Running head: HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 1
Hegemonic Masculinity and Racism: The Impact on the Latino Man
A Literature Review
Presented to
The Faculty of the Adler Graduate School
______
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for
The Degree of Master of Arts in
Adlerian Counseling and Psychotherapy
______
By
Vicenta del Carmen Valero, LSW
Chair: Richard E. Close, DMin, MA, LPCC-S, LMFT-S
Reader: Rashida Fisher, MS, LADC, LPCC
______
May 2018
HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 2
Hegemonic Masculinity and Racism: The Impact on the Latino Man
Copyright © 2018
Vicenta del Carmen Valero, LSW
All rights reserved HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 3
Abstract
Hegemonic masculinity has infiltrated the quotidian life of every member of society. It is entrenched in everything we are exposed to social media, religion, art, literature, academia, news media, etc. (Donaldson, 1993, p.646). Its influence is evident in the impact it has in maintaining the patriarchal hierarchy currently controlling our societies (Connell, 2005). Hegemonic masculinity and racism are macro-level societal phenomena that can have adverse results on the mental and chemical health of men and women. As mental health professionals, we cannot ignore how macro-level systems impact the individual and that individuals can have a significant influence on macro-level systems. Because hegemonic masculinity affects more than gender relations and it has a significant impact in society’s socio economic and political power of individuals, it necessitates that its intersectionality with gender, class, and race not be disregarded (Connell, 2005; Dellinger, 2003). This analysis demonstrates the ways in which mental and chemical health of Latino men are negatively impacted at this very intersection. It will explore hegemonic masculinity and racism through the lens of individual psychology.
Lastly, feminist therapy techniques will be explored as therapeutic interventions for Latino men who experience mental and chemical health problems caused by the distress generated by hegemonic masculinity and racism.
HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 4
Acknowledgments
This effort would not have been possible had I not enjoyed the support, encouragement, and confidence that I can “accomplish anything” from a Mother who did not live long enough to see me secure my graduate degree. I would also like to give homage to the memory of my beloved brother, Tete, who was a true Caballero, the gentlest human being I have ever met, and inspiration for this paper. I must convey my gratitude to my honey-brother, Sittarahatabedar
Foster, who encouraged, supported, permitted me to practice my theories, and as always, because honey is sweeter and thicker than blood. Lastly, deep gratitude to my dear friend, Susan Herrig, who has such conviction in my capabilities and determination.
I embarked on this topic driven by the belief that if we are going to affect any real, meaningful change in our society, we must address the problems and consequences on both women and men that sustains the current patriarchal societal power structure. Investigating the effects of hegemonic masculinity combined with racism on Latino men is part of striving towards that goal. We have grown accustomed to engaging our world, and each other, driven by the centuries old belief that we live in a limited goods society (Trawick & Hornborg, 2015). As such, any triumph and accomplishment must be at the cost of someone else’s fortune. As a feminist, I cannot conceive the logic that in order for women to advance, men must be subjugated. The idea that the only way to create a more egalitarian society is by continuing the practice of looking at men as silent culprits who enjoy the exploits of our unjust hierarchal power structure is even less palatable. I want the discourse to include the effect that hegemonic masculinity has on men. While I do not want to minimize or ignore the reality that men do benefit from our current power structure and their position of privilege. They too are subjugated by it, especially Latino men who are instructed by machismo and caballerismo and must HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 5 somehow find a way to make room for both while being subjected to racism and oppression that limits their opportunities (Echabe, 2010). It is my personal responsibility as a human being to create space which inspires a discourse on the subject of patriarchy, and that encourages dialogue that instigates change. As an Adlerian, I consider this effort part of exercising my gemeinschaftsgefühl (Ansbacher, & Ansbacher, 1964). It is only through hope and love that we can counter the dehumanizing effects of oppression in all its many names.
Recognizing that macro-level systems impact the individual in a multitude of manners, both positively and negatively, I focus on the intersection of hegemonic masculinity and race and its impact on the mental and chemical health of Latino men. I have explored the impact hegemonic masculinity and racism on the mental and chemical health of Latino men with emphasis on the understanding that while most men benefit from our current patriarchal hierarchy, they are also negatively impacted by it. Lastly this effort is inspired by Freire’s
(2012) belief that we cannot overcome oppression by becoming oppressors of those from whom we wish to liberate. HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 6
Table of Contents Acknowledgments...... 4 Definition of Terms...... 8 What is Hegemonic Masculinity? ...... 10 Constructing Masculinity ...... 13 Masculine Aggression and Violence ...... 14 Gender Identity Versus Gender Roles ...... 15 Hegemonic Masculinity and Latino men ...... 16 Machismo ...... 17 Man Pride ...... 18 Caballerismo ...... 18 Latino Men and Mental Health ...... 19 Effects of Racism ...... 20 Racism and Mental Health ...... 21 Racism and Substance Use ...... 22 Latino Men and Substance Use ...... 23 Therapeutic Experience ...... 26 Individual Psychology ...... 27 Masculine protest...... 28 Gender guiding lines...... 28 Gemeinschaftsgefühl (social interest) ...... 29 Life style ...... 30 Life tasks ...... 31 Feminist Therapy ...... 32 Therapy-demystifying ...... 32 Distress and psychopathology...... 33 Social and gender-role analysis...... 33 Power and powerlessness/assertiveness training ...... 34 Consciousness-raising ...... 34 Discussion ...... 35 Implications for Practice ...... 36 Recommendations for Future Research ...... 38 Conclusion ...... 40 References ...... 44
HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 7
Hegemonic Masculinity and Racism: The Impact on the Latino Man
Hegemonic masculinity is best conceptualized as the principal masculinity overarching mores and practices that continue to afford our society’s patriarchal dominance by placing men in a superior position and the on-going subordination of women (Connell, 2005). Individual
Psychology has long addressed hegemonic masculinity, the perils of male superiority over women, and the effect it can have on the mental health of young children as “all our institutions, traditions, laws, morals, and customs bear witness to the privileged position of the male for whom they are oriented and by whom they are maintained” (Adler, 1978, p. 8).
It is well known and documented that Latino men experience significant racism in many forms in this country which result in psychological damage and trauma (Cheng & Mallinckrodt,
2015; Hwang & Goto, 2009; Ornelas & Hong, 2012; Torres & Vallejo, 2015). Racism also contributes to the development of amplified hegemonic masculinity among Latino men in the form of machismo (Nuñez et al., 2016). Machismo creates extraordinary expectations of Latino men that can have dire consequences for their mental health and their families (Cheng, &
Mallinckrodt, 2015; Nuñez et al., 2016). Early life indoctrination, combined with gender conflict and incongruence between gender role expectations and the innate need to express emotional turmoil, can be traumatizing (Janey, 2003; O’Neil, 2015). The distress burgeoned from their attempt to realize the illusive ideal of what masculinity is and how it is expressed, can lead some
Latino men to substance use and mental health disorders. Consequently, hegemonic masculinity compounded by racism, may have profound impact on Latino men, their families, and their communities.
Feminist therapy and Individual Psychology provide an opportunity to investigate racism, compensation for feelings of inferiority, and hegemonic masculinity (Aitken, 2012; Bieliauskas, HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 8
1974; Carr, & McKernan, 2015). Through the examination of lifestyle, deconstruction, and reconstruction of gender identity and expression, therapists may increase positive outcomes with
Latino men attempting to recover from co-occurring disorders.
Definition of Terms
Aggression Drive: Adler described the Aggression Drive as a response to the challenges posed to
individuals which leads them to strive towards superiority (Griffith & Powers, 2007).
When confronted with the unrealistic expectations created by hegemonic masculinity,
Latino men may overcompensate as they strive to overcome the discouragement they
experience.
