J Bus Ethics DOI 10.1007/s10551-017-3659-3

ORIGINAL PAPER

A Falling of the Veils: Turning Points and Momentous Turning Points in Leadership and the Creation of CSR

1 1 Christine A. Hemingway • Ken Starkey

Received: 1 June 2016 / Accepted: 24 July 2017 Ó The Author(s) 2017. This article is an open access publication

Abstract This article uses the life stories approach to (Narvaez, in: Narvaez, Lapsley (eds) Personality, identity leadership and leadership development. Using exploratory, and character: explorations in moral psychology, Cam- qualitative data from a Forbes Global 2000 and FTSE 100 bridge University Press, New York, 2009) and social psy- company, we discuss the role of the turning point (TP) as chology (Schwartz, in: Mikulincer, Shaver (eds) Prosocial an important antecedent of leadership in corporate social motives, emotions, and behaviour: the better angels of our responsibility. We argue that TPs are causally efficacious, nature, American Psychological Association, Washington, linking them to the development of life narratives con- 2010), we present a theoretical model that illustrates the cerned with an evolving sense of personal identity. Using psychological process of the (M)TP, thus contributing to both a multi-disciplinary perspective and a multi-level the growing literature on the microfoundations of CSR. focus on CSR leadership, we identify four narrative cases. We propose that they helped to re-define individuals’ sense Keywords CSR Á Ethnography Á Leadership Á Life of self and in some extreme cases completely transformed narrative Á Moral psychology Á Prosocial behaviour Á their self-identity as leaders of CSR. Hence, we also dis- Qualitative research Á Serendipity Á Sustainability Á tinguish the momentous turning point (MTP) that created a Turning points seismic shift in personality, through re-evaluation of the individuals’ personal values. We argue that whilst TPs are Abbreviations developmental experiences that can produce responsible CSR Corporate social responsibility leadership, the MTP changes the individuals’ personal MTP Momentous turning point priorities in life to produce responsible leadership that PVT Personal values theory perhaps did not exist previously. Thus, we appropriate RVS Rokeach values survey Maslow’s (Religions, values and peak experiences, Pen- SE Self-enhancement guin, New York, 1976, p 77) metaphorical phrase ‘A ST Self-transcendent falling of the veils’ from his discussion of peak and des- TET Triune ethics theory olation experiences that produce personal growth. Using a TP Turning point multi-disciplinary literature from social theory (Archer in The reflexive imperative in late modernity, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2012) moral psychology Introduction

