Hydrographic Atlas of the World Circulation Experiment (WOCE) Volume 1: Southern Ocean

Alejandro H. Orsi and Thomas Whitworth III

Series edited by Michael Sparrow, Piers Chapman and John Gould Hydrographic Atlas of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) Volume 1: Southern Ocean

Alejandro H. Orsi and Thomas Whitworth III Department of , Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, U.S.A.

Series edited by Michael Sparrow, Piers Chapman and John Gould.

Compilation funded by the US National Science Foundation, Ocean Science division grant 9811481.

Publication supported by BP.

Cover Picture: The photo on the front cover was kindly supplied by Manuela Bassoi. It was taken in the region of the Melchior Islands, Dallman Bay, Antarctic Peninsula in February, 1999 from the Brazilian Polar research ship Almirante Ary Dos Santos Rongel during the Brazilian Antarctic Operation XVII.

Cover design: Signature Design in association with the atlas editors, Principal Investigators and BP.

Printed by: ATAR Roto Presse SA, Geneva,Switzerland.

DVD production: Corporate Media Supplies Ltd, Birmingham, U.K.

Published by: WOCE International Project Office, University of Southampton, Southampton, U.K.

Recommended form of citation:

1. For this volume:

Orsi., A. H., T. Whitworth III, Hydrographic Atlas of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE). Volume 1: Southern Ocean (eds. M. Sparrow, P. Chapman and J. Gould), International WOCE Project Office, Southampton, U.K., ISBN 0-904175-49-9. 2004

2. For the whole series:

Sparrow, M., P. Chapman, J. Gould (eds.), The World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) Hydrographic Atlas Series (4 vol- umes), International WOCE Project Office, Southampton, U.K., 2004-2006

WOCE is a project of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) which is sponsored by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the International Council for Science (ICSU) and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO.

ISBN 0-904175-49-9

© Southampton Oceanography Centre, 2005

ii iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

Tables of Atlas Plates v

Forewords vii

Background viii

WOCE and its Observations viii

The WOCE Hydrographic Programme viii WHP Oversight xi

Atlas Formats xi

Vertical Sections xi Property-Property Plots xiv Horizontal Maps xvi

Appendix - Parameter definitions xvii

Acknowledgements xviii

References xix

Atlas Plates

Bathymetry and Station Positions 1 Vertical Sections, Property-Property Plots and Basemaps 2-181 Horizontal Maps 182-223

ii iii iv v TABLES OF ATLAS PLATES

Vertical Sections, Property-Property Plots and Basemaps

n 3 14 θ S γ σ0,2,4 O2 NO3 PO4 Si CFC-11 TCO2 Alk. δ He Tr Δ C PvP plot (°C) (PSS78) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (µmol/kg) (µmol/kg) (µmol/kg) (µmol/kg) (pmol/kg) (µmol/kg) (µmol/kg) % TU ‰ & Basemap

S1 (68°W) plate 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 - 5 5 - 7 A23 (30°W) 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 - - 17 - - 19 S2 (0°E) 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 - - - - - 29 I6 (30°E) 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 - - 43 I8 (90°E) 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 - - 53 - 54 55 I9 (115°E) 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 - - - 67 S3 (145°E) 68 68 69 69 70 70 71 71 72 72 73 - - - 75 P11 (155°E) 76 76 77 77 78 78 79 79 - 80 - - - - 81 P14 (170°E) 82 82 83 83 84 84 85 85 86 86 - 87 87 - 89 P15 (170°W) 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 - - - 101 P16 (150°W) 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 - 112 113 114 115 P17 (135°W) 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 - 126 127 128 129 P18 (105°W) 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 145 P19 (90°W) 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 - 156 157 158 159 S4 (65°S) 160-161 162-163 164-165 166-167 168-169 170-171 172-173 174-175 176-177 178-179 - - - - 180-181

Horizontal Maps

n γ θ S O2 NO3 PO4 Si (kg/m3) (°C) (PSS78) (µmol/kg) (µmol/kg) (µmol/kg) (µmol/kg) Depth 50 m plate 182 182 183 183 184 184 185 200 m 186 186 187 187 188 188 189 800 m 190 190 191 191 192 192 193 1500 m 194 194 195 195 196 196 197 2500 m 198 198 199 199 200 200 201 3500 m 202 202 203 203 204 204 205 Bottom 206 206 207 207 - - -

Z θ S O2 NO3 PO4 Si (m) (°C) (PSS78) (µmol/kg) (µmol/kg) (µmol/kg) (µmol/kg) Isopycnal 27.40 kg/m3 208 208 209 209 210 210 211 27.84 kg/m3 212 212 213 213 214 214 215 28.05 kg/m3 216 216 217 217 218 218 219 28.20 kg/m3 220 220 221 - - - - 28.27 kg/m3 222 222 223 - - - -