Apperception/Biased Apperception: Individuals create a “schema” of who they are from how
they interpret their experiences in childhood. These fixed Biased Apperceptions present
roadblocks to individuals later in life (Griffith & Powers, 2007). Early childhood
experiences of racism and hegemonic masculinity can lead children to develop Biased
Apperceptions about their role and identity as men.
Exogenous Factor: External factors outside the locus of control of the individual that pose a
challenge to their quotidian life for which they may not have developed the skills to
address (Griffith & Powers, 2007). The limitations and barriers that racism creates for
Latino men exacerbate their inability to fulfill the expectations of hegemonic masculinity,
which by itself is an Exogenous Factor.
Fictional Goal / Guiding Fiction: An unconscious goal created in childhood that endures into
adulthood. It creates a guiding fiction that leads the individual towards achieving a sense
of superiority over feelings of inferiority (Griffith & Powers, 2007). Hegemonic HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 9
masculinity can drive children to develop Fictional Goals such as: “In order for me to be
significant, I must be strong.”
Gender Guiding Lines: Norms of what it means to be a man or a woman take shape from what
children see from their parents or primary caregivers (Griffith & Powers, 2007). Latino
men develop an ideal of what being a man based on their observations and pressures of
the world around them.
Horizontal vs. Vertical Planes of Movement: All individuals’ psychological movement can be
identified as either along the Horizontal or Vertical Planes. Those who strive towards
superiority from a place of inferiority move along the Vertical Plane as they attempt to
win over losing or defeat over being defeated. The horizontal movement reflects
individuals who are vested in social interest and do not see themselves as better or worse
than others (Griffith & Powers, 2007). Hegemonic masculinity pressures Latino boys to
develop a sense of societal hierarchy that places men over women and for which they
must strive. Experiences of racism can lead them to a sense of inferiority which they
must overcome leading to strive towards superiority along the Vertical Plane of
Movement.
Life Tasks: The primordial goal of each individual as part of the world is to fulfill their life tasks,
which Adler identified as: Other people, occupation, and Love, and Sex (Griffith &
Powers, 2007). Individuals develop feelings of discouragement as they face Hegemonic
Masculinity and Racism which challenges their ability to fulfill their life tasks.
Masculine Protest: A term originally designed to explain the response against the social
structures which placed men as superior and women as inferior. This response may HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 10
manifest as an exaggeration of how it is believed that men should be (Griffith & Powers,
2007).
Machismo can be categorized as a form of Masculine Protest
Safeguarding: When individuals feel discouraged, they may exhibit Safeguarding behaviors or
symptoms as a response to effect movement that will distract from life (Clark, 1999).
Substance abuse can be a manifestation of Safeguarding stemming from the
discouragement burgeoned from experiences of racism and hegemonic masculinity and to
explain lack of positive movement.
Social Interest: Social interest manifests in individuals who are able to fulfill their life tasks and
are able to move along the positive side of life in the horizontal plane. Social interest is
best understood as an individual who transcends in the world around them and is vested
in the betterment of their community and fellow human beings (Griffith & Powers,
2007). Hegemonic masculinity and Racism are an affront to Social Interest in that they
deny individuals their ability to transcend and fulfill their life tasks.
What is Hegemonic Masculinity?
The definition of hegemony is the control of one class over another. The term hegemonic masculinity was brought to the surface by Connell (2005) to encapsulate part of the theory that describes the current Patriarchal societal structure which situates men in a position of supremacy over women. Connell’s research and subsequent focus on gender and class burgeoned from her analysis in 1974 on sex differences from an Australian quantitative survey of High School students in which she participated (Wedgwood, 2009). Hegemonic Masculinity is organized by ideas about natural hierarchies and dependent on social adherence; it is the quotidian ideals of providing and manhood (Dellinger, 2003). HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 11
Connell changed and greatly influenced the discourse on gender studies. In her innovative book, Masculinities (2005), Connell presents her thesis that the many forms of masculinities, where hegemonic masculinity is at the leading strata of the hierarchy, create a never-ending cycle of perpetuating and sustaining our patriarchal society where men unsuccessfully strive to achieve a status of “manliness” and women mold and fold to sustain their own expected subjugation.
Gender relations correlate with class relations and is best studied at that intersection
(Dellinger, 2003). Hegemonic masculinity is not only one of several types of masculinities, but it is also understood as the overarching masculinity that is firmly positioned over them
(Wedgwood, 2009). Connell (2005) argues that through gender socialization, hegemonic masculinity is indoctrinated into our every day and that its ultimate purpose is not only to subjugate women but to maintain a social hierarchy that ensures dominance over the working class. Throughout her career, Connell has emphasized that hegemonic masculinity is a mechanism interwoven with class in a greater system that serves to maintain our current class inequality (Connell, 1977). In this class disparity, the ruler class maintains “dominance” by establishing and maintaining ideals and moral codes (Donaldson, 1993, pp. 645-646).
As an illustration of the insidiousness of hegemonic masculinity, in Relationship Advice in Top-Selling Men’s Magazines: A Qualitative Document Analysis (2010), Spalding et al. found that the magazines are fraught with messaging that reinforces idealistic, conventional masculine expression including sexual dominance. The most influential managers and what ensures that those with power keep it are “organizing agents” who create and maintain hegemonic masculinity models: people who “regulate” gender expression and relation by interpreting and presenting these models, such as priests, politicians, psychiatrists, media, artists, religion, art, HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 12 movies, music, sports, and a myriad of other means and institutions (Donaldson, 1993, p.646).
Ultimately, hegemonic masculinity is a tool for gender socialization that creates a system of power inequality which then helps the perpetuation of on-going social reproduction of patriarchy culminating in a patriarchal society that fosters hegemonic masculinity (Scott-Samuel,
2009). Masculinity in general and its impact on the psyche of individuals was at the forefront during the birth of psychoanalysis with Freud’s Oedipus Complex where he identifies masculinity as a dynamic social construct, an ideal that causes psychological distress; Jung’s gender Archetypes Anima and Persona which are part of each individual who is then responsible for maintaining balance between the two, so as to not have one overpower the other; and Adler’s
Masculine Protest as driven in response to the societal devaluation of femininity (Connell, 2005).
During the period between the Great Wars until the rise of feminism in the 1970’s there was a concerted investigation of masculinity exclusion in the field of psychology. Heterosexism was positioned as the norm, and all other forms of sexual expression as deviances (Connell, 2005).
Adler (1916, 1978) criticized the prescribed male dominance of his time as detrimental to society as a whole.
As compelling as Connell’s life work detailing how hegemonic masculinity is a tool or a cog which assures the hierarchical class structure, it has found criticism with regards to its opposition of gay maleness (Demetriou, 2001). Hegemonic Masculinity has evolved beyond its polarity to gayness by creating a “hegemonic masculinity bloc” that engulfs femininity as it morphs to maintain the patriarchal structure (Demetriou, 2001, pp. 349-350). This criticism reinforces Connell’s argument (2005) that most of the applications of her theory on masculinity are utilized with a singular focus on gender, extricating it from the complex system of the societal power structure. Connell’s own transsexualism and eventual transition to female from HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 13 male may have influenced her assessments on gender roles (Wedgwood, 2009). At a minimum, it may very well have inspired her to investigate the subject from the perspective of a more personal struggle.
Constructing Masculinity
From an early age, young men demonstrate difficulty expressing negative feelings
(sadness, depression, loss, and emotional pain) when faced with loss and grief (McNess, 2008).
The 50-year hiatus from inquiry of masculinity after World War II allowed hegemonic masculinity to become solidified at the same time that mass media communication was being born. Hegemonic masculinity was invading all our spaces with technology as its vehicle as movie and music studios became conglomerates, advertising reinforcing the ideal way of being and looking male and female bombarded us through televisions and magazines, entered our homes, waiting rooms, and even cars.