Our article is concerned with how leaders create corporate & Christine A. Hemingway social responsibility and their essential role in the devel- [email protected] opment of an ethical corporate climate. The article is based Ken Starkey on ‘unexpected perspectives’ that emerged from some [email protected] ‘extreme cases’ (Eisenhardt et al. 2016, p. 1115 and 1 Nottingham University Business School, University of p. 1118). These cases derived from an exploratory, ethno- Nottingham, Nottingham NG8 1BB, UK graphic research investigation into how personal values are 123 C. A. Hemingway, K. Starkey practised (Gehman et al. 2013; Hemingway 2005) within a calls for research into the psychological pathways of Forbes Global 2000 and FTSE 100 company. We are responsible leadership (Doh and Quigley 2014); the ante- particularly focused on how individuals with dominantly cedents of responsible leadership (Stahl and de Luque held self-transcendent, or ‘other-orientated’ personal val- 2014; Voegtlin et al. 2012; Witt and Stahl 2016) and ues (as opposed to dominantly held self-enhancement responsible leader ‘mindsets’ (Pless 2007; Pless and Maak values) might overcome organisational constraints (Hem- 2011). We also recommend further work in this promising ingway 2013). Self-transcendent personal values are con- area, derived through the life story narrative, which we cerned with the welfare and interests of others posit will develop our understanding of the underlying (benevolence and universalist values), whilst self-en- mechanisms and microfoundations of CSR (Aguinis and hancement personal values are focused upon self-interests Glavas 2012; Christensen et al. 2014). Further, our article and dominance over others (Schwartz 2010, p. 226). We makes a contribution to a growing body of research into the analyse in particular the role of turning points (TP) in motivational drivers for authentic and responsible leader- responsible leadership development, positing the TP acted ship identity (e.g., Shamir and Eilam 2005; Pless 2007). as a mechanism in the development of leadership in cor- porate social responsibility (CSR). Furthermore, whilst TPs The Motivating Roles of Personal Values have been researched in developmental psychology (e.g., and Reflexivity in Prosocial Behaviour Gotlib and Wheaton 1997; McAdams et al. 2001; Pillemer and Responsible Leadership 2001) and to a limited extent in the leadership literature (e.g., Albert and Vadla 2009; Bennis and Thomas 2002; We understand CSR as: ‘context-specific organisational Janson 2008; Ligon et al. 2008; Shamir and Eilam 2005), actions and policies that take into account stakeholders’ we further contribute to our understanding of this phe- expectations and the triple bottom line of economic, social nomenon by distinguishing the momentous turning point and environmental performance’ (Aguinis 2011, p. 855). (MTP) in CSR leadership. Thus, we broadly define CSR as the interface between The TP is a psychological construct that was defined by business and society, where CSR is a facet of the field of Gotlib and Wheaton (1997, p. 1) as ‘a disruption in a tra- business ethics and rather more substantial than the limited jectory, a deflection in the path’ and by Pillemer (2001, perspective that CSR is simply corporate image manage- p. 127) as ‘a career altering revelation’. Our research ment (Banerjee 2008; Hemingway 2013, p. 15), i.e., just defines the MTP as a more extreme form of TP, one that talking about it, but not really doing anything differently. produces much greater levels of arousal in the individual. Our understanding is that CSR is concerned with who and Whilst our research suggests that the TP per se can produce what affects—and is affected by—business (Wood 1991) leadership in CSR, by reminding individuals of their social and thus incorporates notions of stakeholder management, responsibility, we suggest that in the case of MTP, the corporate citizenship (Crane et al. 2008), sustainability magnitude of arousal generated by particular events gen- (however defined) and corporate social responsiveness erates a more profound re-evaluation of priorities that (Carroll 1979; Carroll and Buchholtz 2014; Crane et al. produces a seismic shift that impacts on personal identity. 2007; Wood 1991). Consequently, CSR has been described We argue that TPs produce leadership in CSR, but that the elsewhere as ‘essentially contested’ in theory, empirically MTP is more personally transformative for the individual, and in practice (Gond and Moon 2011). Our perspective causing a more profound re-evaluation of personal priori- supports the idea of the interconnectedness between busi- ties, or values. In particular cases of leadership in CSR, ness ethics, stakeholder theory and CSR (see Crane and MTPs were of an order of magnitude that were neither Matten 2015; Donaldson and Preston 1995). mundane nor part of a ‘slow-burn’ realisation over time, A variety of conceptions of leadership are relevant to unlike leadership formative experiences (Janson 2008)or our discussion. These include notions of ethical leadership the events described as crucibles of leadership (Bennis and (Brown et al. 2005; Schaubroeck et al. 2012; Trevin˜o et al. Thomas 2002). 