overlies the Cutler Formation as well as in Capitol and Grand Washes and their tributaries west of the Waterpocket Fold. The Kaibab is composed of impure cherty limestone and dolomite with interbedded sandstone and siltstone. The Kaibab Limestone is from 75 m to 105 in thick. Eroded edges of the Kaibab Limestone form low cliffs or steep rubble covered slopes. The presence of marine fossils indicate the Kaibab Limestone was deposited in a marine environ- ment.

Triassic System The Triassic System is comprised of the Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. The Moenkopi is found predominantly in the area west of the park headquarters and along the flanks of the Waterpocket Fold and Miner's Mountain with small exposures along Oak Creek and in North and South Coleman Canyons. It ranges from 235 in to 300 m thick and is well known for its abundant, well-preserved ripple marks, a remnant of its marine origin. The Chinle Formation is exposed predominantly as a band along the Waterpocket Fold, along Miners Mountain and in the Circle Cliffs area. It is divided into three units: a crossbedded sandstone called the Shinarump Sandstone, a siltstone, claystone, and sandstone unit, and a 36 siltstone, sandstone, and limestone unit. The formation ranges in total thickness from 135 m to 165 m. The Shinarump Sandstone, a member of the Chinle Formation, is discontinuous throughout the area.

Jurassic System The Glen Canyon Group consists of Wingate Sandstone, the Kayenta Formation, and the Navajo Sandstone and are Jurassic in age. The Wingate Sandstone is a vertically jointed, tightly-cemented massive sandstone found along the Waterpocket Fold above the Chinle Formation. It is 100 to 115 m thick and produces sheer, vertical cliffs wherever it is exposed and is believed to be an eolian deposit, however, some evidence exists that a few bedding planes are due to fluvial action The Kayenta Formation is almost indistinguishable from the underlying Wingate Sandstone in many areas. The Kayenta is approximately 100 m thick, is generally fluviatile in origin, and forms ledges above the sheer cliffs of the Wingate Sandstone. The Navajo Sandstone is found along the Waterpocket Fold and along the sides of Thousand Lake and Boulder Mountains and ranges from 245 m to 335 m thick. Domes, ridges, whaleback and haystack forms along the crest of the fold are eroded in the Navajo. These forms have inspired the name "Capitol Reef". The Carmel Formation, Entrada Sandstone, Curtis, and Summerville Formations comprise the San Rafael Group, also Jurassic in age. The Carmel Formation is exposed along the east side of the Waterpocket Fold and along the west side of Thousand Lake Mountain and the Black Ridge area of Boulder Mountain. It caps prominent knobs of the Navajo Sandstone along the crest of the reef, such as Golden Throne. The Entrada Sandstone is exposed as a continuous band along the Waterpocket Fold. The Entrada is less resistant than formations above and below, and erodes to form valleys and low hills. Where it is 37 capped, it is exposed at the base of steep vertical cliffs as found in Cathedral Valley. The Curtis Formation is found along the northeast and east sides of the Waterpocket Fold. The Curtis forms steep to vertical cliffs, particularly in the South Desert, where it caps the Entrada Sandstone 'cathedrals'. The Summerville Formation is also exposed as a band along the northeast and east side of the Waterpocket Fold and forms steep slopes and cliffs where capped by the overlying Morrison Formation. The Morrison Formation crops out east and northeast of the Waterpocket Fold. Two members of the Morrison are the Salt Wash Sandstone and the Brushy Basin Shale.

Cretaceous System Strata of Cretaceous age are the Dakota Sandstone, Mancos Shale, and the Mesaverde Formation. Outcrops of the Dakota sandstone appear east of the Waterpocket Fold. The Mancos Shale is exposed along a broad belt east of the Waterpocket Fold. It has five members: Tununk Shale, Ferron Sandstone, Blue Gate Shale, Emery Sandstone, and the Masuk. The Mesaverde Formation, capping the Masuk member of the Mancos, is similar to the Ferron and Emery Sandstones. It forms the flat top of Tarantula Mesa and caps other small mesas in the area.

Tertiary System Extrusive rocks are well exposed, particularly on Boulder and Thousand Lake Mountains, where the capping lava averages 150 and 100 meters in thickness, respectively. The margins of these lava flows form dark vertical cliffs with numerous notches. Cliff bases are composed of talus and slide blocks. The lavas consist chiefly of porphyritic andesite and some andesite scoria. 38 Quaternary and Recent Deposits Quaternary deposits include pediment gravels, boulder deposits, terrace gravels, and landslide deposits. Pediment gravels consist of lava boulders and many smaller fragments that cap flat-topped hills and benches and are approximately 6 to 15 m thick in the study area. Maturely dissected boulder deposits cap hilltops and consist of lava boulders up to one meter in length. Terrace gravels, approximately six meters thick, consist of lava boulders and pebbles and are found on erosional terraces above the Fremont River. The terrace is 45 m above the river at Carcass Creek and increases downstream to 75 m above the river at Johnson Mesa at Fruita. Landslide deposits are common on the flanks of Boulder and Thousand Lake Mountains. They form small lakes and depressions and have variable composition. Recent deposits include alluvium, colluvial sand and gravel, and alluvial fan deposits. The alluvium consists of stream deposits of clay, sand, and gravel, depending upon the source and are probably 3 to 12 meters thick. The colluvial deposits are mainly mixtures of sand, gravel, and silt derived form slope wash of detritus from adjacent uplands. Alluvial fan deposits are a poorly sorted mixture of silt, sand, pebbles, cobbles, and boulders and have formed where small mountain streams discharge abruptly onto the flat valley floor (Gregory and Anderson, 1939; Hunt et al., 1953; Smith et al., 1963).

Structure The most prominent structural features in the study area are the Waterpocket Fold, the Teasdale and Fruita anticlines, the Teasdale Fault, and the Thousand Lake Fault (Figure 7). 39 Folds The Waterpocket Fold is one of the large monoclines of the Colorado Plateau formed during the Cretaceous Period. In many respects the monoclines are the principal structural features of the Colorado Plateau. Most of the deformation has occurred along them and they are usually associated with uplifts. The principal characteristics of a monocline, and that of the Waterpocket Fold are (Kelley, 1955): 1) A single direction of dip in all limbs or parts, i.e., no reversal of direction; 2) Gentleness of associated regional dips, espe- cially outside the head and foot of the monocline; and 3) Great ratio of length to width. The Waterpocket Fold extends from the Colorado River south of the Henry Mountains 160 km northwestward to Thousand Lake Mountain. Dips range from as gentle as 15° in the south end to a maximum of 75° at some points east of the Circle Cliffs. Local bends in the structure, characteristic of monoclines, occur near Oak Creek at the southeast end of the Teasdale anticline and in the area north of Fruita at the southeast end of the Fruita anticline (Gregory and Moore, 1931; Smith et al., 1963). The Teasdale anticline trends northwestward and parallels the Teasdale fault for much of its length. It plunges northwestward and southeastward with dips ranging from 10° to 50°. The Fruita anticline is a doubly-plunging asymmetrical anticline along the Waterpocket Fold that trends northwestward and is about eight km long.

