The Commodification of Dark Tourism: Conceptualising the Visitor Experience A theoretical and empirical analysis by Alex Grebenar A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Central Lancashire February 2018 STUDENT DECLARATION FORM Type of Award: PhD School: Lancashire School of Business and Enterprise Sections marked * delete as appropriate 1. Concurrent registration for two or more academic awards *I declare that while registered for the research degree, I was with the University’s specific permission, a *registered candidate/*enrolled student for the following award: PGCert Business Research Methods (awarded June 2014) 2. Material submitted for another award *I declare that no material contained in the thesis has been used in any other submission for an academic award and is solely my own work 3. Collaboration Where a candidate’s research programme is part of a collaborative project, the thesis must indicate in addition clearly the candidate’s individual contribution and the extent of the collaboration. Please state below: N/A 4. Use of a Proof-reader *No proof-reading service was used in the compilation of this thesis. Signature of Candidate: ______________________________________________________ Print name: Alex Grebenar 2 Abstract The study of ‘dark tourism’ has gained increasing traction over the past two decades or so. Visits to sites of, or associated with death, disaster, atrocity, or suffering are a pervasive feature within the contemporary tourism landscape. This thesis, therefore, critically examines dark tourism within the modern tourism industry in which ‘dark’ experiences are packaged-up and sold to consumers – a process known as ‘commodification’. As a result, the study appraises the effects commodification has on the visitor experience at sites of dark tourism. Drawing upon a multidisciplinary approach, this thesis examines key relationships between dark tourism supplier and consumer in order to evaluate the visitor experience. This includes the notion of mortality and, in so doing, the research considers how the process of commodification affects encounters with the fragile state and inevitable demise of the human being. Moreover, this relates to the so-called ‘sequestration of death’ whereby death, in modern life, is removed from daily life in order to protect the Self from undue upsetting thoughts. This thesis utilises a phenomenological research philosophy in order to understand the nature of visitor experiences. The study also adopts a supply-demand approach, and so through the instruments of semi-structured interviews and participant questionnaires, appraises the relationship between the provision and consumption of dark tourism experiences. The empirical research investigates two case studies within UK dark tourism: Lancaster Castle and the International Slavery Museum, Liverpool. Ultimately, this thesis argues that the commodification process denotes specific semiotics of a touristic and behavioural nature. In turn, this thesis offers an original blueprint model in which to locate commodification processes, which this study terms the ‘Semiotic Framework of Dark Tourism Experience’. It is concluded that, using supply- side entities such as tour guides, shops, interpretative materials and other such items, suppliers of dark tourism sculpt the experience and direct visitor behaviour, but crucially do not fundamentally change the nature of experience by providing those phenomena. Rather, commodification within dark tourism provides a specific context in which to encounter death, mortality and atrocity within authentic and ontologically secure boundaries. 3 You'll see the horrors of a faraway place, meet the architects of law face to face. See mass murder on a scale you've never seen, and all the ones who try hard to succeed. This is the way, step inside. This is the way, step inside... ‘Atrocity Exhibition’ Joy Division 1980 4 Table of Contents p. Abstract 3 List of Figures 9 List of Plates 15 Acknowledgements 16 1. Chapter One Introduction 1.0 Research Introduction and Background 18 1.1 Research Question, Aims & Objectives 27 1.2 Thesis Structure 28 1.3 Research Rationale & Originality 32 2. Chapter Two The Search for Meaning: Supply, demand and the tourism experience 2.0 Chapter Introduction 36 2.1 Esteem and Escape: Why does one become a tourist? 37 2.2 Towards Commodification: How does one become a 42 tourist? 