2003); follower-centric approaches (Shamir and Eilam Using realist social theory (Archer 2003, 2012), social 2005); responsible leadership (Doh and Quigley 2014; psychology (Schwartz 2010), moral psychology (Narvaez Maak and Pless 2006; Miska and Mendenhall 2015; Pless 2009) plus the exploratory data from our study, we present 2007; Pless and Maak 2011; Pless et al. 2012; Voegtlin a theoretical model of this psychological process. Our et al. 2012; Waldman and Galvin 2008; Witt and Stahl model posits how these TPs affected the individuals con- 2016); servant leadership (Greenleaf 2002); distributed cerned by re-orientating their personal values to produce leadership (Bolden 2011); authentic leadership (Endrissat socially responsible leadership behaviours and, where the et al. 2007; Luthans and Avolio 2003; Michie and Gooty TP was momentous, a completely revised modus vivendi 2005) and transformational leadership (Burns 1978; Ciulla (Archer 2000, 2003). Our article therefore addresses the 2004, p. 316). The overlaps and distinctions between these 123 A Falling of the Veils: Turning Points and Momentous Turning Points in Leadership and the… notions of leadership have been identified previously (e.g., This perspective of reflexivity as causally efficacious and Miska and Mendenhall 2015). However, one commonality underpinning personal life projects is central to our argu- in notions of leadership is that they encompass a perspec- ment. Archer (2012) identified three modes of reflexivity: tive on ‘the other’, whether this is in terms of employee Communicative, Autonomous and Meta-reflexive, and it is followership, or, a wider stakeholder perspective. Indeed, the latter that is most important in our research into for the purposes of our micro- and meso-levels of analysis responsible leadership. Meta-reflexives were described as of CSR leadership, the psychological concepts of prosocial the ‘cultural idealists, trapped in a search to pursue a (Penner et al. 2005) and, conversely, antisocial behaviour, vocation…[engaging in] …a restless search for self- are also relevant, where an individual’s prosocial behaviour knowledge’ (Archer 2003, p. 255 and p. 295). We will can be understood as CSR in practice (Hannah et al. 2011; return to meta-reflexivity later, as part of the explanation of van Aaken et al. 2013). Prosocial behaviour is understood our theoretical model at Fig. 1. as voluntary behaviour enacted with the intention of ben- Whilst our social psychological perspective acknowl- efiting others (Mikulincer and Shaver 2010, p. 4) and edges the impact of socialisation on personal values (e.g., antisocial behaviour as behaviours that have hurtful effects Rokeach 1973, see p. 77–80), moral psychology is also on others (Eisenberg 2010, p. 142). helpful and in particular, Narvaez’s (2009, 2014) triune ethics theory (TET). This meta-theory draws from neuro- Personal Motivation for CSR Leadership: Life narrative, science, anthropology and other human sciences to com- Reflexivity and Personal Values prise three foundational ethical motivations of self- protectionism, engagement and imagination. TET ‘…pos- We are particularly influenced by a literature that demon- tulates that the emotional circuitry established early in life strates the importance of leaders’ life narratives in the underpins the brain’s architecture for morality and ethical creation of CSR. In her discussion of the formative expe- behavior…’ (Narvaez 2009, p. 137). As part of our dual- riences of leaders, Janson (2008) described the role of life istic approach, the value of the narrative approach to our narrative in self-identity. She cited Shamir et al. (1994)in understanding of leader development for CSR is evident, that: ‘…people are motivated to maintain and enhance their but there is a dearth of hermeneutic phenomenologically self-esteem and their self-worth, and…are also motivated derived (Laverty 2003) life-narrative research in the lead- to retain and increase their sense of self-consis- ership literature, as well as a shortage of empirical study of tency…[these]… developmental stories are likely to guide CSR leaders. Perhaps this is due to a shortage of respon- the teller’s theories of action…’ (Janson 2008, p. 88). sible leaders, particularly if, as scholars such as Jurkiewicz These functions of the life narrative in the development and and Giacalone (2016) have argued, unethical behaviour in maintenance of self-identity have also been attributed to organisations has become more prevalent. our personal values (Hitlin and Piliavin 2004; Rokeach In summary, the range and magnitude of life course 1973; Schwartz 2010). McAdams (1985, 2001), too, was events purporting to impact on individual development, interested in the biographical narrative approach to including leadership development, is very broad. These understanding human behaviour, arguing that ‘identity is a events have been classified in various ways, from life life story’ (McAdams 2001, p. 100). McAdams and Pals formative experiences (Janson 2008); crucibles (Bennis (2006, p. 209), quoting Giddens (1991), argued that: ‘under and Thomas 2002); originating events, turning points, the complex social and psychological conditions of cultural anchoring events, analogous events, redemptive events, modernity…Narrative identity is…that story the person contaminating events (Pillemer 1998; Ligon et al. 2008); tries to ‘‘keep going’’’. personal history events and trigger events (Gardner et al. However, we posit that the life story narrative is more 2005; Luthans and Avolio 2003). Gardner et al.’s (2005) than just a story. Indeed, Archer (2003, 2012) argued that personal history events included a positive role model and narrative contains emergent properties in our social world. their trigger events included promotion; or a decision to She equated the personal deliberations of ‘the internal study, or to work abroad, akin to the ‘defining moments’ of conversation’ (Archer 2003, 2012) with reflexivity, a Badaracco (1997). In this article, then, we focus on the mechanism that allows us to negotiate structural constraints defining events that shaped a commitment to CSR and and manifests in personal agency. As Archer (2000, p. 223) manifested in responsible leadership. We have also artic- argued: ‘Since our highest concerns are about what we ulated a distinction between the TP and MTP, where the value most, then reflection is about what commentaries are latter produced a seismic shift in personal priorities, the best guides to what matters most to us. We evaluate our thereby contributing to the life-narrative literature and first-order emotions as guides to the life we wish to lead adding some nuance to our understanding of the TP con- and thus end up embracing some and subordinating others’. struct that we have described above.