Faults The Teasdale fault is a high-angle to vertical normal fault with vertical displacement as much as 350 m. The fault is about 40 km long and trends northwestward. Thousand Lake fault, along the western 40 boundary of the study area, is also a high-angle fault that trends generally northward. Total vertical displacement is approximately 800 m

(Smith et al., 1963). 41 CHAPTER 3 HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES

This chapter describes the ground and surface water resources of Capitol Reef National Park and surrounding areas. The first section addresses the occurrence of ground water, the hydraulic characteristics of aquifers, ground-water movement and storage, identifies areas of recharge and discharge, and discusses geologic factors that may affect the hydrology of the study area. The second section briefly describes the major watersheds in the area and is followed by a detailed description of the Fremont River and other major watercourses, springs, lakes, and tinajas. The last section discusses surface water/ground-water interactions along the Fremont River.

GROUND-WATER RESOURCES Although use of ground water within the park and ground-water development in the area have been limited, it remains an integral part of the ecosystems of the park. This section discusses the occurrence, storage, and movement of ground water, and identifies areas of recharge and discharge. The hydrologic characteristics of water-bearing formations is also discussed.

Occurrence Ground water in the study area is discussed in relation to three units: sedimentary bedrock formations, unconsolidated deposits, and basalt flows that unconformably overlie the bedrock and unconsolidated deposits. Sedimentary formations exposed throughout the study area all yield water to wells, however, only a few are considered major aquifers: the Entrada, Navajo, Wingate, and Cutler Sandstones. These formations 42 are considered important due to the large areal extent or thickness, or because of locally large yields to wells. Prospects for potential development of the Navajo Sandstone have been studied extensively (Hood and Danielson, 1979; Hood, 1980; Uygur, 1980; Hood and Danielson, 1981; Hood and Patterson, 1984; Blanchard, 1986a). Strata that are considered locally important aquifers but are limited in potential development due to thinness, distribution, or poor chemical quality of the water include unconsolidated older alluvium and terrace deposits, Mancos Shale, the Morrison Formation, and the Carmel 'Formation (Hood and Danielson, 1981). Unconsolidated rocks consist of alluvial and eolian deposits, colluvium, terrace gravels, and pediment deposits of which alluvial deposits are the most extensive. Alluvial deposits occur along the Fremont River and its tributaries. The composition of alluvium changes widely, ranging from clays and silts to sands and gravels depending upon the rock types present in the specific drainage. The principal alluvial aquifers in the study area are along the Fremont River in the Torrey and Fruita areas, in the Sleeping Rainbow Ranch area along Pleasant Creek, Sulphur Creek, and Hall's Creek. Thousand Lake and Boulder Mountains and the Awapa and Aquarius Plateaus are capped with permeable volcanic rocks, primarily lava flows. Highly fractured basalt flows also occur along the edges of the valley floor near Bicknell Bottoms and Torrey, and along the base of Thousand Lake Mountain in the northwestern portion of the park. Ground water in the study area occurs under unconfined, confined, and perched conditions. A listing of wells in the study area and their characteristics is given in Appendix D. Ground water in basalts and alluvium is generally unconfined. Confined conditions can occur where fine-grained alluvium or clays overlie more permeable, coarse-grained alluvium. Ground water in bedrock is unconfined where it crops out in the western portion of the study area but becomes confined to the east. 43

Maximum static water levels at a test well near the park east boundary, at (D-29-7)15dbd-1, and near Caineville, at (D-28-8)33ccd-1S, both completed in the Navajo Sandstone, have been measured at 13 and 57 m above the land surface, respectively. Perched artesian conditions also occur along the Saleratus Syncline in the Blue Flat Desert (at (D-28- 7)36bbb-1), as indicated in a flowing well completed in the Salt Wash Member of the Morrison Formation (Bjorklund, 1969; Hood and Danielson, 1981).

Hydrologic Characteristics of Aquifers Strata exposed in the study area are generally low in permeability. Their general hydrologic characteristics are presented in Table 2. Table 3 is a compilation of the hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity, and porosity of Mesozoic formations in the study area (Weigel, 1987). Data included in the table are not necessarily in the study area but were included based on their proximity to the study area. Values were obtained using various field and laboratory methods, resulting in different estimates for the same property of a given formation. Hydraulic conductivity is extremely scale-dependent and varies over a wide range for most geologic media. Values obtained in the laboratory are an estimate of the rock matrix hydraulic conductivity, while values obtained from field methods are more representative of the regional aquifer. The latter estimates are influenced by fractures and other permeability-enhancing features and are generally much larger than those obtained in the laboratory. The values for different strata are not comparable if they were obtained by different methods.

Hydraulic conductivity ranges from very low values (9.1 X 10 -6 m/day) in the Dakota Sandstone to 0.55 m/day in a well completed in the Navajo Sandstone. Hydraulic conductivity values obtained in the laboratory indicate that the Navajo Sandstone rock matrix has a low

TABLE 2 HYDROLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS IN STUDY AREA

AGE FORMATION HYDROLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS

QUATERNARY Unconsolidated rocks, Contain water only beneath stream channels. alluvium, colluvium Water generally high in dissolved solids, though can be fresh in the mountains. Low to high permeability.

Basalt flows, minor intrusives Unknown; however, cinder cones and basalt probably are good recharge medium. Probably not saturated.

CRETACEOUS Mesaverde Formation Low permeability. Yields an estimated 10 gpm to a slightly saline spring. Might produce more water to wells that penetrate fully saturated sections, but probably be saline. Mancos Shale: Masuk Member Very low permeability. Shale inhibits drainage of water from overlying consolidated rocks. Unleached debris from this member, where present in in alluvium, contributes to the salinity of ground water in the alluvium.

Emery Sandstone Member Caps south Caineville Mesa. Very low permeability. Yields small amounts of saline water to seeps and springs.

Blue Gate Member Very low permeability. Debris from this member, where present in alluvium, contributes to the salinity of ground water in alluvium.

Ferron Sandstone Member At edge of Caineville Monocline. Generally Low permeability. Yields small amounts of fresh to slightly saline water to springs.

Tununk Member At edge of Caineville Monocline and in bottom of North Blue Flat. Low permeability.

Dakota Sandstone Very low to low permeability. May be a source of water locally, but thinness and discontinuity indicate it is not an important aquifer in the study area. JURASSIC Morrison Formation: Brushy Basin Shale Member Contains variegated beds of bentonite preventing deep infiltration. Very low permeability. Barren surfaces contribute much sediment to surface runoff during torrential thunderstorms; sediment seals surfaces of otherwise permeable alluvium and reduces permeability when mixed with alluvium. 45

TABLE 2 HYDROLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS IN STUDY AREA

AGE FORMATION HYDROLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS

JURASSIC Morrison Formation: Salt Wash Sandstone Member Yields perched water under artesian pressure at well at (D-28-7)36bbb-1 Low permeability, but potential aquifer where fully saturated. Water is mainly sodium sulfate type.

Summerville Formation Very low permeability. May supply water to a few seeps, but would be saline and of calcium sulfate type.

Curtis Formation Caps bluffs of Entrada Sandstone. Generally low permeability. Any water in aquifer is probably saline.

Entrada Sandstone Yields water to wells in adjacent areas, Hanksville. Overall permeability is low. Source of small amounts of slightly to moderately saline in the Burr and San Rafael Deserts.

Carmel Formation Yields water where fractured or included limestone is cavernous. Water is generally saline. Very low to locally very high permeability.

JURASSIC AND Navajo Sandstone Major aquifer. Massive sandstone. Water TRIASSIC(?) saline where deeply buried. Large yields can be obtained where it is fully saturated, thick, and under confined conditions.