While music allowed for some freedom in expressing masculinity and male artists pushed the boundaries of heterosexuality and gender expression with artists like David Bowie, the
Beatles, and others, it did not so much change the expectations to adherence of hegemonic masculinity, as it usurped feminine traits for men to exploit (Demetriou, 2001). Men can play at being gay and put on more feminine facades and are rewarded with limited societal backlash in the right settings (Demetriou, 2001). There has been enough discourse on teaching “men to cross gender borders and explore” and be able to communicate more feelings (Ludeman, 2004, p.
84). Ultimately, hegemonic masculinity demands that men be men, be in charge, be leaders, be innovators.
Modern popular romantic literature presents a microcosm representation of the indoctrination that saturates heterosexual romantic relationships. It is of little surprise that the HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 14 romance novel Fifty Shades of Grey trilogy (James, 2012) was on the best-selling list for months and the consequent theatrical adaptations drove women by the thousands to movie theaters all over the country. The very premise of the storyline requires the female protagonist to not only subdue physically, sexually, and emotionally to her deeply psychologically flawed male counterpart, but do it to help heal him. It exemplifies the encouragement (and potential reward) for women that reinforces the belief that if women love the man enough, he will be healed. Only her love and subjugation can save him. It has been theorized that this book is so popular with women because it not only appeals to our most primal human reproductive instincts; the implied messaging women receive taps the indoctrinated subconscious belief that their place is in subjugation to the ideal, hegemonically masculine adherent male, further to the demands made by hegemonic masculinity.
The pressures generated by hegemonic masculinity negatively impact men as well as women. The quality of physical health, mental, chemical health of men is significantly reduced in their attempts to adhere to the directives of hegemonic masculinity (Sloan, Conner, & Gough,
2015). The consequences of ignoring the validity of the power of hegemonic masculinity can be lethal as demonstrated by Debbi Stanistreet (2005), who confirmed that marginalized men were greatly influenced by hegemonic masculinity as they engaged in masculinity protest behaviors which put physical, sexual, and mental health at risk, and ultimately died through opiate use.
Masculine Aggression and Violence
In Cooperation between the Sexes, Adler (1978) highlights the perils of maintaining a society which presupposes men over women: HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 15
The man, for his part, burdened since childhood with the obligation to prove
his superiority over women, answers the secretly hostile nature of the female
sex by increased suspicion and possibly by tyranny (p. 27).
Historically, domestic violence interventionists have concentrated their focus on women and their needs (Hearn, 2012). Women who are experiencing domestic abuse should have their needs addressed; at the same time, evidence suggests the need to include men in interventions is critical (Hearn, 2012). This also necessitates that men have support available that recognizes the specific stressors men face as they attempt to navigate psychosocial change with the conflicting expectations generated by lived gender roles versus the mandates of hegemonic masculinity
(O’Neil, 2015). There is also significant need to understand and address how hegemonic masculinity manifests in differing environments. It has been well documented and reported that the culture in parts of the military, law enforcement, and athletic programs is fraught with institutionalized hegemonic masculinity which has a propensity to result in sexual violence against women (Harway & Steel, 2015).
Gender Identity Versus Gender Roles
In its simplest form, gender identity is while gender role does. Gender identity is one of the various identities individuals develop from interpreting and internalizing the world around them (Echabe, 2010). Gender roles are a manifestation, or expression, of those matters which society at large has assigned to each gender (Echabe, 2010). Gender Identity says, “I am a man, and as such, I am physically strong and unaffected by emotions or fear.” Whereas, gender role demonstrates masculinity through action, “I am a provider, savior, and problem solver.”
Research has confirmed that the distress generated when the ability of individuals to have agency over their gender role expression is in contradiction with socially created expectations (Stillson HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 16
O’Neil, & Owen, 1991).
Hegemonic Masculinity and Latino men
Latino men are in a position shared with other men of color that while they experience privilege, they are also left out of the discussion or study of inequity because of the presumption of their privilege (Bukoski & Hatch (2016). Hegemonic masculinity is a cultural force where men of color and working-class men’s influence is not included, yet they are a part of it
(Donaldson, 1993). While not positioned in a higher societal structure, these men both adhere, and they fulfill what has been purported to be the core principle of hegemonic masculinity: competing for sexual validation from women (Donaldson, 1993). Hegemonic Masculinity can be conceptualized as external and internal. External hegemonic masculinity which is ingrained in our institutions and internal hegemonic masculinity (Demetriou, 2001). Internal hegemonic masculinity refers to the masculinities competing for a place in the pecking order. Men use competing masculinities to umpire which expression of manliness is more desirable (Hinojosa,
2008).
While external hegemonic masculinity sets the stage for Latino men to experience racism and oppression related trauma, internal hegemonic masculinity perpetuates the trauma itself by defining which masculinities are better than others. For Latino men, indoctrination into internal hegemonic masculinity begins early in life and can be traumatizing (Lu & Wong, 2013).
Lampropopoulou and Archakis (2015) articulate that within social constructionism, the choice is being made to either conform or not, at the intersection of autonomous participation in the development of social identities with the influence of social conditioning. They emphasize that not conforming to gender expectations has ramifications for individuals, creating pressure to adapt. They concluded that heteronormativity and heterosexuality influence the masculine HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 17 identities of men. For Latino men, this conformity includes not only abiding by the expectations of hegemonic masculinity, but also adhering to caballerismo – that is, they must abide by the code of honor, respect, responsibility, and gallantry (Echabe, 2010).
According to Minority Masculinity Stress Theory, hegemonic masculinity reinforces and compounds the masculinity stereotypes of Latino men (Lu & Wong, 2013). Latino men have two sets of expectations placed upon them. They have to adhere to Latino/a expectations and
Western-European hegemonic masculinity (Lu & Wong, 2013). This dual set of demands on
Latino men generates distress and confusion. For Latino men, and other men of color, the rules and expectations of hegemonic masculinity are augmented, exalting increased pressure to succeed and greater sense of failure when they do not. Therefore, it is of great importance that the intersectionality of gender, ethnicity, and mental health be investigated (Saez, Casado, &
Wade, 2009; Scott-Samuel, 2009).
Machismo
Before embarking on any discussion concerning machismo, it is essential to understand its roots and that while its adverse affects have been thoroughly investigated, aspects of it like caballerismo and Man Pride can be a source of familial strength and individual motivation
(Bukoski & Hatch, 2016; Morales, Laird, & Green, 1996). During colonization, indigenous men of Latin America powerlessly witnessed their wives, sisters, and daughters being raped and enslaved by the Conquistadores. Machismo was developed as a masculine protest response to the psychological torture and humanly demeaning experiences that the indigenous peoples of
Latin American endured during colonization (Bitar, Kimball, Gee, & Bermudez, 2008). In modern day, we must recognize that while machismo can be interpreted as another version of hegemonic masculinity, it is in actuality, a response to the stress created by the amalgamation of HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 18 hegemonic masculinity and on-going psychological assault Latino men endure through racism and socioeconomic oppression that interferes with their ability to realize their life tasks. It is an attempt to move from a place of inferiority to a place of superiority, just as it was a response to colonization. Not surprisingly, it has been found that machismo is correlated with increased depression among Latino men (Fragoso & Kashubeck, 2000). Also, traditionally, part of the socialization of Latino men includes its own set of expectations on behavior which include
“honor, respect, dignity and familismo” (Echabe, 2010, p. 202).