123 C. A. Hemingway, K. Starkey

Qualitative Research Approach included directors, managers and non-managers and ten of these informants agreed to be interviewed. However, only The phenomenon of the turning point emerged as a ‘sur- five individuals that were eventually identified through our prise discovery’ (Eisenhardt et al. 2016, p. 1116) when we study as empirically derived leaders in CSR, were on the uncovered a small minority of responsible leaders in an initial list of twelve potential research subjects. In order to exploratory investigation. We used an inductive method- boost our purposive sample, an additional eighteen ology that was designed to understand how personal values research subjects were identified via the snowballing are practised in organisations (Hemingway 2005). More technique (Miles and Huberman 1994; see also Fryer specifically, our pre-supposition centred upon the notion of 2011), whereby our subjects were asked if they knew of the informal organisation (Mayo 1933) and we were any other employees who had a reputation for prosocial interested in how employees’ espoused personal values behaviour at work. Altogether, twenty-eight subjects took impacted upon prosocial behaviour (Schwartz 2010)as part in in-depth, personal face-to-face interviews that were discretionary CSR (Carroll 1979) and how individuals conducted either in the subject’s own private office, or in a experienced the constraining and enabling effects of the specially booked meeting room. These semi-structured organisational context. Personal values were described as interviews lasted for an average duration of 75 min. All under-theorised in organisation theory (Gehman et al. twenty-nine face-to-face interviews were digitally recorded 2013); hence, the method of our hermeneutic-phe- and an additional six telephone interviews took place in nomenological investigation (Laverty 2003) comprised a order to verify aspects from the interviews and they form of ethnography (Burawoy 2009). Importantly, such included one follow-up second interview. The second fol- ‘deep immersion over time’ (Eisenhardt et al. 2016, low-up personal interview took place with a director of the p. 1114) can provide a most fertile environment for the company, conducted at an overseas head office, which generation of ‘novel ideas’ (Eisenhardt et al. 2016, lasted a further 90 min. Additional data were collected via p. 1115). The novelty to which we refer came in the form informal meetings with employees and also from company of the TP narrative. documents and reports. The study was conducted within a $5bn Forbes Global 2000 and FTSE 100 company. The organisation was Data Collection and Data Analysis selected on the basis of its prominence in the global healthcare industry. Also, its image as a relatively socially Our research subjects were initially asked why they responsible organisation, due to a philanthropic history of thought they had a reputation in the organisation ‘for per- employee welfare (Hassard 2012) and recognition for its sonal convictions to make a difference in life, in addition to activities in sustainability (for example, recognition by doing your day-to-day job’ and what kinds of things they Corporate Knights 2016). Furthermore, one of us had got involved with. Thus we began with the behaviours previously been employed there as a manager, although rather than overtly asking ‘What are your personal values?’ this was nearly two decades earlier. But this researcher This indirect approach reflected our understanding of the status enabled privileged open access via the President of deep-rooted nature of personal values which can result in the company, over a three year period. Thus, the combi- differences between expressed and operative personal nation of our ex-employee status and our ‘extraordinary values (England 1967). By asking ‘How and why did you access’ generated a very unusual degree of trust, where get involved in X…’ put the focus on the behaviour and rapport was established with the informants that produced was a more subtle approach. In effect, this enabled our ‘fresh insights’ (Eisenhardt et al. 2016, pp. 1117–1121). subjects to define CSR and in the majority of cases, we did Indeed, the notion of the turning point was an idea that we not overtly introduce the subject of personal values, until at ‘had not imagined’ (Eisenhardt et al. 2016, p. 1115) and so least the second half of each interview. Our interpretative it did not even feature in our interview guide. phenomenological analysis aimed ‘to explore in detail Due to our uncertainty regarding the existence or not of participants’ personal lived experience and how partici- CSR leaders, mentioned above, we employed purposive pants make sense of that personal experience’ (Laverty sampling (Miles and Huberman 1994; see also Endrissat 2003, p. 19; Smith 2004 p. 40), as opposed to the rather et al. 2007). The organisation was told that we were blunt and reductionist categorisation (Ligon et al. 2008, looking for employees, at any level and function in the p. 317). Social responsibility was thus defined by our organisational hierarchy, who had a reputation within the research subjects and then later on in the interview, it was company for prosocial behaviour. We were provided with probed further by the researchers, using a prompt sheet. an initial list of twelve potential research subjects, com- The CSR prompt sheet included ‘managing relationships prising a mix of functions and levels of seniority, which with all stakeholders’ (which were listed), the triple bottom