TRIASSIC(?) Kayenta Formation Contains siltstone beds that separate Navajo from Wingate aquifers. Very low to low permeability. Leakage through formation where it is sandy or fractured. Springs or seeps occur near the contact with the Navajo in the bottoms of canyons.

TRIASSIC Wingate Sandstone Potentially a source of water to supplement that from Navajo Sandstone. Probably has lower intergranular permeability than Navajo but probably equal to it in fracture permeability. Not as thick as Navajo. Yields small quantities of fresh to moderately saline water to a few springs where rocks are jointed. Because of low permeability, the Wingate, where buried, probably is more saline than Navajo. 46

TABLE 2 HYDROLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS IN STUDY AREA

AGE FORMATION HYDROLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS

TRIASSIC Chinle Formation: Shinarump Member Generally low permeability. Mainly sandstone in this locality. Thin and discontinuous. Most of formation is too fine-grained to accept much recharge; enhances runoff and contributes much sediment to water. May small

amounts of water to seeps . . Moenkopi Formation: Upper Unit Very low to low permeability. Sandstone units yield small quantities of fresh to moderately saline water.

Sinbab Limestone Member Low permeability in most areas; where the Limestone is near the surface or has been strongly fractured, ground-water circulation probably has caused cavernous development and thus enhanced permeability.

Lower Unit Similar to upper part of the Moenkopi Formation.

PERMIAN Kaibab Limestone Very low to moderate permeability. Undisturbed formation probably has low permeability; where fractured by folding or faulting, secondary permeability may be moderate.

Cutler Formation Very low to moderate permeability. No direct (Coconino Sandstone) data available, but formation estimated to have characteristics similar to Navajo, including effects of fracturing. Where deeply buried, water probably slightly saline, but in and near outcrops, as in central part of Capitol Reef, water may be fresh.

Modified from Hood and Danielson (1979, 1981) 47

TABLE 3 HYDROLOGIC PROPERTIES OF AQUIFERS IN THE STUDY AREA

HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY ANISOTROPY TRANS- EFFECTIVE FORMATION LOCATION METHOD HORIZ VERT RATIO MISSIVITY POROSITY T R S QUAD (miday) (m/day) (m2/day) (%)

Blue Gate 28 9 29 BDB-1 SC 1829 Blue Gate 28 9 30 DAD-1 SC 1738 Brushy Basin 30 11 5 ADB-1 SC 104 Mesaverde 27 9 27 ABB LAB 0.20 Dakota 25 4 8 DA DST 0.0037 Dakota 32 8 18 BDA LAB 9.1E-06 3.7 Morrison 30 11 5 CBB LAB 0.43 Morrison 29 7 23 CAA LAB 3.7 Salt Wash Member 32 8 18 ACA LAB 0.0011 3.7 Salt Wash Member 29 7 36 DDB LAB 0.017 6.4 Salt Wash Member 28 11 18 AAC LAB 0.052 13.4 Carmel 28 8 33 COD-1 DST 0.012 Carmel 26 9 22 BCB LAB 8.2E-04 Carmel 27 7 7 BCC-1 SC 61 Curtis 26 9 22 DBC SC 0.073 Entrada 26 9 22 CBA LAB 0.034 Entrada 33 9 32 AAB LAB 0.26 Entrada 28 11 15 BDC-1 SC 128 Entrada 28 11 16 CBA-1 SC 9 Entrada 28 11 16 DAD-1 SC 16 Entrada 28 11 21 ABD-1 SC 12 Entrada 28 11 28 BDD-2 SC 37 Entrada 29 11 36 DAA-1 SC 143 Entrada 29 11 1 BBC-1 SC 162 Entrada 35 3 8 ABA-1 SC 0.40 Entrada 35 3 29 BBD-1 SC 0.10 Entrada 35 11 16 CDD-1 SC 125 Navajo 28 7 27 CDB-1 AQ 793 Navajo 28 8 29 CDC-1 AO 488 Navajo 28 8 29 DCB-1 AQ 488 Navajo 28 8 33 CDD-1 AQ 488 Navajo 28 8 33 BBB-1 AO 518 Navajo 28 8 29 DCB-1 SC 1250 Navajo 28 8 29 DCB-1 SC 823 Navajo 28 8 33 BBB-1 SC 396 Navajo 28 8 33 BBB-1 SC 610 Navajo 29 4 25 DCB-1 SC 396 Navajo 29 4 26 DAC-1 SC 3049 Navajo 31 7 36 DAD-1 SC 122 Navajo 33 4 35 CBB-1 SC 2348 Navajo 33 4 36 ABB-1 SC 73 Navajo 28 8 33 COD-1 DST 0.23 Navajo 28 8 33 COD-1 DST 0.55 Navajo 26 9 21 AAB LAB 0.67 Navajo 28 7 27 CDB-1 LAB 0.24 0.16 1.5 20.5 Navajo 28 7 27 CDB-1 LAB 0.13 0.16 0.79 20.7 48

TABLE 3 HYDROLOGIC PROPERTIES OF AQUIFERS IN THE STUDY AREA

HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY ANISOTROPY TRANS- EFFECTIVE FORMATION LOCATION METHOD HORIZ VERT RATIO MISSIVITY POROSITY T R S QUAD (m/day) (miday) (m2/day) (%)

Navajo 28 8 33 BBB-1 LAB 0.052 0.020 2.5 22.3 Navajo 28 8 33 BBB-1 LAB 0.14 0.037 3.9 20.4 Navajo 28 8 33 BBB-1 LAB 0.0046 0.011 0.43 22.5 Navajo 28 8 33 BBB-1 LAB 0.10 0.052 1.9 20.4 Navajo 28 8 33 BBB-1 LAB 0.12 0.076 1.5 22.5 Navajo 28 8 33 BBB-1 LAB 0.14 0.13 1.0 22.3 Navajo 31 7 28 DDB LAB 0.0024 0.0064 0.38 Navajo 34 8 15 BCC LAB 0.82 0.28 3.0 17.4 Navajo 34 8 16 DAD LAB 6.7E-04 3.35E-04 2.0 16.1 Navajo 35 4 1 DA LAB 0.13 0.076 1.7 25.6 Navajo 35 4 1 DA LAB 0.27 0.140 1.9 14.2 Chinle 26 9 9 BCD LAB 0.017 Kayenta 26 9 16 DBD LAB 0.082 Kayenta 35 9 29 CCB LAB 0.104 Shinarump Member 30 6 9 AAA LAB 0.23 Wingate 36 7 7 ABA LAB 0.040 0.013 3.0 20.4 Wingate 34 8 16 DCA LAB 0.015 0.0034 4.4 24.1 Wingate 34 5 12 DBC-1 LAB 0.43 0.091 4.7 31.4 Wingate 30 6 35 CDD LAB 0.104 Wingate 26 9 16 CBD LAB 0.055 Moenkopi 31 9 22 ACA-1 DST 6.7E-04 Moenkopi 29 5 34 DDB-1 SC 9 Sinbad LS 29 11 17 BD DST 0.023 Sinbad LS 29 5 19 CBA-1 SC 0.305 Sinbad LS 29 5 32 BAD-1 SC 82

AQ=aquifer test; DST=drill stem test; SC=specific capacity; LAB=laboratory Source: Weigel, 1987 49 hydraulic conductivity that is greatly enhanced by fractures. The matrix anisotropy ratio, the ratio of horizontal hydraulic conductivity to vertical hydraulic conductivity, is available for the Navajo and Wingate Sandstones only and is generally approximately 1.0, but can be as high as 4.7 for the Wingate Sandstone. Transmissivity is estimated from aquifer tests and specific capacity calculations. In the study area, transmissivity estimates range from 0.073 m2/day in the Curtis Formation to 3049 m2/day in the Navajo Sandstone. The variability in values for the same parameter in the same hydrologic unit but estimated by different methods is quite evident in the Navajo Sandstone data. Transmissivity obtained from specific capacity ranges from 73 to 3049 m 2/day and from aquifer tests ranges from 488 to 793 m2/day. Effective porosities are also shown in Table 3. Effective porosity is the volume of interconnected pore voids available for fluid flow per unit volume of material, exclusive of large openings such as fractures or sizeable solution openings (Todd, 1980). Laboratory estimates range from 4% in the Dakota Sandstone to 26% in the Navajo Sandstone and 31% in the Wingate Sandstone.