Man Pride
Similar to Machismo, man pride originates as a response to powerlessness and manifests as cynical anxiety (Bitar, Kimball, Gee & Bermudez, 2008). In their study of Latino male students, (Bukoski & Hatch, 2016) found that Latino men internalize their success or failure in machismo. They learned that for Latino male students, success is measured by future material wealth and in order to succeed, they must “man-up” (p. 11). If they do not succeed, it is because they were not good enough men or failed at being men. They alone are responsible for succeeding and avoid seeking help because to do so would mean they are weak. The man pride associated with machismo limits the ability for Latino men to seek help (Bukoski & Hatch,
2016). Ostensibly, it also limits the frequency and accuracy of how often mental health – depression specifically – is reported, requiring that any assessment for depression go beyond expression of symptoms and delve more purposefully into broader indicators of wellbeing.
Caballerismo
Caballerismo loosely translates as gentlemanly or chivalrous. In most Latino/a cultures,
Caballerismo is an ethnocultural description and set of rules of how men should behave and the values they should hold. Honoring Caballerismo means to be a man who honors, respects, and HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 19 protects his family. He does this by providing for them, not just by being the breadwinner, but also by being available to provide support and problem solve. A close relative of Machismo,
Caballerismo, can prove to be problematic for Latino men if external factors interfere with their opportunity to fulfill the norms delineated by Caballerismo (Sanchez, Whittaker, Hamilton, &
Arango, 2017).
Latino Men and Mental Health
Latino men experience mental health problems in unique ways due to the layered expectations placed upon them by hegemonic masculinity, Machismo, and Caballerismo (Liang,
Salcedo, & Miller, 2011). Moreover, Machismo can lead Latino men to higher instances of mental Health problems (Nuñez, et al., 2016). Specifically, Latino/as experience higher levels of major depression than any other group in the United States (Pratt & Body, 2008 as cited in
Nuñez, et al., 2016).
Generally, hegemonic masculinity contributes to men not seeking mental health services and Latino men are no exception (Emslie, Ridge, Ziebland, & Hunt, 2006 as cited in Carr &
McKerman, 2015). Every immigrant group experiences varying levels of acculturation. A lesser degree of acculturation for Latino men who retain a closer connection to Latino/a ethnocultural can result in difficulty managing the stress related to existing in a space which is unfamiliar
(Fragoso & Kashubeck, 2000). Many young Latino male immigrants do not have the necessary coping skills to manage the stressors they face (Ojeda & Liang, 2014). Regrettably, Latino men experience high levels of stigma and reluctance to seek mental health counseling, and there are not sufficiently available providers to provide the appropriate care (Vogel, Heimerdinger-
Edwards, Hammer, & Hubbard, 2011). Evidence suggests that when Latino men are able to explore their ethnic identity, they are able to develop and utilize coping skills necessary to HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 20 manage stressors (Ojeda & Liang, 2014). It has been further demonstrated that when young inner-city Latino men are able to find a connection with their ethnic identity, the increased risk for violence and hazardous behavior generated by the stressors of poverty, marginalization, and racism are significantly mitigated (Williams, Aiyer, Durkee, & Tolan, 2014).
Effects of Racism
The United States Census reported in 2010 that Latino/as are the largest minority group in the us. The National Center for Health Statistics reported (2017) that compared to non-
Latino/a Whites, Latino/as demonstrate lower health quality and higher morbidity rates than other ethnic groups. It is important to understand the health and psychological consequences for
Latino/as who are subjected to racism and ethnic discrimination. Numerous studies have provided evidence that racism negatively affects mental health. Latino/as who experience racism and ethnic discrimination have been found to present increased instances of psychological distress, anxiety, clinical depression, and suicide ideation (Hwang & Goto, 2009).
In their study Perceived Discrimination and Health-Related Quality of Life: Testing the
Reserve Capacity Model in Hispanic Americans, Howarter and Bennet (2013) confirmed past studies reporting that experiencing stress drains individual’s “reserve” (p 72) which serves to sustain them when challenged emotionally. They further confirmed that discrimination resulted in physical, mental and chemical health problems for Latino/as. Howarter and Bennet (2013) also concluded that the stress generated when Latino/as experience racism (whether perceived or actual) exhausted their coping “reserves.” The authors also found Latino/as avoid talking about occurrences of discrimination because it caused increased anxiety levels, which in turn had a adverse impact on their physical and mental health. Not dissimilar to other negative experiences, avoiding discussions about lived racism with others who may be able to empathize robs the HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 21 individual of much needed social support, heightens the sense of isolation, and increases the risk of internalizing the experience.
Racism and Mental Health
Continual and repeated experiences of discrimination and racism can affect Latino men acutely and result in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Torres & Vallejo, 2015). Racism increases the need and exalts pressure for Latino men to adhere to a heightened responsibility to Machismo and Caballerismo, which requires them to honor and provide for their families, resulting in being instilled a higher need to compete and be successful (Liang, Salcedo, Miller, 2011). As a result, they experience high levels of stress. The instances of increased depression have been reported in Latino men as machismo traits rise (Fragoso & Kashubeck, 2000).
In their investigation, Lu and Wong (2013) concluded that Latino men experience increased mental health problems when they comply with hegemonic masculinity demands.
Furthermore, the stereotypical expectations placed on Latino men, such as questions of their legality and ability to complete the educational requirements to succeed, can be a source of discouragement when pursuing paths to improve their socioeconomic status and romantic relationships (Lu & Wong, 2013). These barriers is in complete opposition to the mandates of hegemonic masculinity and Caballerismo. These opposing paradigms generate significant distress as they feel unable to fulfill their expected life tasks.
There is currently no path towards securing legal immigration status for the over 9.8 million Latinos currently living in the United States with no immigration status (Passel & Cohn,
2016). Latino men lacking immigration status are greatly marginalized and concentrated in labor occupations where they are more prone to experience racism, oppression, as well as economic exploitation (Arellano-Morales, Liang, Ruiz; & Rios-Oropeza, 2016). Not having an HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 22 immigration status causes marginalization for Latino men and limits their opportunity to improve their socio-economic standing, which keeps them in a perpetual state of poverty or near poverty and restrains their ability to realize their life tasks. The life of Latino men with no immigration status is also filled with uncertainty, stress, and anxiety from the relentless fear caused by the prolonged risk of facing deportation. All the above-delineated stressors can lead Latino men lacking immigration status to gender role conflict and low life satisfaction, which is an indicator of mental health (Arellano-Morales, Liang, Ruiz; & Rios-Oropeza, 2016).
For Latino gay men, the problems associated with racism and Hegemonic masculinity are multiplied qualifiers for being the recipient of racism. In 2013, Choi, Paul, Ayala, Boylan, and
Gregorich conducted a study of 403 African American, 393 Asian and Pacific Islander, and 400
Latino men who have sex with men, Experiences of Discrimination and Their Impact on the
Mental Health Among African American, Asian and Pacific Islander, and Latino Men Who Have
Sex With Men. They found increased risk for Latino men who are gay of developing mental health problems as a result of racism or ethnic discrimination. Choi, et al also emphasized that for gay Latino men, the effects of discrimination are compounded by homophobia from society at large, their families, and support systems; as well as, incidents of racism within the gay community. They also concluded that Latino gay men are more prone to experience homophobia in the community at large.
Racism and Substance Use
The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration reported in 2013 that
Latino/as, aged 20 to 25, engaged in almost Thirty percent of binge drinking. Latino men exposed to discriminating treatment due to racist ideologies have a higher instance of substance abuse problems (Ornelas, & Hong, 2012). It has been well documented that when Latino men HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 23 are confronted with racism, their ability to fulfill the gender role expectations of Caballerismo is placed at risk (Liang, Salcedo, Miller, 2011). Subsequently, when the threat to the ability of
Latino men to fulfill their life tasks burgeons, amplified machismo traits are manifested as a response (Nuñez et al, 2016). Increased adherence to masculinity traits has demonstrated to increase the instance of alcohol and chemical use (Sloan, Conner, & Gough, 2015). Experiences of discrimination have been proven to lead to increased alcohol use disorders and problems
(Wiehe, et al., 2010 per Tobler, Maldonado-Molina, Staras, O'Mara, Livingston, Komro, 2013).