123 A Falling of the Veils: Turning Points and Momentous Turning Points in Leadership and the… line, corporate citizenship and ‘going beyond the require- having enlarged their own jobs (Argyris 1957) to incor- ments of the law in a wide variety of areas’ (Carroll 1979) porate one or more of the CSR domains. Some of these and included different domains of CSR, such as helping the individuals were repeatedly cited by their colleagues as community, employee welfare and human rights and CSR leaders. However, the orientations (Hemingway, integrity in your dealings at work. After the activity had 2013; Pless et al. 2012; Trevin˜o et al. 2003; Witt and Stahl been exhausted in each interview, we then introduced the 2016) of these CSR leaders varied, depending on which of Rokeach Values Survey (RVS) Form G (1973). The pur- the domain(s) of CSR (or which stakeholder group or pose of this instrument was not to determine respondents’ groups) they championed. Notably, four of these twelve value hierarchies, but to stimulate our research subjects to leaders articulated their sense of limitation around the articulate the meaning and importance of their personal company’s commitment to CSR and sustainability. values in the process of a co-construction of meaning Examples of CSR leadership included: a middle manager (Laverty 2003). The data were cross-checked against the who initiated and drove a company-wide environmental RVS responses using the technique of constant compar- project; a junior manager who instigated and garnered isons (Silverman 2001). In addition, our data analysis company-wide support for a re-cycling initiative which was consisted of the production of transcripts and memos not part of his formal job role; a head of department who (Eisenhardt et al. 2016, p. 1114), the assigning of repeatedly resisted commercial pressure to conduct product descriptive coding and the production of cognitive maps testing on animals; a factory shift manager who regularly (Miles and Huberman 1994; Silverman 2001). Interpretive challenged racist bullying; and a junior administrator who themes formed a second level of coding using multiple had become a serial charity fund-raiser. The latter described level coding, followed by meta-level codes and the com- how she repeatedly used her influence to persuade the pilation of coding consistency statistics (Antonakis et al. management of the company to commit resources for a local 2014, p. 168). Interim results were discussed throughout hospital, galvanising her colleagues to participate in her the study with our academic colleagues and with two senior fund-raising initiatives. Of the remaining sixteen research informants on separate occasions, although our subjects’ subjects, all but three were involved in CSR as part of their confidentiality was maintained throughout. formal job role, such as health and safety, but they could not be described as leaders of CSR. They articulated job satis- faction, but it was not expressed with the passion (see also Turning Points and Leadership in CSR Pless 2007) of the twelve leaders in CSR, nor as a salient personal concern. This majority of non-leader research We found tentative evidence of leadership in CSR, oper- subjects were driven by their dominantly expressed self- ating at all levels in the organisational hierarchy, regardless enhancement personal values (Schwartz 2010) and demon- of job role, status and departmental context. This chal- strated an instrumental approach to CSR: espousing the lenges the prevalent view that prosocial behaviour in business case and emphasising their involvement in CSR as organisations results from senior actors seeking ‘symbolic good for their career. capital’ to increase their power (egoism), or, the macro However, one group stood out in their path to CSR pressures on and from the organisational context (van leadership. In eight out of the twelve cases of CSR lead- Aaken et al. 2013), that can sometimes result in green- ership, turning points were narrated as a critical life event washing (Banerjee 2008). We also found exploratory evi- that had either defined (MTP) or re-defined (TP) their self- dence that (M)TP events can act as a mechanism for moral identity as leaders of CSR. Most of these events were cognition and may trigger CSR leadership, regardless of spontaneously narrated by our research subjects, thereby individuals’ personal background and even though motives illustrating the ‘unexpected perspectives’ that can emerge for CSR within the organisation may well be mixed, from ‘extreme cases’ (Eisenhardt et al. 2016, p. 1115 and (Christensen et al. 2014, p. 171; Di Norcia and Tigner p. 1118). This unexpected finding from our study is also 2000). comparable with the leadership research of Bennis and Twelve out of twenty-eight research subjects were Thomas (2002), who referred to serendipitous discoveries, revealed as leaders in CSR, comprising five individuals when narratives regarding their ‘crucibles’ also emerged as from the initial list of twelve potential ‘prosocial’ subjects. an unanticipated finding. From these eight cases, four They ranged across all functions of the company: from the (M)TP event narratives emerged from the CSR leaders in shop floor to the executive suite. This minority were highly terms of a critical life incident: existential workplace principled individuals with a strong sense of personal experience, enlightening educational experience, religious responsibility to society, who were driven by their domi- epiphany and critical family illness/bereavement. nantly expressed self-transcendent personal values Our subjects’ life story narratives connected their (Schwartz 2010). They drove a social agenda at work, prosocial behaviour to a salient and sometimes life- 123 C. A. Hemingway, K. Starkey changing event. Our research also suggests that (M)TPs I actually had to close a factory … and I think enabled these individuals to overcome organisational con- that…awakened me to a lot of the issues. Is that what straints and had informed their responsible leadership, made me think these things are important? It certainly where leadership was often exercised across more than one reinforced it. But did I always think that people domain of CSR and sustainability. These particular should be treated properly—should try and do your research subjects represented extreme cases (Eisenhardt best for your community—I probably did raise it on et al. 2016, p. 1118) that emerged spontaneously and my agenda. serendipitously from our investigation into how values are Helena implied that her self-transcendent values were practised in organisations (Hemingway 2013). Hence, we already dominant and that this learning experience was now highlight them as a potentially important insight into probably not a momentous turning point in her life. the dynamics underlying value creation based on CSR. However, Helena suggested that this TP ‘twinged’ her In the next section, we discuss the four event types. Our conscience, like the ‘ethical twinge’ that was reported by first situation, the existential workplace experience, repre- H.R. managers and accountants (Lovell 2002). Hence, we sents the TP case. It is followed by three MTP narratives assert that the TP event is still important, even if it did not that we posit may have been incrementally momentous, induce a change of identity, because the TP event was producing greater levels of arousal in our subjects and described by the subject as a formative experience that subsequent re-evaluation of their priorities. Indeed, the triggered her meta-reflexivity (Archer 2012) to clarify her three MTPs were narrated in terms of a seismic shift in social values that ‘awakened’ (sic) her ethic of engagement their personality through a re-ordering of their personal (Narvaez 2009) and her development as a responsible values, transforming them from dominantly self-enhance- leader. ment to dominantly self-transcendent (Schwartz 2010), re- defining a changed sense of self. But, the TP case is …whether or not I’m doing it right or not, I think the notable too, as it appeared to have triggered the subject’s issue is, well, it’s what do…do you actually change previously dominant social values, making them salient your moral compass, or your guiding principles. Do again. So we suggest that whilst the TP experience was you change them because of the environment in narrated as a learning experience, it was not life-changing, which you find yourself, or do you actually say, well, as in the cases of the MTP. Thus, our TP case enables these things are actually worth having? They’re of comparison with the MTP cases. This distinction adds a value. And hence, you’re not going to change things. degree of nuance to the TP phenomenon that we wish to You know, my view is…the Nuremberg defence highlight for the purposes of our analysis. didn’t work at Nuremberg! So it’s—the obligation on all of us is…that we actually have to be driven by our own sense of right and wrong. Existential Workplace Experience Helena’s self-identity was of a socially responsible leader Our first TP narrative case relates to an existential work- with: place experience. We cite Helena, a head of department, …a strong sense of humanistic values…I was brought who disclosed her experiences of the difficulties of running up having a strong sense of social values and with a the business abroad in a country with different employment sense of, you know, always trying to help somebody legislation to that of the home country. Helena’s personal who needs help: help the under-dog, or whatever. agenda was a deep-rooted socially oriented concern to behave with integrity (Blasi 2005), i.e., a strong personal Even though Helena described her upbringing as formative moral code (Martin et al. 2013) and influencing her sub- in the development of her self-transcendent values, her case ordinates to behave ethically. She articulated this as: illustrates how a TP event can trigger the individual to re- ‘hold[ing] our heads up high’. Helena demonstrated her evaluate their priorities in life, or ‘raise it on my agenda’, moral imagination (Johnson 1993, p. 207; Moberg and as she put it. Thus, we posit that the TP case is theoretically Seabright 2000), narrating how she had initiated a meeting useful as it serves as a foil upon which we can compare the with the company President, before accepting her post following cases of MTPs. abroad, specifically to discuss and to clarify whether or not she would have his support regarding her intention to Enlightening Educational Experience uphold what she regarded as the company’s high ethical standards, across a broad range of areas. In describing her The enlightening educational experience could equally be motivation as a CSR leader, Helena commented on her categorised as an existential workplace experience. But in existential workplace experience: contrast to the last TP event that we described, above, the