Recharge Recharge occurs principally from infiltration of precipitation. Direct recharge of precipitation is negligible at lower elevations where precipitation is minimal, but recharge may be considerable at higher elevations such as Boulder and Thousand Lake Mountains where annual precipitation is much greater. Much of the area at the top of Boulder and Thousand Lake Mountains (Aquarius and Fishlake Plateaus) is flat with few perennial streams, suggesting that much of the drainage is through the subsurface. Surface and ground-water interactions result in recharge to and discharge from underlying strata. No data are available 50 to derive the distribution of recharge to the study area and adjacent basins. Incidental recharge also occurs from infiltration from ditches, canals, and irrigated fields. Recharge to sedimentary units occurs where the mantle of colluvium and streambed alluvium maintains a saturated zone in contact with the underlying bedrock. Streamflow is a direct source of recharge where streams cross outcrops of permeable rock and the ground-water level is below the streambed. Recharge to the Navajo Sandstone in the study area is predominantly along the Waterpocket Fold, and ranges from 6.2 to 8.6 million m 3 /yr. This value includes recharge directly from precipitation in the area of outcrop and recharge from perennial and ephemeral streams that flow through outcrops of Navajo Sandstone but does not include possible recharge by interformational leakage (Hood and Danielson, 1981).

Discharge Ground-water discharge occurs as flows from springs and seeps, withdrawals from wells, and from evapotranspiration. Springs and seeps occur along the contact between formations (Chimney Canyon Spring), at the termini of basalt flows (Birch Spring, Pine Creek Spring and the numerous other springs in the Bicknell Bottoms), along watercourses (Dewey Gifford, Sleeping Rainbow), and where structural features such as dikes emerge (Ringwater Spring). Spring discharge often responds quickly to climatic conditions and can be quite variable. Some ground-water development in the Torrey area and in Fruita has occurred. Figure 8 presents hydrographs of former domestic wells in the Torrey area indicate slight increasing trends. The wells respond to changes in precipitation and other factors. An upward trend in the fall for the well at (D-29-4)8bbd-1 (Figure 8a) is statistically significant (t 2.75, a — 0.05). This well is near the Fremont River and downhill 51

(a) REED WELL (D-29-4)8bbd-1 (b) BRINKERHOFF (D-29-4)8ccb-1

FEET METERS FEET METERS 5 1.5 -5 1.5

-•-• Fall -9- Spring — Fall -6" Spring

- -2.6 -2.5

- 1 0

- -3.5

-15 - -4.5

-5.5

-20

- -8.5 -8.5

_ 25 ,,..,1 n ...ki nnnn 1,,,,,f, nnn 11,,,,i,,..,1, nn • 7.5 1 1 1 1 1 -26 1 1 7.5 1948 1953 1958 1983 1988 1973 1978 1983 1988 1958 1981 1984 1987 1970 1973 1978 YEAR YEAR

FEET METERS FEET METERS -5 1.5 45 - 13.8 --- Fall -e-- Spring

- -2.5 44 - 13.4 - 10 -

- 13.2 43

- 13.0 -15

42 - - 12.8 - -5.5

-20 - 12.8 41 - -8.5 - 12.4

_ 25 ,,1, nnn 1 nnnn p..,I.,,,i....1....1,,,, 7.5 40 12.2 1948 1953 1968 1983 1988 1973 1978 1983 1988 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 YEAR YEAR

Figure 8: Hydrographs of selected wells in the Capitol Reef area, fall and spring; (a) (D-29-4)8bbd-1; (b) (D-29-4)6ccb-1; (c) (D- 28-4)36cdb-1; and (d) (D-29-7)15dbd-1 (one season only).

from an irrigation canal and is impacted by diversions and subsequent canal leakage. No trend is evident in the spring water levels, prior to the commencement of irrigation, indicating that the well recovers quickly from the impacts of the prior years' irrigation. Ground-water levels in the USGS Test Well at (D-29-7)15dbd-1, near the east boundary of the park, indicate no long-term depletion of ground-water resources and suggests that ground-water inflows and outflows may be in equili- brium. Evapotranspiration of ground water may be significant in agricultural areas in Torrey and Fruita and in densely vegetated riparian areas found along watercourses throughout the study area. Evapotranspiration is discussed in detail in a later section.

Movement and Storage Few data are available to construct a complete potentiometric map for all principal aquifers in the area. A map of the approximate potentiometric surface of the Navajo Sandstone constructed from maps by Hood and Danielson (1981) and Blanchard (1986a) indicates that ground water moves from the Thousand Lake Mountain-Waterpocket Fold area eastward toward the Dirty Devil River and southward along the axis of the Henry Mountain structural basin toward Lake Powell (Figure 9). The potentiometric surface of the Wingate Sandstone is assumed to be similar to that of the Navajo due to their similar areal extent and similar structural distortion (Hood and Danielson, 1981). Ground water follows the course of the river or stream where it is found in "shoestring" alluvial aquifers; narrow, shallow aquifers that underlie, and are usually in good hydraulic communication with, the nearby perennial or ephemeral surface stream. 53

R5E 1 R6E I R7E I R8E I R9E 1 R1OE 1 T26S • •„' / S ! / r / / / / r 1 / 1 T27S \ \ nI \ T28S

\ ---4 \ \ T29S \ 1 \ ---• 1 1 I 1 T3OS o \ o o o -4 in 0 vs- 1 T31S / // / / ---, / / T32S ge - /

miles ill il i I 0 5 10 15

1 . . , , 1 1 1 1 1 0 5 10 15 20 25

Figure 9: Approximate potentiometric surface and direction of ground- water flow in the Navajo Sandstone (after Hood and Danielson, 1981 and Blanchard, 1986a). 54

Table 4 presents estimated volumes of ground water in storage in the Navajo, Wingate, and Cutler Sandstones in the Lower Dirty Devil River Basin of which the present study area is a small portion. Total storage in these three formations has been estimated at almost 700 billion m3 of water. The volume of water from other formations can not be estimated from available data, but is probably considerably less than the Navajo, Wingate, and Cutler.