iv v vi vii FOREWORDS

The World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) was the first project of the World Climate Research BP is proud to support the publication of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) Atlas series. Programme and was focused on improving our understanding of the important role of the ocean These volumes are the product of a truly international effort (with some 25 countries being involved) to circulation in climate. Its planning, observational and analysis phases, spanned two decades (1982- survey and make oceanographic measurements of the worldʼs . 2002) and, by any measure, WOCE is the most ambitious, comprehensive and successful survey of the physical and chemical properties of the global ocean undertaken to date. Each of our lives interacts with the oceans in many different ways, but the ocean is a vast and important resource that feeds us, houses a large fraction of the planetʼs biodiversity, regulates our atmosphere, Throughout the 1980s, WOCE was planned to collect in situ data from an unprecedented multi-year and plays a key role in maintaining the stability of the Earthʼs climate. Increasing our knowledge and seagoing campaign and from a new generation of observing satellites, using them to validate understanding of the oceans is therefore of great importance. The WOCE data have established a and improve models of the global ocean circulation for use in climate prediction research. In the baseline against which future changes can be compared. All predictions about global warming hinge event, WOCE occupied over 23,000 hydrographic stations on 440 separate cruises between 1990 and critically on the response of the oceans. A substantial part of our uncertainty about future climate 1998. change relates to the incomplete knowledge of the oceans embedded in our climate models. The WOCE data are now a critical resource against which to test our models and to improve our predictions WOCE results are documented in almost 1800 refereed scientific publications and it is most of climate change. As someone deeply concerned about climate change, I cannot overemphasise the commendable that the WOCE data sets have been publicly available via the World Wide Web and importance of this. Climate change is of genuine public concern - a concern shared by BP. on CD ROMs since 1998 and DVDs since 2002. Its scientific legacy includes: significantly improved ocean observational techniques (both in situ and satellite-borne); a first quantitative assessment of the In 1997 BP was the first company in the oil and gas industry to accept the fact that, while the scientific ocean circulationʼs role in climate; improved understanding of physical processes in the ocean; and understanding of climate change and the impact of greenhouse gas emissions is still emerging, precau- improved ocean models for use in weather and ocean forecasting and climate studies. tionary action was justified. BP became actively involved in the global climate change policy debate, supporting emerging technologies for mitigation measures, and actively reducing emissions from our WOCE opened a new era of . It revolutionized our ability to observe the oceans operations and facilities. and mobilized a generation of ocean scientists to address global issues. We therefore enter the 21st century with both the tools and the determination to make further progress on defining the oceanʼs The WOCE Atlases stand as a record of the worldʼs oceans during the decade of the 1990s - the dec- role in climate and in addressing aspects of global and regional climate change. However, much more ade when the issue of global warming and climate change came to public attention. In years to come, remains to be done in the exploitation of WOCE observations and in the further development of schemes this record will be increasingly used to assess the changes of climate as reflected in the oceans. This to assimilate data into ocean models. These aspects of ocean research and model development are will be a measure of the effectiveness of the actions and technologies, which are being, and will be, now being continued in the Climate Variability and Predictability (CLIVAR) project, designed in part as employed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. BP will continue to be actively involved and, by sup- the natural successor to WOCE within the World Climate Research Programme. porting the production of these atlases, hopes to achieve a much wider understanding of the current state of the oceans, as identified by WOCE, and of climate change. The WOCE global hydrographic survey of physical and chemical properties is one of unprecedented scope and quality and provides the baseline against which future and pre-WOCE changes in the ocean will be assessed. I am both delighted and privileged therefore to introduce the first of the four volume series of WOCE atlases describing this data set. The volumes (and the science that has resulted from these observations) are a fitting testament to the months spent at and in the laboratory by literally hundreds of scientists, technicians and shipsʼ officers and crew in collecting and manipulating these data into the much needed, valuable and timely resource that they represent.

The Lord Browne of Madingley Group Chief Executive, BP p.l.c.

Dr David Carson Director of the World Climate Research Programme

vi vii BACKGROUND WOCE AND ITS OBSERVATIONS The WOCE Hydrographic Programme Three types of hydrographic survey were used. The first, The concept of a World Ocean Circulation Experiment The Hydrographic Programme was one part of the global known as the One- Survey, involved sampling coast-to- (WOCE) originated in the late 1970s following the first suc- sampling effort within WOCE, which also included satellite coast across all the main ocean basins. Each observation site cessful use of satellite altimeters to monitor the oceanʼs sea observations of the ocean surface, measurements of ocean or “station” measured properties from the surface to within a surface topography (National Academy of Sciences, 1983). currents using surface drifters, subsurface floats, current few metres of the sea floor. Stations were typically 30 nautical WOCE was incorporated into the World Climate Research meter moorings, acoustic Doppler current profilers, meas- miles (≈ 55 km) apart, with the station spacing chosen to help Programme (WCRP) as a means of providing the oceanic urements of using gauges, repeated surveys document the oceanic mesoscale variability with its typical data necessary to test and improve models of the global for using expendable bathythermographs, and scale of 100-200 km. Closer station spacing was used over climate (Thompson, Crease and Gould, 2001). The initial surface meteorology measurements (see Siedler, Church steep topography, on meridional sections through meetings to define WOCE were held in the early 1980s and, and Gould 2001). WOCE also supported major modelling the tropics where narrow zonal currents were important and with planning complete, culminated in a meeting at UNESCO projects, including general circulation models of both the when crossing major current systems (see King, Firing and Headquarters in Paris, France, in December 1988 (UNESCO, ocean alone and of the ocean coupled with the atmosphere, Joyce, 2001). The global network of WOCE Hydrographic 1989). During this meeting representatives of many countries and ocean data assimilation activities. It had links to many Programme (WHP) one-time stations is shown in Figure 1. agreed to take part in the programme and pledged to carry out other programmes such as the Joint Global Ocean Flux Study While the scientific justification for individual lines was to elements of the internationally agreed Implementation Plan (JGOFS) (Wallace, 2001) and the Tropical Ocean and Global improve our knowledge of specific features of the ocean cir- (WCRP, 1988a, b). The hydrographic component, designed to Atmosphere (TOGA) Observing System (Godfrey et al., 2001). culation (e.g. flow through gaps or “choke points”), the main obtain a suite of measurements throughout the global ocean, The WOCE field programme took approximately ten years to aim of the One-Time Survey was to obtain a fairly uniform grid was the largest single part of the in situ programme. complete, but most observations were carried out between of stations in each ocean basin (WCRP, 1988a, b). 1990 and 1998. The synthesis and modelling components of This atlas is the first in a series of four that will present the WOCE and the wider scientific exploitation of WOCE results The second part of the hydrographic survey was the Repeat results of the WOCE Hydrographic Programme (WHP). It will continue for many years. (see Figure 2). Here, multiple transects were focuses on the Southern Ocean and consists of a series of made along the same cruise track at various time inter- vertical sections of the scalar parameters measured during The main aim of the WOCE observations was to acquire vals, usually sampling for a reduced suite of parameters. a selection of the WOCE One-Time hydrographic cruises, a high quality data set, which in some sense represented Frequently these included only temperature, , and dis- together with a series of horizontal maps showing the geo- the “state of the oceans” during the 1990s. These data are solved oxygen. Some of the repeat lines coincided with lines graphical distribution of properties. These maps incorpo- being, and will continue to be, used to improve models of the in the One-Time Survey. Sampling was not always to the bot- rate not only WOCE one-time data, but also high-quality ocean-atmosphere coupled system with the aim of improving tom on these cruises, which were generally made where the non-WOCE observations and data from the WOCE repeat our ability to forecast changes in ocean climate. They also variability was particularly important and where such highly hydrography programme. Finally, property-property plots of provide a 1990s baseline against which to assess future (and intensive surveys could be carried out practicably. Data from the parameters are presented for each section. past) changes in the ocean. six of these cruises are included in the Southern Ocean sec- tions and all are used in the horizontal maps.