123 A Falling of the Veils: Turning Points and Momentous Turning Points in Leadership and the… enlightening educational experience was reported by our he had applied to study for a part-time postgraduate research subjects to have changed their lives. Moreover, it business qualification and he elected CSR as the topic of was recalled and remembered vividly, without prompting his dissertation. We posit that this enlightening educa- by us, despite having occurred nine years prior to our data tional experience was the trigger for Brian’s ethical shift collection. Even though we did not measure the levels of from self-protectionism (Narvaez 2014), developing his affective response to these four events, either at the time moral imagination as part of the process of his self- they occurred, or whilst being recounted to us; we posit transformation. Thus followed his proposal to the execu- that the enlightening educational experience was connected tive board to head up a company-wide environmental with a greater level of emotional significance to these programme, for which he had gained approval. Brian also subjects than the generic turning point, represented by the described how he was ‘heavily, heavily involved’ in his existential workplace experience. Also compared with the local community, working on various committees for his turning points reported in the literature (Gardner et al. local school. He espoused a strong sense of personal 2005; Pillemer 1998, 2001; Shamir and Eilam 2005), such agency and social duty that he attributed to the training as Janson’s (2008, p. 82) reference to a first taste of public programme: speaking. These were developmental experiences that we I struggle with people who aren’t independent, who regard as rather mundane in comparison with our three won’t do things for themselves. It’s going back to this unprompted MTP events that were reported to be life- course that we did… It opened my eyes (our italics)… changing by our research subjects. I struggle with people believing that the world and The educational experience was a company-wide train- life owes them something…I don’t like being told ing programme, run by a firm of consultants that appeared what to do. to have left far-reaching, profound and long-lasting effects on the employees of the organisation. Such as Brian who, A similar sentiment was articulated by Barry, an engineer as a result of the course, had been inspired to instigate and whose personal sense of social responsibility was palpable. drive a workplace sustainability agenda. Or Barry, who He displayed his leadership in CSR, harnessing his referent attributed his moral courage to champion the fair treatment power (French and Raven 1959): ‘I try to use my influence’ of employees, including speaking out against racism at he said, when speaking out against racism, angrily urging work, to the impact of this particular training programme. his factory working colleagues to ‘think for yourself!’ It had been commissioned to help improve performance, when he encountered misinformed and disrespectful com- and it focussed on personal goal-setting for all areas of ments about migrant employees. We asked Barry to employees’ lives. This programme had been rolled out elaborate about the company-wide training course, after across the whole organisation, covering all levels and he had spontaneously referred to it in the context of his functions, with every employee receiving training. Some promotion: ‘I used to be a blue-collar worker’ he said, employees had been selected to be in-house trainers, and going on to explain how the course had motivated him to they had received their training both in the USA and in both secure a managerial position, putting him in a stronger Europe. Now this particular training programme was position to champion the fair treatment of his co-workers spontaneously mentioned by eight out of our twelve CSR and subordinates: leaders. Brian, a senior manager introduced it like this: I suppose it was a way of making you realise that You make a path through life yourself. There was a you’re accountable for what you do yourself and fantastic training course a few years ago called everything’s achievable as long as you set the targets XYZ—goal setting and choices—opportunities when to achieve them. You’re accountable for your own they arise. actions…they rolled it out to everybody in the factory. This sentiment is comparable to that of Janson’s (2008, p. 85) research subject who described the impact that a The course had lasted a full working week, followed by a similar self-development course had on them as a leader- gap to reflect and to set personal goals: ‘To think about ship formative experience: ‘There was a choice, I could how you wanted to change your life’, followed by a second make choices in my life and it just gave me a huge opening full week. Barry stressed that the course was as much about to be me…’ It also reminds us of Hitlin’s (2003, p. 123) setting personal goals as it was about work-related goal statement that: ‘We feel authentic when we behave in setting: ‘The course taught me to say ‘No’ to that inner keeping with our values’. voice stopping me from doing things’. We will return to Brian expressed a strong belief in protecting the Barry, a bit later. His colleague, Brian, articulated what he environment, which he had built into his job since he had regarded as the consequences of what was, for him and been trained as a facilitator on the course. Following this, others, a life transformative experience: 123 C. A. Hemingway, K. Starkey

