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There Is the Problem That Post Outdoor Education Staff Are Sen Open Research Online The Open University’s repository of research publications and other research outputs Shaping up to womanhood: A study of the relationship between gender and girls’ physical education in a city-based Local Education Authority Thesis How to cite: Scraton, Sheila J. (1989). Shaping up to womanhood: A study of the relationship between gender and girls’ physical education in a city-based Local Education Authority. PhD thesis The Open University. For guidance on citations see FAQs. c 1988 The Author https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Version: Version of Record Link(s) to article on publisher’s website: http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.21954/ou.ro.0000dfb0 Copyright and Moral Rights for the articles on this site are retained by the individual authors and/or other copyright owners. For more information on Open Research Online’s data policy on reuse of materials please consult the policies page. oro.open.ac.uk Dx ?o2 Cl EL 'SHAPING UP TO WOMANHOOD': A Study of the Relationship between Gender and Girls' Physical Education in a City-based Local Education Authority. SHEILA J. SCRATON B.ED. (UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL) ADV. DIP. ED. (UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL) Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The School of Education The Open University DECEMBER 1988 crc's nurber: t?D2DLi-S' l\cember Jc&e. 4 caea \hC€snb€' Ic1c N ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many people who have given me support, encc'uragement and comment during the research. Although I cannot thank them all individually their help has been invaluable. I would like to give special thanks to Rosemary Deem for her help, encouragement and supervision; Pat Craddock for her friendship and personal support; Deena Haydon for her help, particularly in the latter sta g es with proof reading; Eileen Bragg for completing the typing after the initial traumatic experiences of production; Sally Channon for typing and friendship; Leeds Polytechnic and particularly Margaret Talbot, for giving me time and encouragement to complete the thesis; the staff and pupils of the research 'authority who allowed me into their schools and made me feel welcome. Finally and most especially, I thank Paul and Sean Scraton for their love and Phil Scraton for his continuous unselfish love, support, advice and commitment in every aspect of my academic and personal ii fe. PUBL I SHED MATER I AL 1986: 'Images of Femininity and the Teaching of Girls' Physical Education' in Evans (J) Physical Education, Sport and Schooling. Studies in the Sociology of Physical Education. Falmer Press. (Material from Chapters 3, 6 and 7) 'Gender and Girls' Physical Education: An historical and contemporary analysis' in British Journal of Physical Education Vol.17 No.4 July! August - (A synopsis of the research. Material from Chapters 3, 6 and 7) 1987: 'Boys muscle in where angels fear to tread - the relationship between physical education and young women's subcultures' in Home, J., Jary, D. and Tomlinson, A. (Eds) Sport, Leisure and Social Relations RKP.. (Material from Chapters 2 and 8) 'Gender and Physical Education: Ideologies of the Physical and the Politics of Sexuality' in Barton, L. and Walker, S. (Eds) Changing Policies, Changing Teachers. Open University Press. (Material from Chapter 8) 1988: 'Feminist Critiques aiid Reconstructions in the Sociology of Sport' in Proceedings of the 1988 Seoul Olympic Scientific Congress, Dankook Universit y . Seoul, Korea. (forthcoming) (Material from Chapters 2 and 9) CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTI ON The research context 1 Outline of chapter structure 7 CHAPTER ONE FEMINIST THEORIES AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR UNDERSTANDING GENDER AND SCHOOLING: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE (1) Introduction 11 Reproduction 17 22 Patriarchy 24 Ideology Liberal feminism 27 Radical feminist theory 32 Marxist feminist theory 43 49 Socialist feminist theory Conclus ion 54 CHAPTER TWO WOMEN IN LEISURE, SPORT AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE (2) Leisure - a male preserve 58 Leisure - the feminist response 63 Young women, leisure and schooling 72 The sociology of sport - a male enterprise 81 Towards a feminist analysis of sport 86 Girls Physical Education - the neglect of gender 101 CHAPTER THREE HISTORICAL CONTEXT Introduction 112 Girls' schooling - nineteenth century beginnings 115 Women's sport and physical activity in the nineteenth century 128 The historical development of Physical Education 136 P.E. in the post 1918 era 165 P.E. in the post war context 172 Conclusion 177 CHAPTER FOUR METHODOLOGY Introduction 180 Research techniques and data collection 189 The interviews 190 The case study observations 202 Conclusions 209 CHAPTER FIVE