viii ix A24 A1 P1 A2 A25 A3 A22 P24 P2 A5 P3 A20 A16 P8 P9 P10 P13 A6 I1 P4 A15 I9 A13 I7 P15 P16 P17 P18 P19 A7 P14 I2 A8 I8 I10 P31 P21 A9 I3 I4 A10 P6 A14 I5 A17 P11 A12 A11 I8 I9 S2 I6 S3 A23 S4 A21/S1 S4 S4

Figure 1. Stations occupied during the WOCE One-Time Survey

viii ix ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� ���� ����

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Figure 2. Schematic of WOCE Repeat Survey lines. The shaded regions are Intensive Study Areas

x xi The third portion of the survey was a series of individual sta- developed during the GEOSECS programme, and generally WHP oversight tions that were sampled at approximately monthly intervals were able to take either 24 or 36 10-litre samples during each Throughout the programme, the international community pro- over periods of several years. These are generally referred to cast. This sampling scheme supplied enough water so that all vided oversight through the WOCE Hydrographic Programme as Time Series stations. samples could be drawn from one rosette bottle. (On WOCE Planning Committee. This committee, chaired at various cruises prior to 1993, before accelerator mass spectrometry by Drs. Terrence Joyce (Woods Hole, USA), Jens Meincke The original plan was to complete the survey of each ocean became available as a measurement tool, a separate large- (University of Hamburg, Germany), Peter Saunders (Institute within a one to two year period. For various logistical and volume cast was required for the Carbon-14 samples.) Note of Oceanographic Sciences, U.K.), James Swift (Scripps resource reasons this was not achieved, and the cruises that not all parameters were sampled at all depths or all sta- Institution of Oceanography, USA), and Piers Chapman within each ocean span several years (see Table 1). However, tions. (Texas A&M University, USA), was charged with ensuring we believe that the data provide as near synoptic a view of that data were collected and processed according to agreed the state of the ocean during the 1990s as was possible, and Several calibration cruises were carried out as part of the run- specifications. that the inconsistencies introduced by non-synoptic sampling up to the WHP: are relatively minor. The WHP data also fill many gaps in A Data Analysis Centre, initially at Woods Hole (headed by the Southern Ocean as well as providing, for the first time, • CFC cruise run by Weiss (Wallace, 1991) T. Joyce) and later at Scripps (under J. Swift), collated all the comprehensive global coverage of many parameters (e.g., • Salinity, oxygen calibration cruises (Joyce et al., 1992; individual data sets arising from each cruise and arranged chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), helium, tritium and Δ14C) first Culberson et al., 1991) for the quality control procedures necessary to ensure the

measured during the GEOSECS Expeditions during the • Carbon dioxide (CO2) calibrations run by the Department of required high quality. The WHP Special Analysis Centre 1970s (Bainbridge et al., 1981). Energy in the US (as discussed by e.g., Lamb et al., 2002) (WHP-SAC) in Hamburg, Germany, helped to collate the WHP data set in association with the WOCE Hydrographic The sampling techniques used during the WOCE One-Time A complete list of all WOCE cruises shown as vertical sections Programme Office (WHPO). cruises have been developed and tested rigorously over in the Southern Ocean Atlas is given in Table 1. Fourteen many years (WHPO, 1991). Each station consisted of a sur- meridional sections were selected to depict the full evolu- All WOCE data used in this atlas were obtained from the face to near-bottom lowering of a conductivity, temperature, tion of Southern Ocean waters around Antarctica and the WHPO. The full WHP data sets obtained on all cruises are depth (CTD) probe that also measured in situ pressure. Most exchanges with the three ocean basins to the north. A zonal available on a DVD set issued by the WOCE International of these were also equipped with continuous-sampling dis- circumpolar section is also included to portray the influence Project Office (http://www.woce.org) and the U.S. National

solved oxygen (O2) sensors. These data were transmitted up of property fluxes between the Antarctic Circumpolar Current Ocean Data Center (http://www.nodc.noaa.gov/woce_v3/). the conducting cable and logged on board the ship. Discrete and subpolar circulations to the south and the subtropical samples of water were collected at depths selected through- circulations to the north. The cruise list includes details of ATLAS FORMATS out the to resolve the vertical structure. These the dates of occupation for each section (from which the discrete samples were used for chemical analysis and for departure from synopticity can be assessed), the parameters Vertical sections quality control of the continuously sampled salinity (derived sampled and the investigators and institutions responsible for The hydrographic and chemical properties measured along from temperature, conductivity and pressure) and oxygen the analysis. each line are shown in the vertical sections, plotted as a func- data. Rosette samplers used in WOCE were of the type tion of depth.

x xi Table 1. Vertical sections displayed in the Southern Ocean Atlas (see plate 2, page 1). A dash (-) means that samples for this parameter were not collected during the cruise in question. N/A means data were not made available to the WHPO by September 2002. Affiliations are at time of cruise.

14 WOCE Dates Ship PI CTD/S/O2 Nutrients CFC He/Tr Δ C Alk./TCO2 Section ID EXPOCODE

S1 (68ºW) 06MT11_5 Jan. 23 - Mar. 08, 1990 Meteor W. Roether18 G. Rohard1 , E. Fahrbach1 J. Swift19 , F. Delahoyde19 W. Roether18 W. Roether18 N/A D. Chipman4, T. Takahashi4

A23 (30ºW) 74JC10_1 Mar. 20 - May 06, 1995 James Clark Ross K. Heywood20, B. King6,16 K. Heywood20, B. King6,16 R. Sanders20 A. Watson14 C. Rüth18 - J. Robertson23

S2 (0ºE) 06AQANTX_4 May 21 - July 05, 1992 Polarstern P. Lemke1 M. Schröder1 G. Kattner1 W. Roether18 W. Roether18 - J. Hoppema1,9 06AQANTXV_4 Mar. 28 - May 21, 1998 Polarstern E. Fahrbach1 E. Fahrbach1 K. Bakker9 W. Roether18 N/A - N/A

I6 (30ºE) 35MF103_1 Feb. 20 - Mar. 22, 1996 Marion Dufresne A. Poisson25 Y. Park8 J.Minster7 A. Poisson25 P. Jean-Baptiste48 N/A A. Poisson25