TABLE 4 GROUND WATER IN STORAGE IN THE STUDY AREA

AVERAGE EST. EFF. THICKNESS AREA POROSITY VOLUME FORMATION (3m2) (m) (%) (m3 x 10 9 ) Navajo Sandstone 245 6700 20 246* Wingate Sandstone 120 5700 20 137 Cutler Sandstone 210 7000 20 294 Total 677 * Navajo Sandstone within the area estimated to be 75% saturated. (after Hood and Danielson, 1981)

Little is known about the extent and depth of the alluvium in the Torrey and Fruita areas. The volume of water in storage can only be estimated roughly. Assuming a mean saturated thickness of 3 m and a mean effective porosity of 20 percent, estimated ground-water storage is

37 million m3 in the Torrey area (62 km2 ) and 0.78 million m3 in the

Fruita area (1.3 km2 ). Seven piezometers were constructed in the Fruita area under the supervision of the author (Figure 10) near the irrigation settling ponds (NPS Test Well), behind the Visitor Center, near the group campground, behind Pendleton-Gifford house, in Pendleton pasture, and in Mott and Cook Orchards. The piezometers are used to monitor ground-water levels 55

Z -

cd to

0 0 —o 0

c.0 o —o

cn —0 L. (1.) CU E -8-

-0 56 and collect water samples for pesticide analysis. Depths to water measured on March 22, 1990 and September 12, 1990 are shown in Table 5.

TABLE 5 DEPTH TO WATER (m) IN PIEZOMETERS IN FRUITA AREA

LOCATION DATE CHANGE 03/22/90 09/12/90 Fremont River Test Well 3.3 3.6 -0.24 Group Campground dry* 4.0 >2.0 Mott Orchard 3.8 3.3 0.5 Cook Orchard 2.1 2.1 0.04 Visitor Center dry dry unknown

Depth of piezometer 5.9 m, change is minimum change in water level.

The greatest change in water levels were recorded in piezometers near leach fields, >2 m at the Group Campground piezometer (#1), and 0.5 m in Mott Orchard. The smallest decrease in depth to water (0.04 m) was measured in Cook Orchard (#7). Depth to water increased 0.24 m in the NPS Test Well (#3), near the settling ponds and out of the influence of irrigation and leach fields. The piezometer behind the Visitor Center (#5; total depth 5.5 m) was dry on both dates.

Geologic Factors that Affect Hydrology

Many factors can affect the permeability of geologic media, of which the most important fall into a few categories: diagenetic, geochemical, and structural and tectonic factors. Diagenetic factors include compaction, cementation, and pressure solution. Stratigraphie units have distinct characteristics such as grain size, mode of deposition, and lithology 57 which affect the volume of water that it may contain and transmit. Compaction increases with depth, cementation, and pressure solution reduce pore space, therefore decrease porosity and permeability. Geochemical factors include dissolution and precipitation. The formation of solution cavities in carbonate aquifers can enhance permeability significantly, while chemical precipitation of minerals can decrease permeability in sandstones (Brahana et al., 1988). Structural and tectonic factors such as uplift, tilting, folding, jointing, faulting, and intrusions affect the geometry and hydrogeological characteristics of strata. Uplift, tilting, and folding provides water with greater potential energy, increases hydraulic gradients, and reorients the existing porosity and permeability distribution in space. Faulting and associated fracturing, will truncate and displace beds and often increase local permeability by providing a pathway for fluid movement, however, faulting also may have the opposite effect. Fault gouge and other products of compression and friction, rising fluids that deposit minerals along the fault, or beds of lower permeability offset against a bed of higher permeability, may impede flow (Hood and Danielson, 1981; Davis, 1988). The Teasdale and Thousand Lake Faults have total displacements of 335 m and 760 m, respectively, and may enhance or inhibit permeability. Intrusive igneous bodies such as sills and dikes are seldom large enough to be a source of water but may affect ground-water flow. Sills may act as a confining bed for an artesian aquifer system or as a retarding layer in the recharge of an unconfined aquifer. Dikes often act as a barrier to ground-water flow since they are usually much less permeable than their extrusive equivalents, however, the process of intrusion creates fractured areas that may allow interformational movement of water (Hood and Danielson, 1981; Wood and Fernandez, 1988). Numerous igneous dikes intersecting sedimentary structures are found in the North District. At Ringwater 58 Spring, subsurface alluvial flow is forced to the surface resulting in surface flow in Polk until the confluence with Deep Creek.

SURFACE WATER RESOURCES Surface water ecosystems are an essential feature in the Capitol Reef area. Prehistoric settlements centered around major watercourses such as the Fremont River. Today, surface water provides aquatic and riparian habitat, as well as sources of irrigation water for the orchards and fields of the Fruita agricultural area, and the potable water supply for the park. Watercourses are also used as a source of water for livestock and wildlife, and to sustain riparian vegetation. This section describes the surface water features in the park, including the Fremont River, major tributaries to the Fremont River, floodplains, springs, lakes, reservoirs, and waterpockets.

Major Watersheds The major watersheds in the study area are delineated in Figure 11. Four perennial watercourses flow through the study area: the Fremont River, Oak Creek, Pleasant Creek, and Sulphur Creek. Hall's, Deep, Polk, and Sandy Creeks flow intermittently. All other watercourses are ephemeral streams that generally flow only in response to rainfall. Selected morphometric relationships of major streams are listed in Table 6. The drainage basins can be characterized by their great relief, high stream density, and steep gradients. Streams originating on Boulder and Thousand Lake Mountains have reliefs ranging from 1500 to 1800 meters. Overall gradients range from 0.8% (Hall's Creek) to 4.4% (Sulphur Creek). A longitudinal profile of the Fremont River from the 59

R4E R5E R6E j R7E R8E R9E R1OE miles T26S 11111 1 0 5 10 15

1 1 1 1 T27S 0 5 10 15 20 25 km T28S

T29S PINE CR PLEASANT CREEK

T3OS

T31S

T32S 38'00'

—111'15' Study Area T33S Boundary

Park T34S Boundary

Perennial Rivers, Streams T35S •/ Ephemeral, Intermittent Streams Drainage Boundary T36S • Existing Gauge Site O Former Gauge Site

Figure 11: Map of major watersheds in the Capitol Reef area. 60

TABLE 6 SELECTED MORPHOMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS OF MAJOR WATERSHEDS

WATERCOURSE AREA STREAM TRIBUTARY RELIEF GRADIENT LENGTH LENGTH (km2) (km) (km) (m) (%) Perennial Fremont River 1875 61 140 645 1.1 Pleasant Creek 310 54 52 1854 3.5 Oak Creek 150 39 34 1500 3.8 Intermittent Sulphur Creek 155 33 34 1421 4.4 Hall's Creek 260 64 62 482 0.8 Ephemeral Deep/Polk Creeks 350 55 54 1537 2.8

Bicknell gage to the Caineville gage is shown in Figure 12. The river has a gentle gradient between the Bicknell gage and the U-12 Crossing (0.3%), steepens as the river enters the Fremont River gorge at the U-12 crossing and traverses through the park (0.9-2.4%), and decreases past the east park boundary and the Caineville streamflow gage (0.7%). The U.S. Geological Survey has operated stream gages intermittently on the Fremont River near Bicknell and Caineville, Pleasant Creek, and Pine Creek (see Figure 11). Station numbers, coordinates, and periods of record are given in Table 7. Stream gages are currently operated on the Fremont River near Bicknell and near Caineville.