PART I - THE LOCAL EDUCATION AUTHORITY - SOCIAL/POLITICAL! ECONOMIC CONTEXT I ntroduct ion 212 Secondary schooling in the city 213 PART II - PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE RESEARCH LOCAL EDUCATION AUTHORITY 222 Organisat ion 227 Staffing 238 Facilities 245 Curriculum 264 Examinations Conclus ion 266 CHAPTER SIX IMAGES OF FEMININITY: THE RESPONSES OF THE FEMALE P.E. TEACHERS 270 I ntroduct ion 271 Physical ability! capacity 284 Motherhood! domesticity 292 Sexuality Conclus ion 304 CHAPTER SEVEN IMAGES IN ACTION: THE CASE STUDY SCHOOLS Introduction 308 Case Study I - Heyfield School 310 Case Study II - Rosehill School 334 Case Study III - Townley School 356 372 Case Study IV - Archway School Conclus ion 386 CHAPTER EIGHT PRIORITIES, POLICIES AND PRACTICE: MAJOR ISSUES RAISED BY THE RESEARCH Introduction 392 Ideologies of the physical and the politics of sexuality 393 Young women's subcultures, leisure and P.E. 410 Mixed v single sex P.E. - the implications for 425 girls Conclus ions 444 CHAPTER NINE CONCLUSION PART I - THEORY, PRACTICE AND POLITICS 447 Teachers' perceptions, attitudes and ideas 450 Structural analysis 453 Historical context 466 Cultural responses and resistances 468 PART II - FUTURE POLICY, FUTURE DIRECTIONS 472 Girl- centred organisation 478 Female- only space 479 Collectivity! confidence 481 Physicality- muscles, strength and physical power 484 Consciousness- raising 486 Future research 488 FOOTNOTES I APPENDIX ONE xi APPENDIX TWO xv APPENDIX THREE xxiv APPENDIX FOUR xliii BIBLIOGRAPHY LIST OF TABLES Page APPENDIX TWO TABLE ONE - Staffing across the research L.E.A. xvi TABLE TWO - Changes in number of schools participating in P.E. activities during years one to five. xvii APPENDIX THREE TABLE ONE - Heyfield School - Timetable of curricular activities.(Year) xxxiii TABLE TWO - Heyfield School - Timetable of curricular activities.(Week) xxxiv TABLE THREE - Heyfield School - Timetable of extra-curricular activities. xxxvi TABLE FOUR - Rosehill School - Timetable of curricular activities. xxxvii TABLE FIVE - Rosehill School - Timetable of extra-curricular activities. xxxviii TABLE SIX - Townley School - Timetable of curricular activities. xxx i x TABLE SEVEN - Townley School - Timetable of extra-curricular activities. xli TABLE EIGHT - Archway School - Timetable of curricular activities. xlii LIST OF FIGURES APPENDIX TWO FIGURE ONE - Facilities available for P.E. xviii FIGURE TWO - First year P.E. activities across the L.E.A. xix FIGURE THREE- Second year P.E. activities across the L.E.A. xx FIGURE FOUR - Third year P.E. activities across the L.E.A. xxi FIGURE FIVE - Fourth year P.E. activities across the EJ.E.A. xxii FIGURE SIX - Fifth year P.E. activities across the L.E.A. xxiii OFFI LIBRARY AUTHORIZATION t4 S'flJDET: -k e' SIAL : \ i C 2C L DEE:_______________________________________ TIThE OF 1flSIS: -k AV _ i o ci- cc ___A_cAj - _c\ _ \ _ y I ccnfirm that I am wilhir that my thesis be made available to readers and maybe ptcccpied, subject to the dizeti of the Librarian. Cç si:_______________________________ DP: 0 _ The Open Uriiversit Higher Degrees Off ic ' 5 R i990 Pass to. - Diwosa! ABSTRACT The thesis examines how images of 'femininity' and the construction of gender-appropriate behaviour are reinforced and potentially challenged by the structure, content and teachin g cif girls' physical education in secondary schooling. The research involves both historical and contemporary investigation.. The qualitative methodology used for the contemporary research fcucuses cm an in-depth case study cf an inner city local education authority. Open-ended interviews were conducted with advisory staff, teachin g staff and edLication committee members involved in secondary school reorganization. This was followed by close observation in four selected case study schools. The research techniques were grounded in a feminist methcmdolc'y The historical analysis identifies gender ideologies relating to physical ability/capacity, motherhood! domesticity and sexuality which underpinned the develc.pment of girls' physical educatic'n. The contemporary research concludes that images of femininity continue to find expression in the assumptions of women physical education staff although they are specific to their particular historical location in the 1980s. The case study observations provide evidence cu f the institLlticunalization of gender ideologies in the policies, priorities and practices of girls' physical education. Three central issues emerge from the research: the significance of idec'lcug ies of the physical and the politics of sexuality; the relationship between young women's subcultures, leisure and physical education; the debates surrounding mixed versus single-sex or ganization. These issues are critically analysed in relation to relevant literature, evidence from the research material and current feminist theoretical debates. The thesis
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