I8 (90°E) 316N145_5 Dec. 1 1994 - Jan. 19 1995 Knorr M. McCartney26, T. Whitworth17 M. McCartney26, T. Whitworth17 J. Jennings12, C. Mordy11 J. Bullister11, W. Smethie4 G. Boenisch4, A. Ludin4 M. Brockington24 D. Wallace3 09AR9407_1 Jan. 1 - Mar. 1, 1994 Aurora Australis B. Tilbrook5, N. Bindoff5 S. Rintoul5 S. Rintoul5 - - - N/A

I9 (115°E) 316N145_5 Dec. 1 1994 - Jan. 19 1995 Knorr M. McCartney26, T. Whitworth17 M. McCartney26, T. Whitworth17 J. Jennings12, C. Mordy11 J. Bullister11, W. Smethie4 G. Boenisch4, A. Ludin4 M. Brockington24 D. Wallace3 09AR9404_1 Dec. 13 1994 - Feb. 2 1995 Aurora Australis S. Rintoul5 S. Rintoul5 S. Rintoul5 J. Bullister11 N/A N/A B. Tilbrook5

S3 (145°E) 09AR9404_1 Dec. 13 1994 - Feb. 2 1995 Aurora Australis S. Rintoul5 S. Rintoul5 S. Rintoul5 J. Bullister11 N/A N/A B. Tilbrook5

P11 (155°E) 09AR9391_2 Apr. 4 - May 9, 1993 Aurora Australis S. Rintoul5 S. Rintoul5 S. Rintoul5 - - N/A B. Tilbrook5

P14 (170°E) 31DSCG96_2 Jan. 5 - Mar. 10, 1996 Discoverer J. Bullister11, G. Johnson11, G. Johnson11, J. Bullister11 C. Mordy11, Z. Zhang10 J. Bullister11 - N/A R. Feely11, F. Millero21, R. Feely11, M. Roberts11 R. Byrne22, R. Wanninkhof10 90KDIOFFE6_1 Feb. 14 - April 6, 1992 Akademik Ioffe M. Koshlyakov13, J. Richman12 J. Swift19 J. Swift19 J. Bullister11 P. Schlosser4 N/A T. Takahashi4, D. Chipman4

P15 (170°W) 31DSCG96_2 Jan. 5 - Mar. 10, 1996 Discoverer J. Bullister11, G. Johnson11, G. Johnson11, J. Bullister11 C. Mordy11, Z. Zhang10 J. Bullister11 - N/A R. Feely11, F. Millero21, R. Feely11, M. Roberts11 R. Byrne22, R. Wanninkhof10

P16 (150°W) 31WTTUNES_2 July 16 - Aug. 25, 1991 Thomas Washington J. Swift19 J. Swift19 J. Swift19 R. Fine21 W. Jenkins26 R. Key15 T. Takahashi4, C. Goyet26, C. Keeling19 316N138_9 Oct. 6 - Nov. 25, 1992 Knorr J. Reid19 J. Swift19, J. Reid19 J. Swift19, L. Gordon12 J. Bullister11, W. Smethie4, W. Jenkins26 R. Key15 C. Keeling19 ,T. Takahashi4 R.Weiss19 P17 (135°W) 316N138_9 Oct. 6 - Nov. 25, 1992 Knorr J. Reid19 J. Swift19, J. Reid19 J. Swift19, L. Gordon12 J. Bullister11, W. Smethie4, W. Jenkins26 R. Key15 C. Keeling19 ,T. Takahashi4 R.Weiss19 316N318_10 Dec. 4, 1992 - Jan. 22, 1993 Knorr J. Swift19 J. Swift19 J. Swift19, L. Gordon12 W. Smethie4, R. Weiss19 P. Schlosser4, J. Lupton11 R. Key15D.Chipman4 320694_2 Feb. 14 - April 5, 1994 N. B. Palmer S. Jacobs4 S. Jacobs4, M. Noonan4 D. Masten19 N/A N/A N/A T. Takahashi4

P18 (105°W) 31DSCG94_3 Feb. 22 - Apr. 27, 1994 Discoverer B. Taft11, G. Johnson11, J. Bullister11, B. Taft11, K. Krogsland24 J. Bullister11 W. Jenkins26 P. Quay24 R. Feely11, F. Millero21 J. Bullister11 G. Johnson11 320694_2 Feb. 14 - April 5, 1994 N. B. Palmer S. Jacobs4 S. Jacobs4, M. Noonan4 D. Masten19 N/A N/A N/A T. Takahashi4

P19 (90°W) 316N138_10 Dec. 4, 1992 - Jan. 22, 1993 Knorr J. Swift19 J. Swift19 J. Swift19, L. Gordon12 W. Smethie4, R. Weiss19 P. Schlosser4, J. Lupton11 R. Key15 D. Chipman4 316N138_12 Feb. 22 - Apr 13, 1993 Knorr L. Talley19 L. Talley19, J. Swift19 L. Gordon12, J. Swift19 R. Fine21 W. Jenkins26, J. Lupton11 R. Key15 C. Keeling19, T. Takahashi4, R. Weiss19 320694_2 Feb. 14 - April 5, 1994 N. B. Palmer S. Jacobs4 S. Jacobs4, M. Noonan4 D. Masten19 N/A N/A N/A T. Takahashi4

S4 (65°S) 06MT11_5 Jan. 23 - Mar. 8, 1990 Meteor W. Roether18 G. Rohard1 , E. Fahrbach1 J. Swift19 , F. Delahoyde19 W. Roether18 W. Roether18 N/A D. Chipman4, T. Takahashi4 90KDIOFFE6_1 Feb. 14 - April 6, 1992 Akademik Ioffe M. Koshlyakov13, J. Richman12 J. Swift19 J. Swift19 J. Bullister11 P. Schlosser4 P. Schlosser4 T. Takahashi4, D. Chipman4 09AR9404_1 Dec. 13 1994 - Feb. 2 1995 Aurora Australis S. Rintoul5 S. Rintoul5 S. Rintoul5 J. Bullister11 N/A N/A B. Tilbrook5 06AQANTXIII_4 Mar. 17 - May 20, 1996 Polarstern E. Fahrbach1 E. Fahrbach1 M. Hoppema1 W. Roether18 W. Roether18 - - 320696_3 May 3 - July 4, 1996 N. B. Palmer T. Whitworth17, J. Swift19 J. Swift19 J. Swift19 W. Smethie4, M. Warner24 P. Schlosser4 R. Key15 F. Millero21, T. Takahashi4 74JC40_1 Mar. 15 - April 22, 1999 James Clark Ross K. Heywood20, D. Stevens20 K. Heywood20, D. Stevens20 R. Sanders18 N/A N/A - -