Taking responsibility for your own destiny; firmly with that of Pless (2007), who concluded that Roddick’s realise that you’re in control of your life rather than identity script comprised an alignment between her other people are…be comfortable with the choices personal values and her ‘thinking, feeling and acting’ you’re making as well… that included being driven to be a part of something larger than the self (Pless 2007, p. 451). We now move We emphasise that this particularly intensive training course to our final MTP case, the critical family member illness was a one-off and whilst it had taken place nine years or bereavement. We posit that this type of situation may previously, its impact upon these subjects was still being have produced the greatest levels of arousal and impact felt. But (M)TPs will not always occur in the workplace. on the individual to trigger meta-reflexivity (Archer This was acknowledged by Maclagan (1998, p. 20) who 2012) and re-evaluation of personal priorities in life from referred to ‘significant personal experiences…triggers which a modus vivendi of self-protectionism to moral vision awaken a moral sensitivity’. These outside work experiences and subsequent ethical engagement (Narvaez 2014), via lead us to our second MTP case, a religious epiphany. leadership in CSR.

Religious Epiphany Critical Family Illness/Bereavement

Eric’s formative experience in his CSR leadership devel- Francesca was the departmental head of a function whose opment gave rise to the second of our MTP narratives. A espoused self-identity was someone who is highly princi- departmental head, Eric was also active in a not-for-profit pled. She described feeling ‘strongly’ about maintaining movement which promotes social entrepreneurship across ‘ethical standards’ in a number of areas. She was notably the private, public and voluntary sectors. He had taken paid protective of her employees across different areas and was leave to help in the aftermath of a major environmental known as her employees’ champion. The health and safety disaster abroad and he reported that he would also be of employees was a major personal concern to Francesca asking the company for aid funding: ‘Money follows and she made it a priority to be seen to be setting the vision’, he declared. Eric confided how he had employed a example. Francesca attributed her particular vigilance and recovering drug addict, a member of his church, as a concern in this area, to her father’s serious accident at consultant to the company, thereby avoiding HR recruit- work. This had resulted in his near-permanent blindness: ment procedures. His Christian beliefs formed his MTP I see it as my role, to try and support getting that which emerged as follows: culture. It’s like, you know, walking the talk: it’s easy …the reason I get involved in sort of wider social to write the words, but if people don’t see anyone issues is really because of my…Christian conviction going around in a position of authority doing that, and Christian beliefs…When I was at University I then why would they do it? But I do believe it as had a sort of quite a life changing sort of series of well…When I was quite young my father worked at events, really. Prior to that I was fundamentally very Sand Bay [large-scale chemicals manufacturing self- focused and what I wanted, very career minded plant]…and he nearly lost—well he did lose his sight and all that sort of stuff and, you know, the agenda for several…days. He eventually came ‘round—there revolved around me. And while I was at University I was an accident at the plant and he was…injured. So became a Christian and…really recognised that the it wasn’t an abstract thing for me…It’s quite a haz- world is a little bit bigger than that…And a lot of that ardous environment working here, people forget that. got turned on its head and so really since then…I’ve Moreover, Francesca’s personal sense of social responsi- had much more… of a desire to…you know… make bility manifest across different domains of CSR. For a make a difference where I can…and what I can sort example, she narrated how she and her staff sustained of contribute to and change, really. significant commercial pressure exerted by sales staff to This particular life story narrative illustrates an apparent conduct product testing on animals, in order to expedite the shift from the self-enhancement personal values that production of sales aids and advertisements. Clinical trials characterise self-protectionism (Narvaez 2014)tothe using humans take much longer. This pressure was resisted. self-transcendent values underpinning generativity She described, too, a meticulous approach with regard to (McAdams 2001) and a moral vision (Johnson 1993). the fair treatment of subordinates which connected with her Eric claimed that his main goal was now to make a espoused personal value of equality. This took the form of difference in life. It’s about ‘knowing that the world is a diligent approach to regular performance appraisals in bigger than you’ and that ‘there’s more to life than flat order to protect staff and to facilitate their promotion. screen TVs’. This example of moral imagination concurs There had been situations: 123 A Falling of the Veils: Turning Points and Momentous Turning Points in Leadership and the…