Fremont River The Fremont River originates outside the study area on Thousand

Lake Mountain and enters the study area at Bicknell Bottoms (see Figure 13). Above the town of Fremont several small reservoirs store water for release upon demand for irrigation in Rabbit Valley, immediately upstream from the study area. During the irrigation season little water from Rabbit Valley flows into the study area. Much of the inflow to the 61

ELEVATION (meters above sea level) 2200 BICKNELL GAGE /

U-12 CROSSING 2000 -

1800 -

FRUITA

1600 - EAST BOY.

CAINEVILLE GAGE 1400 1 I 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 DISTANCE FROM BICKNELL GAGE (kilometers)

Figure 12: Longitudinal profile of Fremont River, from Bicknell gage to Caineville gage. 62

TABLE 7 PERIOD OF RECORD OF STREAMFLOW DISCHARGE (WATER YEARS)

NAME/STATION NO PERIOD OF RECORD Fremont River nr. Bicknell 1910-1912 Station No. 09330000 1938-1958 Latitude 38°18'25" 1977-present Longitude 111°31'03" Elevation 2100 m (6920 ft) Fremont River nr. Caineville 1968-present Station No. 09330230 Latitude 38°16'40" Longitude 111 0 0400" Elevation 1450 m (4750 ft) Pine Creek nr. Bicknell 1965-1980 Station No. 09329900 Latitude 38°16'10" Longitude 111°35'00" Elevation 2200 m (7100 ft) Pleasant Creek nr. Caineville 1969-1972 Station No. 09330210 Latitude 38 0 1620" Longitude 111°05'30" Elevation 1500 m (4880 ft)

study area is from the vicinity of Bicknell Bottoms, where springs discharge from volcanic rocks and valley fill bordering the bottoms (Bjorklund, 1969).

Fremont River Divisions The Fremont River can be divided into three sections: the upper, middle, and lower Fremont River (Figure 13). The upper Fremont Riverextends from its headwaters on Thousand Lake Mountain to the USGS gaging station near Bicknell. The middle Fremont River, the focus of this study, is that portion of the river from the Bicknell gaging station to the Caineville gaging station. The portion of the river from the Caineville gage to the confluence with the Dirty Devil River at 63 64 Hanksville is called the lower Fremont River. The middle Fremont River can be further subdivided into five segments: Torrey, the River Gorge, the Fruita area, East park, and the Caineville segment. The Torrey segment, from the Bicknell gage to the U-12 crossing, is a slow moving stream with a gentle slope. Marshy areas appear along the river at a few locations. Much of the flow is diverted into the Torrey and Garkane canals and used for irrigation. Cattle are also grazed along this stretch. The River Gorge segment extends from the U-12 crossing to the park irrigation diversion works at the upper end of the Fruita Valley. In this reach, the river traverses through a precipitous gorge and has the steepest gradient. Vegetation bordering the river is predominantly pinyon-juniper with some cottonwood, and an occasional Ponderosa pine. Several small waterfalls approximately 1 to 2 m in height are found and the streambed consists of boulders and gravels. In the Fruita segment, from the irrigation diversion to Hickman Trail Bridge, riparian vegetation has been mostly replaced by orchards. The gradient lessens and the bedload includes some sands. From the Hickman Trail Bridge to the east park boundary, highway U-24 follows the river as it cuts through the Waterpocket Fold. The gradient continues to lessen and the bedload becomes increasingly finer. Riparian vegetation is dense, with Fremont Cottonwood the dominant native species, and salt cedar and Russian olive as the predominating exotic species. To facilitate the alignment of U-24, a meander bend was removed and the river was rerouted, resulting in a waterfall. The erosive power of the river has cut into the sandstone base of the riverbed and has scoured a deep hole at the base of the waterfall. This "keeper" has become a hazard to park visitors who use this man-made feature as a swimming hole. A small wetland area has evolved in the meander bend from which the river has been diverted, probably supplied with water from seepage under U-24. Further east to the Caineville gage the river widens and 65 becomes shallow and continues to be dense with riparian vegetation. Bedload consists primarily of sands and gravel, an occasional boulder, and in some areas flows directly over bedrock.

Streamflow Discharge The streamflow record for the Fremont River near Bicknell is from 1910-1912, 1938-1958, and 1977 to the present. Figure 14 shows annual streamflow discharge of the Fremont River at Bicknell and Caineville.

Mean annual discharge at Bicknell is 79.2 million m3 (64,779 AF/yr). The record at Caineville is continuous, but only since 1968. Mean annual discharge at Caineville is 67.8 million m 3 (55,634 AF/yr). Monthly discharge at both stations for the period of record can be found in Appendix A. Mean monthly discharges at both stations are relatively constant from November through February, rise sharply in response to spring snowmelt, and subsequently decline throughout the summer, when irrigation demand and evapotranspiration are high (Figure 15a). As indicated in Figure 15b, mean monthly discharge in April and May are more variable than the winter months. The coefficient of variation of monthly streamflow discharge rises sharply during these months. Flows at Caineville are more variable than at Bicknell, particularly during the irrigation season from April through October. Maximum and minimum flows at both stations are shown in Figure 16. The Fremont River at Caineville displays more erratic behavior than at Bicknell, with peak discharges generally higher at Caineville than at Bicknell and minimum discharges lower at Caineville than Bicknell. This is likely due to the larger drainage area at Caineville and the geological formations through which the Fremont and its tributaries flow. The average flow over many years is controlled by climatological 66

DISCHARGE (million cubic meters) 140

120 -

100

60 iv

40 1- --- Bicknell —El— Caineville

20 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1938 1943 1948 1953 1958 1963 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 WATER YEAR

Figure 14: Hydrograph of annual discharge of the Fremont River near Bicknell and Caineville (U.S. Geological Survey WATSTORE Daily Value File). 67 (a)

DISCHARGE (million cubic meters) 12

2 — Bicknell —9— Caineville

0 OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP MONTH

(b)

COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION (%) 80

— Bicknell —8— Caineville

0 OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP MONTH

Figure 15: Hydrograph of monthly Fremont River streamflow near Bicknell and Caineville; (a) mean discharge; (b) coefficient of variation of discharge (U.S. Geological Survey WATSTORE Daily Value File). 68 (a)

MAXIMUM DISCHARGE (cubic meters per sec) 40

35 — BICKNELL --e— CAINEVILLE

tiliji 0 I 1 1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 WATER YEAR

(b)

MINIMUM DISCHARGE (cubic meters per sec) 2.5

---- BICKNELL —a— CAINEVILLE

2.0 I_

1.5

1.0 -

0.5

, !III , tit t 0.0 I ' I " I 1 1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 WATER YEAR

Figure 16: Annual extreme discharges of the Fremont River near Bicknell and Caineville from 1968 to 1989: (a) maximum; (b) minimum (U.S. Geological Survey WATSTORE Daily Value File). 69 factors, while the distribution within a year is influenced by drainage basin characteristics, structure, geology, and the degree of regulation or human influences. The influence of these climatological factors is most apparent during low flows, when ground water constitutes a greater proportion of the flow (Cross, 1949; Heitz and Filler, 1985) and can be illustrated with flow duration curves. The flow duration curve is a cumulative frequency curve that presents the percent of time during which specified discharges were equaled or exceeded in a given period. The resultant curve shows the integrated effects of factors that affect runoff such as climate, topography, and geology and gives a distribution of runoff both in time and magnitude (Searcy, 1959). Figure 17 is a flow duration curve of flows at Bicknell and Caineville for the period of record. The curves are similar except at low flows. The lower end of the duration curve indicates perennial storage and the ground-water supply available to the stream as runoff. A flat curve would indicate the presence of surface or ground-water storage, which tends to equalize the flow while steeper slopes indicate lesser storage (Searcy, 1959). Low flows at the Bicknell gage are augmented by the greater storage in the alluvium in the Torrey area in addition to consistent springflow from the Bicknell Bottoms. Low flows at the Caineville gage exhibit the effects of the greater drainage area with less storage. Much of the area of the Sulphur, Deep, and Pleasant drainages lies on bare rock with little storage. Streams with high flows that occur largely from snowmelt, have large floodplain storage, or drain swamp areas, tend to have a flat duration curve slope at lower discharge values. The difference in duration curve slopes observed in Figure 17 at discharges less than 2.5 m3/s may be explained by these factors. The steep slope in both curves at higher discharges is typical of streams in which flow is largely from direct runoff. 70

PERCENT EXCEEDANCE 100

0 OA 1 10 100 DISCHARGE (cubic meters per second)

Figure 17: Streamflow duration curve of the Fremont River near Bicknell and Caineville.