xii xiii 1. Alfred-Wegener-Institut für Polar- und Meeresforschung (AWI), Bremerhaven, Germany 2. Commisariat à lʼEnergie Atomique (CEA), Gif-sur-Yvette, France 3. Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL), New York, U.S.A. 4. Columbia University (including LDEO, LDGO), New York, U.S.A. 5. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Hobart, Australia 6. Institute of Oceanographic Sciences Deacon Laboratory (IOSDL), Wormley, U.K. 7. Observatoire Midi-Pyrénés (OMP), Toulouse, France 8. Muséum National dʼHistoire Naturelle (MNHN), Paris, France 9. Het Koninklijk Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee (NIOZ), Texel, Holland 10. NOAA, Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML), Miami, U.S.A. 11. NOAA, Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL), Seattle, U.S.A. 12. Oregon State University, Corvallis, U.S.A. 13. Institut Okeanologii imeni P.P. Shirshova Rossiyskoy Akademii Nauk, Moscow, Russia 14. Plymouth Marine Laboratory (PML), Plymouth, U.K. 15. Princeton University, Princeton, U.S.A. 16. Southampton Oceanography Centre (SOC), Southampton, U.K. 17. Texas A&M University, College Station, U.S.A. 18. Universität Bremen, Bremen, Germany 19. University of California San Diego (including SIO), San Diego, U.S.A. 20. University of East Anglia (UEA), Norwich, U.K. 21. University of Miami (including RSMAS), Miami, U.S.A. 22. University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, U.S.A. 23. University of Wales, Cardiff, U.K. 24. University of Washington, Seattle, U.S.A. 25. Université Pierre et Marie Curie (UPMC), Paris, France 26. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI), Massachusetts, U.S.A.

xii xiii For each line sections are shown for up to fourteen param- Horizontally, three additional equally-spaced grid points were tritium, δ3He, and Δ14C. The colour scheme chosen for the eters: Potential temperature, salinity, , potential positioned between each pair of stations. Elliptical correlation Southern Ocean vertical sections is shown in Table 2. density, oxygen, nitrate, phosphate, silicate, CFC-11, total areas vary as a function of the local grid spacing. At each grid 3 14 CO2, alkalinity, δ He, tritium and Δ C (see Appendix for point a horizontal:vertical correlation length ratio of 7:2 (7:4) Four shades of two colours have been used for all proper- definitions). times the local grid spacing was used while mapping CTD ties, varying from 100% of the base colour at one extreme of (bottle) data. All gridded property fields were initially machine- the property to 25% at an intermediate level. Colour or shade Although samples were collected on all lines as detailed contoured, but the resulting patterns were manually edited changes illustrate the major water masses of the Southern above, not all the data are represented in this atlas, either after careful inspection of property values measured at each Ocean, and do not necessarily correspond to the same iso- because the data were not made available to the WHPO by sample position. line in the other volumes of the WOCE atlases. Although the deadline of September 2002 or the sampling density was efforts were made to keep the contour interval constant not high enough to construct the sections. The vertical sections are constructed as a function of cumu- within a particular colour shade, this was not always pos- lative distance along the line, starting at the westernmost sible. Neighbouring contours are clearly labelled where this Sections of potential temperature, salinity, neutral density or southernmost station. Each section consists of an upper occurs. Contour intervals may also change from one shade and potential density are constructed from CTD data, not panel showing the sea surface to 1000 m and a lower panel to another. discrete bottle samples. Neutral density was calculated from showing the full depth range. The vertical scale in the lower the raw data following the method of Jackett and McDougall (upper) panel is such that one inch corresponds to a water Property-property plots (1997), and potential density from the 1980 Equation of State depth interval of 1000 m (400 m). For the meridional sections Scatter plots of two variables are frequently used to discrimi-

(UNESCO, 1981). Potential density sections of σ0 are shown a vertical distortion (distance:depth) of 400:1 is used in the full nate between different water masses. There are many possi- above 1000 m, of σ2 from 1000-3000 m and of σ4 below 3000 m. water-column plots and of 1000:1 in the expanded plots of the ble combinations of property-property plots for the parameters upper 1000 m. The long zonal section uses vertical distortions shown in the atlas. The printed atlas shows only properties The sampling strategy for WOCE cruises generally provided of 600:1 and 1500:1 for its lower and upper panels. Station versus potential temperature. These are among the more closer station spacing over ocean ridges and continental locations are indicated with tick-marks at the top of the upper commonly used relationships, but researchers can construct slope regimes, where the expected scales of variability are panel. Interpolated latitude/longitude along the section is additional property-property plots from the online Southern smaller than in the oceanic regime. Vertical sections were shown with tick-marks at the top of the lower panel. The bot- Ocean Atlas (http://woceSOatlas.tamu.edu). The plots include constructed using optimal mapping (Gandin, 1965; Bretherton tom depth at station locations is taken from ship records, and data from all stations along a given section. The colour sepa- et al., 1976). This algorithm simply solves an equivalent least the altimeter-derived bathymetric data (Smith and Sandwell, ration for the property-property plots is a function of depth. square problem applied to a practical subset of nearby meas- 1997) was projected between stations to construct the bottom urements, i.e. a minimum variance solution. A uniform vertical topography used in the sections. The property-property plots use eight colours to indicate dif- grid spacing of 20 m was adopted for mapping the CTD data, ferent depth intervals (inset, Table 2). In the full scale plots, whereas bottle data were mapped onto a vertical grid whose Contour intervals have been selected to emphasise the dots corresponding to the shallower depth intervals overlie spacing increases progressively from 10 m near the sea sur- important features within each set of measurements. Colours those from the deeper layers. The insets show data deeper face to a maximum of 100 m at depths greater than 1000 m. have been chosen as far as possible to agree with those used than 1000 m, with the opposite colour stacking order. in the GEOSECS atlases, with the exceptions of the CFCs,

xiv xv Potential Temperature Salinity Neutral Density Potential Density Oxygen (oC) (PSS78) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (�mol/kg)