For Latino men who are able to explore their ethnic identity are able to develop coping skills to manage life stressors, including discrimination (Ojeda & Liang, 2014). Those Latino men who develop a strong ethnic-cultural identity have shown to report increased levels of everyday and racial discrimination (Molina, Jackson, & Rivera-Olmedo, 2016). The rates of binge drinking has shown to increase when Latino/a immigrants experience discrimination barriers (Ornelas,
Eng, & Perreira, 2011). A more in-depth study of Latino/as comprised of representation from various Latino/a subgroups specified that US born Latino/as and immigrants of Mexican descent showed higher instances of substance abuse disorders (Verissimo, Grella, Amaro, & Gee, 2014).
Latino Men and Substance Use
In their National Survey on Drug Use and Health, the Substance Abuse and Mental
Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) reported (2013) that only 9.3 percent out of the 3.4 million Latino/as over the age of 12 who need treatment for substance use disorders are able to access it. They also highlighted that the number of Latino/as accessing substance use treatment varies by country of origin, hence, demonstrating that barriers to treatment differ within this population. It has also been confirmed that Latino men engage in more substance use than
Latina women (Vaughan, Wong, & Middendorf, 2014; Ornelas & Hong, 2012). Lamentably, HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 24 stigma and the constraints of machismo limit the ability of Latino men to access mental health or therapeutic services (Vogel, Heimerdinger-Edwards, Hammer, & Hubbard, 2011). Latino men who hold elevated machismo beliefs have been linked to increased substance use (Unger, et al,
2002). Vaughan, Wong, & Middendorf (2014) found the latter to also be true for young adolescent Latino boys who engage in high levels of binge drinking. In addition, they found that the more competitive aspects of machismo and Caballerismo may prime young Latino men to engage in binge drinking. Adherence to belief systems that supported strong gender difference demonstrated that young Latino men engaged in higher instances of hazardous or violent behaviors which put their physical, mental, and sexual health at risk (Pleck & O’Donnell, 2001;
Montoya Perez, 2011)). Research has shown that U.S.-born Mexican Latino/as experience higher rates of co-occurring disorders and substance use disorders (Vega, Sribney, & Achara-
Abrahams, 2003; Villalobos & Bridges, 2017).
Even though Latino/a immigrants have shown to experience lower rates of substance use problems than first and subsequent born Latino men (Villalobos & Bridges, 2017), their unique challenges and barriers can increase obstacles to treatment and counseling. Latino men who have no immigration status live a difficult life in the United States fraught with poor living conditions, extreme poverty, physically demanding working conditions, and perpetual fear of deportation to homelands most of them left behind to escape violence. Worby and Organista
(2013) found part of the pattern of alcohol consumption by Latino men with no immigration status to revolve around avoiding deportation. As a result, most of their alcohol intake is limited to their home. In their study of immigrant laborers, Worby and Organista reported that Latino men who lack immigration status tend to live in communal like homes, often in deficient living conditions, with other immigrants of similar circumstances. The authors also discovered that this HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 25 immigrant population tended to avoid leaving their home when not working for fear of deportation and crime to which they often fall as victims because they are known to under-report crime for fear of the police. The researchers found that the concentration and restriction of alcohol use to their overcrowded homes provided almost constant access to alcohol. This constant exposure and availability made it difficult for them not to drink even if they attempted to limit their consumption. Expectedly, they also found that Latino men lacking immigration status tend to not engage substance use treatment, not only because of lack of resources, but also because attending treatment would impede their ability to work.
It has been demonstrated that some ethnocultural norms, practices, and beliefs can serve as a benefit to Latino men or can be a source of stress that leads to substance use (Unger, et al,
2002). For some Latino men, the norm of reciprocity can influence their decision to engage in alcohol use (Worby & Organista, 2013). Ojeda and Liang (2014) found that familism provides young Latino men the feelings of connectedness which helps them develop healthy coping skills, and consequently, diminish develop substance use problems. Conversely, young Latino men who immigrated from environments that provided them with high familism prior to migrating and demonstrated lower substance use for the two years preceding their migration as concluded by Dillon, de la Rosa, Sastre, and Ibañez (2013). However, the researchers also found that this outcome was reversed after an extended period of time and found that Latino men who have lived in the United States for more than a year engaged in increased alcohol use. They attributed this increase in alcohol use to the difference between “attitudinal familismo” versus “behavioral familismo” (p. 962). It is worth noting that research of Latino/as engaged in treatment has revealed high instances of family history of substance use disorders and co-occurring mental health diagnosis of depression (Rojas, Hallford, Brand, & Tivis, 2012). Latino men with lesser HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 26 levels of acculturation demonstrate a closer connection with their ethnic-cultural beliefs have shown to engage in less substance use (Kulis & Marsiglia, 2003). Vaughan, Wong, anMiddendorf (2014) also confirmed that young Latino immigrant boys who had a strong sense of ethnic identity demonstrated more confidence to abstain from binge drinking.
Therapeutic Experience
It has been long confirmed and documented that for Latino men, regardless of their level of acculturation or post-immigration generation, the deeply rooted cultural and ethnic beliefs of
“folk beliefs, machismo, familism, and fatalism” remain valid (Cuellar, Arnold, & Gonzalez,
1995, p. 351-352). It is also imperative to recognize that hegemonic masculinity has the propensity to deprive men of the opportunity to develop coping skills and resources to manage traumatic experiences (Mejia, 2005); therefore, any therapeutic involvement must be provided guided by trauma-informed practices. This is particularly poignant when working with men who have served in active duty in the military (Carr & McKernan, 2015). The therapeutic experience must also be balanced with honor and respect, and the awareness of how important cultural and ethnic connection are for the psychological well-being of Latino men as social beings. In any intervention, thoughtful consideration needs to be given to the need for Latino men to feel connected to those norms and beliefs which honor their sense of belonging and safety.
Machismo can influence and affect men in varied ways unique to the diverse lived experiences of distinct cultures within the Latino/a population (de la Canela, 1986; Janey, 2003).
Subsequently, counselors and therapists should recognize that while Latino/as have many shared ethnocultural beliefs and traditions, the Latino/a population is heterogeneous and is typically influenced by the familial country of origin (Janey, 2003). HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 27
Individual Psychology
Individual Psychology can provide Latino men a road map towards recovery guided by the Adlerian belief that addiction and mental health are greatly influenced by the individual’s need to belong (Shifron, 2010). It has been demonstrated that Latino men who experience racism have an increased chance of developing mental and chemical health problems (Fragoso &
Kashubeck, 2000; Vega, Sribney, & Achara-Abrahams, 2003; Villalobos & Bridges, 2017).
These mental health problems are compounded by hegemonic masculinity, further increasing their vulnerability to chemical health problems. During an interview for California study on narcotics and addiction, Lydia Sicher (1991) identified Individual Psychology as an engagement tool to assist individuals experiencing chemical use disorders. For Latino men experiencing mental and chemical health problems, Individual Psychology can provide the opportunity to increase awareness of how hegemonic masculinity and racism have influenced their need to belong, style of life, and social interest.
Individual Psychology affords a safe and culturally respectful understanding of how
Latino men may internalize and interpret the mandates of hegemonic masculinity and the effects of racism. By incorporating Latino/a values, such as Familism and Caballerismo, Individual
Psychology can serve to create constructive feelings about gender roles for Latino men (Sanchez,
Whittaker, Hamilton, & Arango, 2017). Individuals can explore how early childhood experiences with racism were internalized and how the feelings of inferiority, underpinned by hegemonic masculinity, has designed their style of life. Racism and discrimination, as exogenous factors, can increase feelings of inferiority in Latino men leading to machismo (or hyper masculinity) as a form of masculine protest. As they attempt to create movement towards superiority substance use disorders can develop as safeguarding tools to fulfill fictive goals HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 28
(Oberst & Stewart, 2002) designed to cope with the traumatic effects of racism. It is worth exploring how Latino men experiencing chemical and mental health problems developed their gender guiding lines, and ultimately, their style of life.