71 The slope of the flow-duration curve is also a quantitative measure of streamflow variability. Lower variability indicates greater ground-water storage capacity, resulting in higher sustained streamflow during dry periods. Streamflow variability can be quantified by the variability index, defined as the standard deviation of the common logarithm of stream discharges. On log-probability paper, the variability index represents the change of the duration curve over one standard deviation, in terms of log cycles (Friel et al., 1989). The variability indices at Bicknell and Caineville are 0.115 and 0.213, respectively, which conforms to the supposition that the Fremont River at Bicknell is less variable than at Caineville.

Other Watercourses The uppermost part of the Sulphur Creek drainage lies on Thousand Lake Mountain northwest of Fruita. Below Torrey, seepage from adjacent irrigated lands account for much or all of the perennial flow. Before joining the Fremont River at Fruita, Sulphur Creek flows through the Goosenecks, a deep scenic gorge cut into the Cutler Sandstone and Kaibab Limestone. Sulphur Creek at Fruita has been gaged at 20 - 56 liters per second (lps) during the summer of 1989. A crest-stage gage in place on Sulphur Creek at Fruita from 1959 to 1974 recorded a peak discharge from stormflow of 74 m3/s on September 17, 1961. Both Oak and Pleasant Creeks originate on Boulder Mountain, southwest of Fruita. Discharges from these creeks are relatively constant due to permeable soils and good vegetative cover in the watershed (Hood and Danielson, 1981). Much of the flow in Pleasant Creek is diverted into Lower Bowns Reservoir and released into Oak Creek. Remaining flow and subsequent inflows traverse through the park and are diverted for irrigation at Notom Ranch. Excess flows and irrigation return flows, if any, empty into the Fremont River near the 72 east park boundary. The U.S.Geological Survey maintained a streamflow gage on Pleasant Creek near Notom from 1969 to 1972. The mean annual discharge obtained from the limited data is 2.8 million m3 , however, the data cover too short a period to be meaningful. Flow in Oak Creek is maintained by releases from Lower Bowns and Oak Creek Reservoirs. East of the park, much of the flow in Oak Creek is diverted for irrigation at Sandy Ranch. Oak Creek empties into Sandy Creek, which subsequently enters the Fremont River east of the study area. Hall's Creek, perennial for a short reach, is the only major watercourse which has its headwaters within the park and is almost entirely within the park boundaries. It emptied into the Colorado River before the construction of Glen Canyon Dam and now discharges into Lake Powell. Discharge at an undetermined location was measured at 8 lps on August 9, 1958 (Blanchard, 1986a). No developments or irrigation diversions along the ungaged creek occur. The headwaters of Polk and Deep Creeks are on Thousand Lake Mountain. Polk Creek is an ephemeral stream from its head to Ringwater Spring, where a volcanic dike forces water to the surface. Below Ringwater Spring the creek may be perennial until its confluence with Deep Creek. Discharge of the spring was measured at 2.8 lps by the author on March 17, 1990. Deep Creek flows for a short distance past its confluence with Polk Creek, but is generally dry elsewhere for most of the year except during spring runoff and in response to rainfall. Sandy Creek has its headwaters just east of the park and flows for a short distance through the park. No discharge data for this ephemeral stream are available.

Floodplains Much of Capitol Reef is subject to flash flooding, particularly during summer months. A flash flood may be defined as a flood that 73 occurs within a few hours after a heavy or excessive rainfall, dam failure or other sudden release of impounded water (FIAC, 1985). Flooding also may occur as a result of snowmelt from higher elevations. Flash flood hazards are highest from snowmelt runoff during spring and thunderstorms in summer. Excessive rainfall resulted in flooding in the Fruita area has occurred as recently as 1984. Fortunately, there was neither loss of life nor extensive damage. In response to EO 11988 (1977) requiring federal agencies to evaluate the potential effects of any actions it may take in a floodplain, the 100-year and 500-year floodplains and flash flood hazard areas have been delineated in the Fruita area by the US Army Corps of Engineers. No critical actions occur in the 500-year floodplain. National Park Service Floodplain Management and Wetland Protection Guidelines (45 FR 35921) defines a critical action as a facility in which the slightest risk of loss by flooding is too great. These facilities must be located outside the 500-year floodplain. Some structures such as the water treatment plant, the Pendleton-Gifford house, and developments such as portions of the Fruita campground lie within the 100-year floodplain. Flooding on the Fremont could potentially result in loss of life and damage to these facilities. Flooding along Sulphur Creek could result in damage to agriculture and structures in the park headquarter area. There is also a potential for loss of life or damage in remote, but frequently visited, areas such as Capitol and Grand Gorges. Dam failure at Lower Bowns Reservoir could result in flooding along Oak Creek. The flood regime of the Fremont River near Bicknell and near Caineville are quite different. The maximum discharges recorded for the

Fremont River are 35 m 3/s at Bicknell on April 5, 1942 and 250 m3/s at Caineville on July 7, 1984. Log-Pearson Type III flood frequency analysis (Water Resources Council, 1977; Chow et al., 1988) of the

74 Fremont River at Bicknell and Caineville indicate a different flood regime at the two sites. Flood estimates and their corresponding return periods, exceedance probabilities and 95-percent confidence intervals are tabulated in Table 8. Flood magnitudes with a 100-year return

period are 45 m 3/s at Bicknell and 300 m3/s at Caineville. 95-percent confidence intervals for the estimates are large due to the short period of record for the two stations.