0 2 4 12.0 35.00 27.00 280

3.0 34.74 27.60 240

2.0 34.70 28.00 27.60 36.80 220

1.0 34.68 28.12 210

[27.82- [37.05- [45.91- 0 34.66 28.26 200 27.83] 37.12] 46.00] -0.4 34.40 28.32 180

-0.8 34.00 28.36 160

Phosphate Nitrate Silicate Alkalinity Total CO2 (�mol/kg) (�mol/kg) (�mol/kg) (�mol/kg) (�mol/kg)

1.0 10 10 2100 2100

1.6 24 40 2200 2150

2.0 26 60 2320 2200

2.1 30 100 2350 2230

2.2 32 120 2380 2240

2.3 34 126 2410 2250

2.4 36 130 2430 2300

CFC-11 Tritium 3He 14C Depth (pmol/kg) (TU) (%) (%%) (m) 0

4.00 0.80 0 150 250

2.00 0.40 4 100 500

1.00 0.20 8 50 1000

0.40 0.10 12 0 2000

0.20 0.06 16 -100 3000

0.10 0.04 20 -200 4000

0.05 0.02 24 -400 5000

SCATTER PLOTS

Table 2. Vertical section and property-property plot colour scheme

xiv xv Horizontal maps the Southern Ocean Atlas. The horizontal maps include all multiplicative adjustments were applied to the nearly 11,000 To describe the spreading of water masses within the WOCE data (which are the most reliable) but these alone are stations affected. The last step in the quality control process Southern Ocean, distributions of potential temperature, spatially too sparse to provide the distribution needed. was to correct or assign missing water depths to about a salinity, neutral density, isopycnal depth, oxygen, nitrate, quarter of the stations using a 5-minute grid composite of the phosphate and silicate are shown along a small number of Over 122,000 hydrographic stations in the region south of Southern Ocean (see plate 1) from satellite radar density surfaces and depth levels. No plots for CFC-11, total 25°S were individually screened against WOCE standards. altimetry data (Smith and Sandwell, 1997) and the GEBCO- 3 14 CO2, alkalinity, δ He, tritium or Δ C are included because of They were compiled over the years from a number of data 1997 (IOC et al., 1997) digital isobaths. inadequate sampling. The number of maps that can be pre- sources, but the vast majority were obtained from the National sented in this printed atlas is necessarily fewer than required Oceanographic Data Centre (see http://www.nodc.noaa.gov/), A polar equal-area grid with 501 by 501 points about 24 km to fully describe Southern Ocean properties, even within the specifically their World Ocean Database (WOA98; WOA2001; apart was designed to optimally estimate the initial property major water masses. Because the important water masses Conkright et al., 2002). fields shown in this atlas. The mapping of tens of thousands differ from one ocean to another, the choice of levels is not of oceanographic data points onto hundreds of thousands of always consistent among the atlas volumes. Depth levels for The quality control process began with the examination of grid points without any loss of meaningful information requires the Southern Ocean are 50 m, 200 m, 800 m, 1500 m, 2500 m, WOCE property profiles, supplemented in some regions with specifying correlation lengths as a function of location that are 3500 m and within 200 m of the sea floor for water depths high quality historical data. Fifty control regions, generally on tightly related to the underlying ocean bathymetry. Such con- greater than 3500 m. a basin or sub-basin scale, were identified as having distinct trol in the optimal estimation relies heavily on the notion that property differences in deep water. Properties of stations in smaller scale variability, such as mesoscale rings and frontal Five isopycnal surfaces were selected to portray the charac- the control regions were averaged on neutral density sur- fluctuations, tend to occur at places where energetic ocean teristic water masses in the Southern Ocean. The 27.40 kg/m3, faces and standard deviation envelopes constructed. The currents interact with relatively shallow topography. This is 27.84 kg/m3 and 28.05 kg/m3 isopycnals correspond to the first examination was done in θ-S space for stations within evident in the Southern Ocean where the Antarctic Slope salinity minimum in the Antarctic Intermediate Water, the 5-degree squares. Stations (samples) whose deep θ-S points Current interacts with the irregular bathymetry of the continen- oxygen minimum in the Upper circumpolar Deep Water and fell outside ±2 standard deviations from the deep-water con- tal shelf-slope regime and where the Antarctic Circumpolar the salinity maximum in the Lower Circumpolar Deep Water, trol region mean were rejected (flagged). Roughly 25% of the Current interacts with the various ocean ridges found along its respectively. The underlying 28.20 kg/m3 and 28.27 kg/m3 iso- stations did not pass this first stage. path. Because the currents within the interior of the Southern pycnals span the Lower Circumpolar Deep Water and the top Ocean are mainly zonal, the ellipses of influence were aligned of the Antarctic Bottom Water. Additional level and isopycnal In the second stage, oxygen and nutrient profiles were exam- in that direction. A fixed 2:1 anisotropy in the zonal:meridional maps are available from the on-line Southern Ocean Atlas ined on a cruise-by-cruise basis, using the appropriate control correlation lengths was adopted at each grid point. (http://woceSOatlas.tamu.edu). area data to judge acceptability. Several thousand stations have had entire profiles of oxygen, phosphate, silicate and The reliability of optimal estimation depends on the spatial Colour breaks on horizontal maps are chosen to show clearly nitrate flagged because of poor quality. For the acceptable density of the available observations. Ellipses of influence that the spreading of waters along the different levels. Colour stations, about 0.5% of the individual samples were flagged are suitable for temperature or salinity contain too few data ranges are given in the individual plates. A Polar Lambert as outliers. A few hundred cruises were identified that had points to adequately map sparsely sampled nutrient data. Azimuthal Equal-Area projection (Snyder, 1989) is used for systematic offsets in at least one property, and additive or

xvi xvii For non-nutrient data, ellipse sizes decrease from 666 km by property-property plots and basemaps, and finally (iii) the Potential density (kg/m3) 333 km at grid points in the oceanic regime (bottom depths horizontal maps. The potential density, σ, is the density a parcel of water would greater than 4000 m), to 444 km by 222 km over the ocean have if it were moved adiabatically to a standard depth with-