Masculine protest. Children inherently experience a sense of inferiority to adults which leads them to seek attention and affection (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1964). If the male child, by observation and experience with adults of the opposite sex, determine that feminine traits are unfavorable, he may develop a need to overcompensate his masculine expression (Adler, 1978).
While Adler evolved masculine protest to explain movement from a position of inferiority towards a place of superiority (Lundin, 1989), both explications aptly fit in the current examination. This is especially so for Latino men who have internalized feelings of inferiority based on experiences of racism that inhibit their ability to live up to the mandates of hegemonic masculinity. Machismo has historically been a manifestation of masculine protest developed during colonization (Bitar, Kimball, Gee, & Bermudez, 2008) and used by Latino men to cope with negative experiences which they do not have the power to change. Therefore, it is no surprise that racism can lead to increased machismo in Latino men as a response to the stressors produced by having their masculinity called to question (Liang, Salcedo, & Miller, 2011).
Gender guiding lines. How might a young Latino boy who witnesses his father be demeaned and dehumanized by racism conclude? What feelings about his place in the world as a man would he develop? How might he fashion his gender expression and his role as a man when he is besieged by messages to conform to hegemonic masculinity by the world around him
(Carlson, Watts, & Maniacci, 2006; Donaldson, 1993, p. 646), while having his ability to improve his socioeconomic state be limited by the barriers created through racism (Arellano-
Morales, Liang, Ruiz; & Rios-Oropeza, 2016; Ojeda, Rosales, & Good, 2008). Adler identified HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 29 gender identity as part of the repertoire of interpretations children make about themselves in the world based on their experiences with their parents (Adler, 1948). Boys and girls define their individual gender guiding lines based on what they interpret in the world around them. They interpret how their parents are with each other and how they express their individual gender identity and how they play out their gender roles as men and women. A young boy hears his father say, “men don’t cry” and he may internalize that message to form the belief that men should suppress their feelings of sadness or disappointment. He may go even further and decide that doing so is a demonstration of weakness or of being somehow flawed. Helping Latino men understand how their conclusions about being a man may have been influenced by these negative experiences as well as adhering to masculinity may influence their alcohol and substance consumption (Sloan, Conner, & Gough, 2015; Wiehe, et al., 2010 per Tobler, et al 2013).
Gemeinschaftsgefühl (social interest). Adler recognized that mental health problems
(neurosis) were indicative of lack of social interest as it led the individual to become hyper- focused on only his or her needs and wants (Adler, 1948). He identified cultivating social interest as a primary goal of therapy and emphasized that individuals’ innate state of being demands that they be interconnected with the world around them and vested in the well-being of others (Lundin, 1989). He described it as “an extension of the self” towards others (Lundin,
1989, p. 41). As substance use is utilized as a safeguarding tool from the discouragement initiated by racism and the feelings of inferiority inspired by hegemonic masculinity, Latino men may distance themselves from their desire to participate in the world around them, in essence disconnecting from their social interest and isolating from other groups in society. This isolation can increase feelings of inferiority and emasculation and lead to more discord (Ansbacher &
Ansbacher, 1964). Social interest involvement has demonstrated to lessen the instances of HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 30 substance use relapse after treatment (Giordano, Clarke, & Furter, 2014). Adler conceptualized the therapeutic experience to focus on helping individuals regain or attain his or her social interest.
Life style. Understanding the individual’s distinctive life style is central to individual psychology. As exogenous factors, hegemonic masculinity and racism affect the way children, and individuals, interpret those experiences leading to the development of a schema created by biased apperceptions (Powers & Griffith, 1987). The use of early recollections can help Latino men caught in the destructive loop of using substances to cope (Barua, Dutta, & Kumar, 2016) as they move on the vertical plane striving for superiority from a place of inferiority and provide profound insight. This is a particularly useful tool because Latino/as often use cuentos, metaphorical story-telling, to communicate moral expectations (Costantino & Malgady, 1996).
Making use of recollection interpretation with heavy emphasis on interpreting metaphors and storytelling will increase the connection to the therapeutic process.
A thorough style of life assessment can help Latino men understand how they may have made sense of the world and themselves in it and to develop insight into the fictional goals they may have developed, and safeguarding used from the exposure to racism. In Understanding Life
Adler (1997) explained, “…it is not appropriate treatment merely to make alcoholics stop drinking; we must find and correct the errors in their life style” (p. 57). Experiences of racism compounded by the demands of hegemonic masculinity can have detrimental effects on the mental and chemical health of Latino men (Cheng & Mallinckrodt, 2015; Fragoso & Kashubeck,
2000; Howarter & Bennet, 2013; Nuñez et al, 2016; Vega, Sribney, & Achara-Abrahams, 2003;
Villalobos & Bridges, 2017). As a consequence, Latino men can develop a life style within HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 31 which his fictive goals may lead him towards the negative side of life as he strives for superiority and perfection (Powers & Griffith, 1987).
Life tasks. Adler identified that human beings have fundamental life tasks that need to be achieved. When Latino men are able to fulfill their life tasks, caballerismo affords them the opportunity to satisfy their social interest and are provided the emotional benefits by diminishing isolation (Sanchez, Whittaker, Hamilton, & Arango, 2017). When coupled with racism, Latino men experience significant stress by not being able to fulfill the mandates that caballerismo demands leading for aggressive competitiveness with other men (Sanchez, Whittaker, Hamilton,
& Arango, 2017).
Latino men can find themselves in a never-ending loop driven by their response to racism and hegemonic masculinity. Machismo traits can propagate as a response to feeling unable to accomplish their life tasks (Nuñez et al., 2016), which can lead to increase alcohol and chemical use (Sloan, Conner, & Gough, 2015), and further limit their ability to execute life tasks and diminishing feelings of significance and belonging (Yang, Milliren, & Blagen, 2010, p. 92).
In “An Adlerian Perspective (1991), Lydia Sicher discusses the instinctual need to belong, to develop a social or communal consciousness, and the interconnectedness of the existential and essential planes as part of our fundamental human interdependence while trying to fulfill life tasks. Sicher explains connectedness and contributiveness as two of the “basic laws” that drive us as human beings towards social interest (pp. 54 – 55). Hegemonic masculinity and racism can impede Latino men’s movement by not only limiting their access to resources and community needed to realize their life tasks (Alamilla, Kim, & Lam, 2010;
Arellano-Morales, Liang, Ruiz, & Rios-Oropeza, 2016; Cheng & Mallinckrodt, 2015; Cuéllar,
Arnold, & González, 1995), but also by impeding their innate pursuit of connectedness and HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 32 contributiveness.
Feminist Therapy
Burgeoned from the Women’s Movement of the late 1960’s and influenced by humanistic therapies, feminist therapy has evolved beyond consciousness-raising for women
(Brown, 2010). The pursuit towards understanding the role those power dynamics play in the lives of individuals is one of the core values of Feminist Therapy (Mintz & Tager, 2013).
Consequently, the use of Feminist therapy techniques presents the opportunity to help Latino men experiencing mental and chemical health problems generated by racism and the powerlessness resulting from the distress hegemonic masculinity proliferates reframe those experiences.
Feminist Therapy can assist Latino men develop coping skills to manage the trauma created by racism and hegemonic masculinity. With the understanding that hegemonic masculinity and racism disempower Latino men, Feminist Therapy is well suited to provide strategies that elicit individual empowerment. Change, in feminist therapy, is a product of understanding the positive and negative effects of how the individual has internalized external gender-roles expectations. With the use of feminist therapy tasks, individuals are able to secure the skills needed to create a healthy life (Truscott, 2010).