TABLE 8 LOG PEARSON TYPE III ANALYSIS - FREMONT RIVER

NEAR BICKNELL NEAR CAINEVILLE 95-PCT 95-PCT CONFIDENCE CONFIDENCE RETURN EXCEED FLOOD LIMITS FLOOD LIMITS PERIOD PROB EST LOWER UPPER EST LOWER UPPER m3/s m3 /s m3/s m3 /s m3/s m3/s

2 0.5 8.7 7.2 10.5 43.3 32.0 58.6 5 0.2 15.1 12.4 19.2 87.2 64.0 130.9 10 0.1 20.5 16.5 27.6 125.6 88.9 205.6 25 0.04 28.9 22.3 41.8 185.1 124.4 336.7 50 0.02 36.5 27.2 55.5 237.7 153.8 464.9 100 0.01 45.1 32.6 72.2 297.4 185.5 621.9 200 0.005 55.1 38.6 92.6 365.2 220.0 813.6

Springs and Seeps A spring can be defined as a "natural surface discharge of water large enough to flow in a small rivulet." Discharges smaller than this are called surface seepage (Davis and DeWiest, 1966). Springs and seeps in the study area are generally found at the contacts between two formations of different permeability (Chimney Canyon Spring), along alluvial aquifers (Dewey Gifford Spring, Sleeping Rainbow), and at the termini of basalt flows (springs in Bicknell Bottoms and Birch Spring) and are used for domestic, irrigation, wildlife, and livestock purposes. 75 Table 9 presents a scheme proposed by Meinzer (1923) to classify springs by discharge. Discharge of a spring depends on the area contributing to recharge and the rate of recharge (Todd, 1980). Many springs in the study area respond rapidly to local variations in the rate of recharge, with no discharge during dry periods. No discharge was observed by the author in Camper's Spring and North Coleman Canyon Seep during July 1989. Largest spring discharge was observed in the Bicknell Bottoms area where the springs may be classified as third of fourth magnitude springs. Spring discharge has been measured at 45 l/s

(.5 m3/s) in 1966 (Table 10). Most other springs in the study area are fifth and sixth magnitude with generally less than 1 l/s, however, discharges of 5 to 7 l/s have been measured. Springs and seeps are discussed more in the later section on ground-water quality.

TABLE 9 CLASSIFICATION OF SPRINGS BY DISCHARGE (after Meinzer, 1923)

MAGNITUDE MEAN DISCHARGE

First > 10 m3 /s Second 1 - 10 m3/s Third 0.1 - 1 m3/s Fourth 10 - 100 l/s Fifth 1 - 10 l/s Sixth 0.1 - 1 l/s Seventh 10 - 100 ml/s Eighth < 10 ml/s

Lakes. Reservoirs. and Tinajas Numerous small lakes lie on Boulder and Thousand Lake Mountains, however, no natural lakes are found at lower elevations. Many small impoundments form small ponds, usually used for stock watering, while larger impoundments form Oak Creek and Lower Bowns Reservoirs on Oak Creek and other reservoirs on Donkey and Fish Creeks. 76

TABLE 10 DISCHARGE OF SELECTED SPRINGS IN STUDY AREA

SPRING LOCATION DISCHARGE MAGNITUDE lps Bicknell Bottoms Area: Pine Creek (D-29-3)14bcb-S1 500 Third Dab Keel (D-28-3)34baa-S1 125 Third Bullard (D-29-3)14abc-S1 90 Fourth Hugh King (D-29-3)11cca-S1 45 Fourth Headquarters District: Dewey Gifford (D-29-6)23bbb-S1 7 Fifth Sleeping Rainbow (D-30-7)20dca-S1 0.2 Sixth Chimney Canyon (D-28-6)32bbb-S1 North District: Birch (D-26-5)15aaa-S1 5 Fifth Ring Water (D-27-6)31aba-S1 2 Fifth Ackland (D-27-6)23cba-S1 0.6 Sixth Mud (D-27-4)36cbb-S1 0.3 Sixth South Desert (D-27-5)10cbd-S1 * Camper's (D-27-7)17bdb-S1 dry South District: Bitter Creek (D-33-8)27bbb-S1 1.3 Fifth Swap Canyon (D-33-8)36dab-S1 0.3 Sixth Bert's Spring (D-36-9)10dcb-S1 0.1 Sixth Dove Spring (D-36-9)10acc-S1 0.1 Sixth

Too small to measure.

Scattered along the Waterpocket Fold are bedrock depressions, called waterpockets, tanks, or tinajas. These depressions are formed bystream action, wind, chemical dissolution, and other weathering processes. The initiation of tinaja development occurs when a condition of the bedrock over which water flows gives a rotary motion to the water. This may occur from irregularities in bedding such as cross- bedding contacts or structural irregularities such as a fracture or 77 joint plane. The erosive action of wind, water, sediment, and solution subsequently enlarges the depression (Elston, 1917). In arid regions, the tinajas often contain water only after a rainstorm. Some tinajas are much larger and retain water throughout the year (Bryan, 1920). Tinajas at Capitol Reef are found predominantly in Navajo Sandstone along the Waterpocket Fold and usually occur as a series of pools. Willow and Cottonwood Tinajas, in the south district, are large enough to contain water throughout the year. Little is known about tinajas and their importance to the park since their distribution, longevity, and importance as a water resource in the park have not been studied (NPS, 1982). Studies of tinajas at Organ Pipe National Monu- ment, Arizona indicate these waterpockets serve as important water supplies for livestock, wildlife, back-country users, and maintain riparian ecosystems (Brown et al., 1983; Brown and Johnson, 1983).

SURFACE WATER/GROUND-WATER INTERACTIONS A seepage study was conducted along the Fremont River to determine the streamflow losses and gains and salt load changes along the reach between the U-12 crossing and the east boundary of the park. Change in streamflow and salt load may result from tributary inflows, irrigation diversions or other withdrawals, evapotranspiration, and ground-water recharge and discharge. The relationship between water discharge, TDS, and salt load provides insight into which processes may contribute to the change. Saline inflows would increase salt load proportional to the volume of water entering the system. Ground-water recharge and irrigation diversions would result in a decrease in salt load as water and salts are removed from the system. Inflows of ground water concentrated with salts from evapotranspiration and saline discharge from bedrock would increase salt loads. To determine these quantities, streamflow at 78 several sites along the river, diversions, and tributary inflows were measured (Figure 18). Specific conductance was measured at each site as an indication of the general chemical quality of the river and to estimate total dissolved solids (TDS). Results from four seepage runs, shown in Table 11, indicate that the Fremont River from the U-12 crossing through the Fremont River Gorge is a losing stream with a net loss of 0.16 to 0.24 m3/s. In the Fruita valley, net ground-water accretions range from 0.11 to 0.40 m3/s after accounting for irrigation withdrawals and tributary inflows. Net losses from 0.03 to 0.15 m3/s were measured between the U-24 Hickman Trail Bridge and the east park boundary. Corresponding salt loads were calculated from estimated TDS. Figure 19 shows water discharge, TDS, and salt load changes in the Fremont River on October 1, 1989. Salt load increased from 484 g/s (grams per second) to 749 g/s between Site 1 and Site 7. Between Site 1 and Site 2 there was a net loss of 0.16 m3/s, no change in TDS, and a decrease in salt load, indicating that ground-water recharge may be the dominant process. In the Fruita area (Sites 2 through 6), the park irrigation diversion, high-TDS tributary inflows (Dewey Gifford Spring, Sulphur Creek), and saline ground-water accretions resulted in a net salt-load increase to 707 g/s. The irrigation diversion and the direct input of Sulphur Creek and Dewey Gifford Spring amount to 84 g/s. The remaining 197 g/s increase in salt load can be attributed to ground- water accretions and unmeasured irrigation return flows. Between Site 6 and Site 7, salt load further increased to 749 g/s although there was a net decrease in streamflow discharge. Concentration of salts resulting from evapotranspiration in this dense riparian area and saline ground- water accretions can account for this. 79

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1 U-12 Crossing 2 Above Fruita Diversion 3 Fruita Diversion 4 Dewey Gifford Spring 5 Sulphur Creek 6 Hickman Trail Bridge 7 East Boundary

Figure 18: Map showing gaging sites used for seepage study along the Fremont River.

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