ridges (1000-4000 m depths), to a minimum of 222 km by 111 km APPENDIX - Parameter definitions out change in salinity. σ0, σ2 and σ4 are the potential densities within the continental slope regime (depths shallower than of a parcel of brought adiabatically to pressures of 1000 m). For nutrient maps, ellipse sizes are double these Standard definitions for the parameters shown in this atlas 0, 2000 and 4000 decibars, respectively. (See e.g., Pond and values. are as follows. Further details can be obtained from the sug- Pickard, 1995). gested references or from a standard textbook such as Pond Property distributions are portrayed in two ways. Each and Pickard (1995): Oxygen (µmol/kg)

of the eight shades of colour occupy roughly one-eighth The dissolved oxygen content, O2, can be used to trace of the geographical area covered by the maps, providing Potential temperature (°C) certain water masses. Oxygen enters the ocean from the a visualization of how the properties vary in space. The The potential temperature, θ, is defined as the temperature atmosphere, but is also produced in the surface layers by proportionality is nearly exact for shallow maps, and less that a sample of seawater would attain if brought adiabatically phytoplankton and is consumed during the decomposition precise for deeper maps where large regions are masked (without gain or loss of heat to the surroundings) from the of organic material. This leads to relatively large changes in out where the maps intersect the bathymetry. The colour pressure appropriate to its depth to the ocean surface (see concentration depending on depth, position and initial solubil- distribution is supplemented by labelled contour lines at more e.g., Feistel, 1993). ity (which is a function of temperature and salinity). (See e.g., standard intervals. Broecker and Peng, 1982). Salinity (PSS78 scale) Unlike the vertical sections, which consist entirely of high- The salinity, S, is essentially a measure of the mass of dis- Nitrate, Phosphate and Silicate (µmol/kg)

quality WOCE stations, the property maps have not been solved salts in one kilogram of seawater. Because the major Nitrate, NO3, Phosphate, PO4, and Silicate, Si, are some of edited by hand. Most of the poor historical stations were ions in seawater are found in a constant ratio to each other, the main nutrients utilised by phytoplankton. They are also eliminated in the initial quality control, and it is not feasible the salinity of a sample of seawater is now measured in terms non-conservative tracers, but vary inversely with oxygen con- (or in many cases, possible) to identify anomalies among of a conductivity ratio relative to a standard solution of potas- centration in the upper- and mid-ocean. They are supplied 94,000 stations and determine whether they are due to sium chloride. Thus salinity values according to the current mainly by river runoff and from sediments. (See e.g., Broecker natural variability or measurement error. Therefore, the maps definition of the Practical Salinity Scale of 1978 (PSS78) are and Peng, 1982).

are presented as contoured by the computer. Although some dimensionless with no units. (See e.g., UNESCO, 1981). cosmetic corrections have been applied, such as removing Chlorofluorocarbons (pmol/kg) contours poorly supported by the data distribution, other less Neutral density (kg/m3) Chlorofluorocarbons, CFCs, are anthropogenically produced obvious discrepancies remain, such as the shape of contours Neutral density, γn, gives a very close approximation to truly chemicals that enter the ocean from the atmosphere. Since that are seemingly unsupported by data. neutrally buoyant surfaces over most of the global ocean. γn they have a time-varying atmospheric history, they can be is a function of salinity, in situ temperature, pressure, longi- used to deduce information on mixing rates in the ocean and The plates in this atlas are presented in the following order: (i) tude, and latitude. (See e.g., Jackett and McDougall, 1997). to follow the movement of water masses forming at the sea Bathymetry and station positions, (ii) vertical sections, By convention all densities are quoted as the actual density surface (see e.g., Weiss et al., 1985). minus 1000 kg/m3.

xvi xvii Total Carbon dioxide (µmol/kg) Tritium (TU) Secondly, there are those who worked at or with the The total dissolved inorganic carbon content of seawater is Tritium (3H) is produced naturally from cosmic ray interactions WOCE Hydrographic Programme Offices, both Woods Hole defined as: with nitrogen and oxygen and as a result of nuclear testing. Oceanographic Institution (under the direction of Dr. Terrence It is used particularly for examining the structure of and mix- Joyce) and later at Scripps Institution of Oceanography - 2- TCO2 = [CO2*] + [HCO3 ] + [CO3 ] ing within the oceanic . If combined with Helium-3 (under the direction of Dr. James Swift). They obtained the measurements tritium can be used to calculate an apparent data from the originating principal investigators, ensured that where square brackets represent total concentrations of these age of a water mass. Tritium is reported in Tritium Units, they were in a common format and then examined the final 3 1 18 constituents in solution (in mol/kg) and [CO2*] represents the TU, which is the isotopic ratio of H/ H multiplied by 10 . data to ensure that the high standards established for the pro- total concentration of all un-ionised carbon dioxide, whether It is determined mass spectrometrically by the 3H regrowth gramme were maintained throughout the many cruises. The present as H2CO3 or as CO2. (See e.g., DOE, 1994 for further technique (Clarke et al, 1976) using atmospheric helium as a process of compiling these atlases provided an additional details.) primary standard. (See e.g., Schlosser, 1992). level of quality control and incentive for timely acquisition and merging of the data. Those who worked at the WHP Special Alkalinity (µmol/kg) Carbon-14 (‰) Analysis Centre (WHP-SAC) in Hamburg, Germany, served to The total alkalinity of a sample of seawater is defined as the Carbon-14, Δ14C, ratios can be used to infer the rates of mix- collate the WHP data set in association with the Hydrographic number of moles of hydrogen ion equivalent to the excess of ing in the ocean. These ratios are expressed as the per mil Programme Office. proton acceptors (bases formed from weak acids with a dis- difference from the 14C/C ratio in the atmosphere prior to the sociation constant K≤10-4.5 at 25 °C and zero ionic strength) onset of the industrial revolution and normalized to a constant Thirdly, an informal WOCE Atlas Committee consisting of over proton donors (acids with K>10-4.5) in one kilogram of 14C/12C ratio (see e.g., Broecker and Peng, 1982). The equa- members of the WOCE International Project Office (WOCE sample. Many ions contribute to the total alkalinity in seawa- tion used is as follows: IPO), the WOCE Scientific Steering Group, the WOCE Data - 2- - - ter, the main ones being HCO3 , CO3 , B(OH)4 and OH . Products Committee and the atlas Principal Investigators was (See e.g., DOE, 1994 for further details.) Δ14C = δ14C – 2(δ13C+25)(1 + δ14C/1000) set up to provide guidance and support.