Therapy-demystifying. Developing an egalitarian relationship is imperative to the therapeutic process of feminist therapy (Brown, 2010). The therapy-demystifying process needs to be exercised with awareness that in Latino/a culture there is an expectation that the person providing physical, mental, or chemical health services is the expert (Dancy, 2010, p. 214). At the same time, therapists who have experience working with Latino men have found that self- disclosure can be important tool to form joining (Cervantes, 2006). Demystifying the therapeutic HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 33 process can help empower Latino men who may feel disempowered by their experiences with racism. Developing an internal locus of control is a pivotal part of the substance use recovery process (Amram & Benbenishty, 2014). For Latino men, therapy-demystifying can provide them the internal locus of control needed to start their journey towards recovery.
Distress and psychopathology. Feminist therapy has long contended that for those individuals who are not part of the dominant normative group, the experiences of ostracization can lead to psychological distress (Brown, 2010). Feminist therapy calls for therapists to be purposeful in ensuring that individuals’ response to experiences of racism and oppression are not pathologized to avoid further augmenting their psychological distress (Brown, 2010). It is also imperative that therapists avoid further distressing their Latino/a clients by recognizing the importance that religion may play in their lives and assess their needs in this area (Cervantes,
2006).
Social and gender-role analysis. For Latino men, gender role conflict can prove to be a source of distress that can lead to increased depression and domestic violence (Miville, Mendez,
& Louie, 2017) Gender Role analysis, the first step in the therapeutic process, helps individuals identify and understand the external influence on how they define themselves or see themselves in the world (Truscott, 2010). Integrating social stratification with gender-role analysis provides the individual with the opportunity to understand the impact that racism and oppression has on how they see themselves in the world (Brown, 2010). Through social and gender-role analysis individuals have the opportunity to investigate and explore the distress instigated by the limitations and strengths of their position in the social hierarchy. Latino men can investigate if their substance use problems stem as a response to social and gender-role expectations and HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 34 limitations, such as how alcohol is often used an acceptable tool for men to express their emotions in many Latino/a cultures (Sloan, Conner, & Gough, 2015).
Power and powerlessness/assertiveness training. The patriarchal power structure asserts power over men and women (Connell, 2005). By exploring the different types of personal and institutional power dynamics, Latino men can identify problematic behavior as a form of exercising their own power. Treading carefully to avoid pathologizing machismo and caballerismo, therapists can help clients explore them as strength-based skills used to assert individual power when subjected to the powerlessness produced by racism and oppression.
Through assertiveness training, Latino men can learn how to communicate their needs. Learning the difference between assertiveness and aggressiveness within the context of respect which is a fundamental value in Latino/a culture (Calzada, Fernandez, & Cortes, 2010). Four assertiveness training components highlighted by Patricia Jakubowski:
(a) teaching the distinctions between assertive, nonassertive, and aggressive behaviors;
(b) teaching a philosophy of respect for individual rights; (c) removing or reducing the
factors that inhibit assertive behavior, such as negative beliefs; and (d) learning assertive
skills through practice (as cited in Truscott, 2010, p. 133).
Consciousness-raising. Group work is generally integral to the substance treatment process and has been demonstrated to be an evidence-based practice (Macgowan, 2006). In
Consciousness-raising groups, individuals come together to share their experiences (Truscott,
2010). Consciousness-raising activities can be integrated into recovery groups for Latino men to explore hegemonic masculinity, societal expectations, and racism. For Latino men, the consciousness-raising group can be very helpful because of their innate communal aspects. In these groups Latino men can explore commonalities in their lived experiences to alleviate the HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 35 isolative effect of racism and oppression. If a supportive and empowering environment is created, consciousness-raising exercises can provide Latino men the opportunity to discover and highlight the ways in which they don’t abide by gender-specific roles.
Discussion
Hegemonic masculinity and racism are macro-level societal phenomena that can have adverse results on the mental and chemical health of men and women. If we are to attempt to assist individuals to improve their lives, we cannot attempt to treat our clients in a vacuum. As mental health professionals, we cannot ignore how macro-level systems impact the individual and that individuals can have a significant influence on macro-level systems. This analysis demonstrates that masculinity is not something that necessitates being exorcised or therapized out of men.
Masculinity is no more a flawed version of femininity than women are the sole proprietors of emotions. Like femininity, masculinity is the individual’s expression of the individual’s gender identity. It is a manifestation of the way men have concluded they need to be to navigate the world around them and explicates to others how he characterizes himself in the world. It would be illogical and unrealistic to expect our – or any other – society to not contribute to the definition of gender expression. We are social beings and derive a conclusion of who we are from observing our parents, siblings, teachers, peers, etc. and how we interpret experiences to which we are exposed, including those within our bodies (Powers & Griffith,
1987).
Lydia Sicher asserted (1991):
Hope lies in the possibility of man to direct his efforts so that ignorance can be abolished.
We can lessen greed through the realization that it is not “having” which makes people HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 36
valuable, but what the people themselves stand for [sic] (p. 87).
Aside from the dehumanizing effects of racism on the psyche of the individuals.
Latino/as who experience racism tend to internalize these experiences. It is important to explore and understand the unique effect racism has on Latino men and how they internalize experiences of racism. There is no lack of exposure to the mandates of hegemonic masculinity. Every media outlet to which we are exposed is saturated with its messaging (Donaldson, 1993, p.646).
The belief that we are driven by the centuries-old notion that we live in a limited goods society that prefaces any triumph and accomplishment as a cost to someone else’s fortune continues to influence how we live and relate to one another (Trawick & Hornborg, 2015).
There is no sound logic that could conclude that in order for women to advance men must be subjugated. The idea that the only way to create a more egalitarian society is by continuing the practice of looking at men as silent culprits who enjoy the exploits of our unjust hierarchal power structure is detrimental to developing a constructive conversation. The discourse must include the effect that hegemonic masculinity has on all men regardless of race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. While we should neither minimize or ignore the reality that men do benefit from our current power structure and their position of privilege, we must also cognize that they too are subjugated by it, especially Latino men who are instructed by machismo and caballerismo and must somehow find a way to make room for both, while being subjected to racism and oppression that limits their opportunities to improve their socioeconomic standing
(Echabe, 2010).
Implications for Practice
The absence of path towards legal residency or citizenship for the almost ten million
Latinos residing in the United States (Passel & Cohn, 2016) increases the marginalization they HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 37 experience and limits their ability to improve their socioeconomic status while exposing them to increased instances of racism and oppression (Arellano-Morales, Liang, Ruiz, Rios-Oropeza,
2016). It can be argued that this government-sanctioned limiting of opportunity and marginalization can be categorized as institutionalized and systemic racism; and thusly, the effect on the mental health of Latino men denied immigration status is detrimental. The multifarious stressors affecting this segment of the Latino/a population increases the likelihood that they will attempt to adhere to hegemonic masculinity demands, further increasing their vulnerability to chemical an mental health problems.
When engaging Latino men, it is of great importance for mental and chemical health professionals to be cognizant of the cultural diversity within the Latino/a population and the varied ways machismo may be realized and expressed (de la Canela, 1986; Janey, 2003).
Therapeutic interventions must be driven by the understanding that Latino men may also be subjected to psychological injury by hegemonic masculinity and that their lived experiences of discrimination and racism cause them significant trauma which can lead to undiagnosed and untreated Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Torres & Vallejo, 2015). The Latino people have endured and continue to be subjected to historical trauma that began with colonization, continued through the many cold war instigated civil wars and unrest, and currently compounded by the drug trade and cartels. Any therapeutic experience needs include room for the investigation of the historical trauma experienced by Latino/as and how it may have shaped the identity conceptualization of the Latino man.