2.3 Chapter Summary 52 3. Chapter Three Supplying and Consuming Dark Tourism 3.0 Chapter Introduction 55 3.1 Dark Tourism: Illumination of an industry 56 3.2 Presenting Dark Tourism 59 5 3.3 How experiences of death inform dark tourism 62 3.4 Dark tourism as novelty-seeking 67 3.5 Heterotopias: The Novelty of Place 69 3.6 Conspicuously consuming death 74 3.7 Conspicuous compassion within consumption 78 3.8 Understanding and commodifying authenticity 80 3.9 Chapter Summary 85 4. Chapter Four The ‘Kitschification’ of Dark Tourism 4.0 Chapter Introduction 89 4.1 ‘Commodification critique’ and its implementation 90 4.2 Excess and Irony: The Concept of Kitsch 93 4.3 The ‘kitschification’ of dark tourism 96 4.4 Kitsch within mass-mediated responses and souvenirs 101 4.5 How ‘kitschification’ shapes views of death 104 4.6 Chapter Summary 107 5. Chapter Five Methodology and Approach to Research 5.0 Chapter Introduction 111 5.1 Research Philosophy 112 5.2 Research Design 117 5.3 Research Methods 126 5.4 Research Analysis 134 5.5 Ethical Considerations 139 5.6 Chapter Summary 139 6 6. Chapter Six Analysis of Case Study One: Lancaster Castle 6.0 Chapter Introduction 143 6.1 Lancaster Castle: Centurions, Servitude, Sovereigns and 144 Souvenirs 6.2 Dark History at Lancaster Castle 145 6.3 A ‘Living Monument’: Visitor Experience at Lancaster 149 Castle 6.4 Lancaster Castle Outcomes: Identifying Themes 155 6.5 Mapping New Knowledge 197 6.6 Chapter Summary 199 7. Chapter Seven Analysis of Case Study Two: International Slavery Museum, Liverpool 7.0 Chapter Introduction 201 7.1 International Slavery Museum: Exposing the Middle 202 Passage 7.2 Dark History at the ISM 203 7.3 'People First': Visitor Experience at the International 208 Slavery Museum 7.4 International Slavery Museum Findings: Identifying 213 Themes 7.5 Mapping New Knowledge 257 7.6 Chapter Summary 259 7 8. Chapter Eight Conclusion 8.0 Chapter Introduction 262 8.1 The Commodification of Dark Tourism: Conceptualising 263 the Visitor Experience 8.2 The Semiotic Framework of Dark Tourism Experience 264 8.3 Research Conclusion, Contribution and Achievement 274 8.4 Research Limitations 279 8.5 Closure 281 Reference List 283 Appendices: Appendix i: Interview A Transcript: Dr. Colin Penny 332 Appendix ii: Interview B Transcript: Rachael Jackson 352 Appendix iii: Visitor Questionnaire, Lancaster Castle 378 Appendix iv: Interview C Transcript: Stephen Carl-Lokko 360 Appendix v: Interview D Summary Notes: Julia Bryan 413 Appendix vi: Visitor Questionnaire, International Slavery 420 Museum Appendix vii: Summary of Preliminary Research 421 8 List of Figures no. Title p. 1 'A Dark Tourism Spectrum' (Stone, 2006) 21 2 A Commodification Scale 23 3 Research Structure 32 4 Research ‘gap’ for this thesis 33 5 Conceptual framework for Chapter Two 53 6 A Dark Tourist Spectrum’ (Raine, 2013) 58 7 Matrix of dark tourism demand and supply (Sharpley, 2005) 58 8 Heterotopia Model within Dark Tourism (Stone, 2013) 71 9 Conceptual framework for Chapter Three 87 10 Considerations of Commodification (adapted from Seaton, 2009, 91 p. 87) 11 Conceptual framework for Chapter Four 108 12 Conceptual Framework of the literature review 109 13 Research question, aim and objectives 112 14 Research interviewees 129 15 Narrative analysis process in this research 135 16 Narrative analysis: Lancaster Castle 136 17 Narrative analysis: International Slavery Museum 137 18 Ethical considerations 139 19 Summary of Methodological Limitations 140 20 Summary of Methodological Concepts within Chapter Five 140 21 Dark tourism concepts at Lancaster Castle 146 22 Areas and content at Lancaster Castle 151 23 Emergent Themes for Lancaster Castle 156 24 Case Study One interview respondents 156 9 25 Q5: 'From 1-5, at Lancaster Castle today, did you think about 158 your own mortality more than you would usually during your day-to-day life?' 26 Q12: 'How would you describe the tour guide's approach to the 160 subject of dark history?' 27 Q3: 'What do you think is the appeal of learning about death, 161 punishment and witchcraft at Lancaster Castle?' [highest three responses] 28 Bivariate analysis: Correlation between ‘[if you thought] about 163 your own mortality more than you would usually during your day-to-day life… did you find it to be novel?’ (n) (Q5) and ‘Did the history of death, punishment and witchcraft affect your decision to visit Lancaster Castle?’ (Q2) 29 Bivariate analysis: Correlation between ‘[if you thought] about 165 your own mortality more than you would usually during your day-to-day life… did you find it to be novel?’ (n) (Q5) and ‘From 1-5, how likely are you to tell friends and family about your experience of the (dark) history of Lancaster Castle?’ (Q4) 30 Mapping Theme A, Lancaster Castle 166 31 Q9: 'Have/ will you use the on-site café and shop today?' 167 32 Univariate analysis of Q10 (café)/ bivariate analysis: proportions 170 of the role of the café (Q10) amongst response of fee is ‘inappropriate’ (Q7) 33 Univariate analysis of Q10 (shop)/ bivariate analysis: proportions 171 of the role of the