Delta Helium-3 (%) (14C/C)sample–(14C/C)standard There were many funding agencies from participating coun- where δ14C = Radioactive tracers such as delta Helium-3, δ3He, can be (14C/C)standard tries that provided the resources to allow the sampling and used to derive quantities such as mean residence times and analysis to take place and in several cases funded the refit- the apparent ages of certain water masses. Helium isotope ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ting of research vessels to enable them to have the increased variations in seawater are generally expressed as δ3He endurance and larger scientific parties that the WHP required. (%), which is the percentage deviation of the 3He/4He in the Compilation of these atlases would not have been possible We also appreciate the contribution made by the officers and sample from the ratio in air (Clarke et al, 1969). This can be without the hard work of many individuals. Firstly, there are crews of the research ships. The investigators responsible written as: those who made up the scientific complement of the cruises, for collecting and quality controlling the individual samples 3 4 collected the continuous CTD profile data together with indi- from each line are listed in Table 1. The international WOCE ( He/ He)sample δ3He(%) = 100 x -1 3 4 vidual water samples and who analysed them both at sea and Science Steering Group and the WOCE Atlas Committee are { ( He/ He)air } on shore. extremely grateful to all these individuals and agencies for their support.

xviii xix The Southern Ocean Atlas compilation was funded by Clarke, W.B., M.A. Beg, and H. Craig. “Excess 3He in the Modelling the Global Ocean” (editors G. Siedler, J. Church, NSF Ocean Sciences division grant 9811481 to Orsi and sea: Evidence for terrestrial primordial helium”, Earth and and J. Gould). International Geophysics Series, Volume 77, Whitworth. Publication was generously supported by BP. Planetary Science Letters, 6, 213-220. 1969. 715 pages. Academic Press. 2001. Thanks must go to Frank Sronce and Tao Yu for their assist- ance with programming, data acquisition and data merging, Clarke, W. B., W. J. Jenkins and Z. Top. “Determination of IOC, IHO, and BODC. “GEBCO-97: The 1997 Edition and especially to Mithali Shetty and Don Johnson for their tritium by spectrometric measurement of 3He”. International of the GEBCO Digital Atlas, published on behalf of the years of effort in producing and hand-editing the final figures. Journal of Applied Radioisotopes, 27, 515. 1976. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (of UNESCO) Mithali Shetty received some support to do this from the and the International Hydrographic Organization as part of the Office of Naval Research. The atlas editors are also grateful Conkright, M. E., J. I. Antonov, O. Baranova, T. P. Boyer, General of the Oceans (GEBCO)”. British to Valery Detemmerman of the WCRP Joint Planning Staff in H. E. Garcia, R. Gelfeld, D. Johnson, R. A. Locarnini, P. P. Oceanographic Data Centre, Birkenhead. 1997. Geneva for her help with various logistical issues and Jean Murphy, T. D. OʼBrien, I. Smolyar, C. Stephens. “World Ocean Haynes for administrative support in the WOCE IPO. Database 2001, Volume 1: Introduction” (editor S. Levitus). Jackett, D. R., and T. J. McDougall. “A neutral density variable NOAA Atlas NESDIS 42, U.S. Government Printing Office, for the worldʼs oceans”. Journal of , Finally we are grateful to the WCRP and its sponsors, the Washington, D.C., 167 pp. 2002. 27, 237-263. 1997. World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the International Council for Science (ICSU) and the Intergovernmental Culberson, C. H., G. Knapp, M. C. Stalcup, R. T. Williams and Joyce, T., S. Bacon, P. Kalashnikov, A. Romanov, M. Stalcup, Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of the United Nations F. Zemlyak. “A comparison of methods for the determination and V. Zaburdaev. “Results of an oxygen/salinity comparison Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). of dissolved oxygen in seawater”. WHPO Publication 91-2. cruise on the RV Vernadsky”. WHPO 92-3, WOCE Report WOCE Report 73/91. August 1991. 93/92, 43pp.1992. REFERENCES DOE. “Handbook of methods for the analysis of the various King, B. A., E. Firing, and T. M. Joyce. “Shipboard Observations Bainbridge, A. E, W. S. Broecker, D. W. Spencer, H. Craig, parameters of the carbon dioxide system in sea water; Version during WOCE”, pages 99-122 of “Ocean Circulation and R. F. Weiss, and H. G. Ostlund. “The Geochemical Ocean 2” (editors A. G. Dickson and C. Goyet). ORNL/CDIAC-74. Climate: Observing and Modelling the Global Ocean” (editors Sections Study”. 7 volumes, National Science Foundation, 1994. G. Siedler, J. Church, and J. Gould). International Geophysics Washington, D.C. 1981-1987. Series, Volume 77, 715 pages. Academic Press. 2001. Feistel, R., “Equilibrium thermodynamics of seawater Bretherton, F. P., R. E. Davis, and C. B. Fandry. “A technique revisited”, Progress In Oceanography, 31, 101-179, 1993. Lamb, M. F., C. L. Sabine, R. A. Feely, R. Wanninkhof, R. for objective analysis and design of oceanographic experi- M. Key, G. C. Johnson, F. J. Millero, K. Lee, T. H Peng, A. ments applied to MODE-73”. Deep-Sea Research, 23, 559- Gandin, L. S., “Objective Analysis of Meteorological Field”. Kozyr, J. L. Bullister, D. Greeley, R. H. Byrne, D. W. Chipman, 582. 1976. Israeli programme for science translation, Jerusalem, 1965. A.G. Dickson, B. Tilbrook, T. Takahashi, D.W. R. Wallace, Y. Watanabe, S. Winn, and C. S. Wong. “Internal consist-

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xviii xix National Academy of Sciences. “Proceedings of a Wallace, D.W.R. “WOCE Chlorofluorocarbon Intercomparison WOA2001. “World Ocean Atlas 2001” [CD-ROM and DVD- Workshop on Global Observations and Understanding of Cruise Report”. WOCE Hydrographic Programme Office, ROM], US National Oceanographic Data Center Ocean Cli- the General Circulation of the Oceans”. National Academy Woods Hole, MA, 38 pp. 1991. mate Laboratory (corporate author), National Climatic Data Press, Washington, DC, 418 pp. 1983. Center, Asheville NC 28801-5001, USA. 2002.

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xx