The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler can be empowering and explicative in the journey towards recovery. It cannot be ignored that when juxtaposed with what we understand today, Adler’s conclusions that substance use disorders are a sign of moral weakness and HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 38 cowardice (Adler & Brett, 1997, pp. 57 & 132) are problematic. Notwithstanding, his core connection between substance use disorders and the individual’s attempt to assert a sense of superiority (Adler & Brett, 1997) remain valid as evidenced by recent studies exploring the grandiosity displayed to mask emotional vulnerability (Karakoula & Triliva, 2016). Adler’s
(1997) assessment that “alcoholics” [sic] lacked social interest (p. 14) is also evident in the maladaptive behaviors in which individuals experiencing substance use disorders engage.
Individual psychology offers judgment free and person-centered opportunities for insight into lifestyle and early recollection assessments. It allows individuals to draw from their own lived experiences and subconscious knowledge to understand their own conclusion about themselves in the world and with others. Individual psychology affords individuals the opportunity to understand themselves and their motivations by exploring the conclusions they derived from their lived experiences. Because the majority of Latino/a cultures tend to be communal and vested in their families, the emphasis in interdependence of the individual and the whole of society (Adler & Brett, 1997; Sicher, 1991) can be very useful in the therapeutic experience of
Latino men as they move towards increasing their social interest.
Recommendations for Future Research
I have deliberately focused on cisgender Latino men in this discourse. Transgenderism is complex in and of itself and even more so when intersected with racism. An analysis of the compounded impact of hegemonic masculinity and racism on the mental and chemical health of the transgender Latino man deserves its own comprehensive and detailed study.
The Latino/a population in the United States is homogenous and diverse necessitating further research to study how Latino men of varied individual cultures are impacted by hegemonic masculinity and racism. In that diversity, study individualization must include HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 39 immigration status, natal generation, and sexual orientation. Also, because the immigrant experience and connection to Latino men’s country of origin are distinctive, further research into individual communities’ natural coping and support mechanism would be beneficial to explore.
It would also be beneficial to explore how these skills can be incorporated into the therapeutic experience.
It has been demonstrated that different immigration generations experience mental and chemical health problems. These differing experiences create the opportunity to investigate what treatment modalities would be most advantageous for Latino men of varied national origins. In order to assist Latino men to find ways in which to exercise their social interest, further research is needed to explore the depth of adherence to familism and caballerismo based on diverse
Latino/a cultures and immigration generation.
Lastly, the field of mental and chemical health counseling is in dire need of investigating therapeutic modalities that serve the Latino/a individual with special consideration to how historical trauma has impacted identity conceptualization and the diversity in culture and ethnicities within the Latino/a community. A simple search provided evidence that the use of storytelling in the cuento tradition has shown some promise when engaging individuals in solution specific therapeutic and medical interventions. Further research into the purposeful incorporation of the cuento tradition with various modalities and Latino/a populations would be an excellent addition to the field of mental and chemical health counseling. HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 40
Conclusion
Hegemonic masculinity has infiltrated everyone’s quotidian life. It is entrenched in everything we are exposed to, social media, religion, art, literature, academia, news media, etc.
(Donaldson, 1993, p. 646). Its influence is evident in the impact it has in maintaining the patriarchal hierarchy currently controlling our societies (Connell, 2005). Because hegemonic masculinity affects more than gender relations and it has a significant impact in socioeconomic and political power of individuals, it necessitates that its intersectionality with gender, class, and race cannot be ignored (Connell, 2005; Dellinger, 2003). Latino men are negatively impacted at this very intersection.
Independently, hegemonic masculinity and racism can adversely affect Latino men’s emotional and chemical well-being. The literature has demonstrated that Latino men who attempt to adhere to hegemonic masculinity, machismo, and caballerismo experience increased rates of mental health problems (Lu & Wong, 2013; Fragoso & Kashubeck, 2000; Liang,
Salcedo, & Miller, 2011). Racism has proven to impact significantly the mental health of
Latinos (Torres & Vallejo, 2015; Vega, Sribney, & Achara-Abrahams, 2003; Villalobos &
Bridges, 2017). When combined with racism, hegemonic masculinity can have detrimental effects substantially injuring the mental and chemical health of Latino men of every walk of life, post-immigration natal generation.
The importance Latino men have been indoctrinated to place on familismo and caballerismo can serve as avenues through which they can develop their Social Interest. It allows Latino men to explore machismo as a response to Masculine Protest. Individual psychology can create the space within which Latino men can explore masculine protest as a source of empowerment from feelings of inferiority that may have burgeoned from the HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 41 hegemonic masculine influenced gender guiding lines adopted and solidified during the formation of their Lifestyle. Latino men can benefit from the opportunity to investigate how hyper-masculinity and substance use may have been developed as masculine protest tools.
Individual psychology of Alfred Adler can be empowering and explicative in the journey towards recovery. It cannot be ignored that when juxtaposed with what we understand today,
Adler’s conclusions that substance use disorders are a sign of moral weakness and cowardice
(Adler, 1997, pp. 57 & 132) are problematic. Notwithstanding, his core connection between substance use disorders and the individual’s attempt to assert a sense of superiority (Adler &
Brett, 1997) remain valid as evidenced by recent studies exploring the grandiosity displayed to mask emotional vulnerability (Karakoula & Triliva, 2016). Adler’s (1997) assessment that
“alcoholics” [sic] lacked social interest (p. 14) is also evident in the maladaptive behaviors in which individuals experiencing substance use disorders engage. Individual psychology offers judgment free and person-centered opportunities for insight into lifestyle and early recollection assessments. It allows individuals to draw from their own lived experiences and subconscious knowledge to understand their own conclusion about themselves in the world and with others.
Individual psychology affords individuals the opportunity to understand themselves and their motivations by exploring the conclusions they derived from their lived experiences. Because the majority of Latino/a cultures tend to be communal and vested in their families, the emphasis of interdependence of the individual and the whole of society (Adler & Brett, 1997; Sicher, 1991) can be very useful in the therapeutic experience of Latino men as they move towards increasing their social interest.
Feminist therapy is uniquely situated to help mental health professionals in their work with Latino men and experiencing psychological and chemical health problems generated by the HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 42 powerlessness and the distress racism and hegemonic masculinity can provoke. Therapeutic interventions allow the pursuit towards understanding the role power dynamics play in the lives of Latino men. It provides the opportunity to redefine gender guiding lines, sense of power, assertiveness expression, and meaning and belonging by constructing a connection to social interest.
The emphasis that both individual psychology and feminist therapy place on ensuring that the therapeutic experience creates an egalitarian relationship between the individual and the therapist (can also serve as a conduit for healing and empowerment. Demystifying the therapeutic experience and focusing on distress in contrast to symptoms can alleviate preconceptions and stigma.
Racism and hegemonic masculinity are affronts to social interest and an impediment to
Latino men fully realizing their life tasks which can lead to the development of mental and chemical health problems. Aside from the dehumanizing effects racism has on the psyche of the individuals, Latino/as who experience racism tend to internalize these experiences. Furthermore, there is no lack of exposure to the mandates of hegemonic masculinity; every media outlet to which we are exposed is saturated with its messaging (Donaldson, 1993, p. 646). Consequently, it is essential to explore and understand the unique effect racism has on Latino men when combined with the expectations derived from hegemonic masculinity.
As a society, it is crucial that we address the dangers of continued support of hegemonic masculinities by perpetuating the very ideologies in hegemonic masculinity that assign a set of ideal ways of being men, and women. If we are going to assist individuals effect any real, meaningful change in their lives and our society, we must address the problems and consequences on both women and men that sustains the current patriarchal societal power HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 43 structure. Investigating the effects of hegemonic masculinity combined with racism on Latino men is begins the process of striving towards that goal. HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 44
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