…where people get labelled and it’s hard for them to a meningitis hospital group to help other families, his shake it off. You can have someone really excep- defence of colleagues was not attributed to the rationali- tional but they can’t perform because they’ve been sation of the factory (as a TP), as it was an ongoing labelled for something that might have happened a situation that had resulted in successive rounds of redun- long while ago. Everyone should be given a fair dancy over a number of years. But he attributed this opportunity to try and achieve. behaviour to the profound impact of the training course, above and he also narrated the story of his son’s serious Francesca described how she found it necessary to speak illness as a driver that motivated his desire to help others. out, once or twice a year in board meetings when she was So we posit that TPs acted as the mechanism for re- asked to begin disciplinary proceedings against a subordi- evaluation and that the MTP produced a more significant nate and she deemed that the individual was being treated shift: ‘‘…your life just changes…’’ (declared Barry) and unfairly: ‘‘…it opened my eyes…’’ (confided Brian). Hence, our I don’t want to be viewed as being difficult, but when exploratory data suggest that the re-evaluation produced by it comes to those sorts of situations …I would con- the event results in moral vision (Johnson, 1993) and a sciously say ‘Well, I’m sorry I’m not going to do dominant, salient concern for the welfare and interests of that.’’ Also: ‘…if I was told to go and tell someone others (Schwartz 2010, p. 226), that may manifest across a about a performance issue and I fundamentally dis- number of CSR domains and not necessarily only one agreed with it, again, I wouldn’t do it and I wouldn’t domain (such as a concern for animal welfare, or environ- worry if it had an impact on my career: I don’t care mental issues). In other words, we posit that personal about that, in that sense. values can shift in response to the catalyst of an event. There have been other indications in support of our Francesca espoused a strong belief in being principled and argument, such as the epiphanies that led sustainability being seen to be principled. This, for her, was central to her managers and consultants ‘to reconsider their job or career identity as a responsible leader. It reflects Blasi’s (2005) and discover a higher purpose [and] how their concerns notion of integrity as part of the moral personality, i.e., about sustainability and climate change followed critical ‘internal self-consistency’ (Lapsley and Hill 2009, p. 197). events, major life changes and upheavals’ (Wright et al. It was also demonstrated by Barry, the engineer who was 2012, p. 1468). Those situations may well have been described above, when he referred to his son’s near death MTPs. Thus, we have argued that TPs represent a critical experience: formative experience that may be accessed via the subject’s …when my son had meningitis, your life just changes life story narrative. We posit further that MTPs, defined and you think of all the things you could do bet- earlier as producing higher levels of arousal in the indi- ter…They are the most important people in the world, vidual, may trigger personal transformation. Our analysis my wife and kids. revealed four narrative forms of (M)TP: existential work- place experience, enlightening educational experience, In addition to speaking out against racism, Barry had religious epiphany and critical family illness or bereave- secured the agreement of his line manager (not Francesca, ment. We now present our descriptive, theoretical model of who was in a different function) that he would be exempt this psychological process. from giving ‘feedback’ on colleagues who were being selected for redundancy during the latest round of rational- isation. So, like Francesca, Barry had taken a principled Theoretical Model of the (M)TP Process in CSR stand not to participate in the official ‘feedback’ system: Leadership Some very capable people have been ousted but their Our proposed theoretical model at Fig. 1 depicts the psy- job wasn’t made redundant, they just got new people chological process of the TP as an important antecedent in in. And rather than maybe manage that situation by CSR leadership and how the MTP might sometimes com- training, or just making people aware that you’re pletely transform individuals. It is based on a combination failing on this criteria you’ve got to improve, it’s just, of social theory (Archer 2003, 2012), social psychology like: ‘Push Off.’ (Schwartz 2010), moral psychology (Narvaez 2009, 2014) Such examples illustrated to us that prosocial behaviour and the exploratory research findings, discussed above. following the TP need not necessarily share the same This model features Narvaez’ (2014) three ethics of self- content in terms of ‘matching’ domains of CSR or the protectionism, engagement and imagination (TET), to specific subject of concern. For example, where Barry’s illustrate the moral motivation and behaviour that is gen- child’s meningitis had resulted in his active participation in erated by our power of reflexivity.

123 C. A. Hemingway, K. Starkey

Fig. 1 Theoretical model of the (M)TP process in CSR leadership

Our life narratives indicate that leadership in CSR can event disrupts the status quo of the individual, charac- occur at multiple levels, throughout the organisation and terised as the ethic of self-protectionism, which is under- not necessarily as a top-down style of leadership (Ciulla pinned by conservatism and self-enhancement at Modus 2004). This was illustrated by Janice, the secretary turned Vivendi 1. Self-protectionism was originally described as administrator; a serial charity fund-raiser who had raised the ethic of security and later revised (Narvaez 2014) over $50,000 at work over a four year period. She descri- whereby: ‘self-protective values and behaviours guard the bed how she regularly used her influence to persuade the life of the individual and in-group’ (p. 143). It was management of the company to commit resources for a described as: ‘…focused on self-preservation through local hospital, galvanising colleagues to participate in her safety and such things as personal or in-group dominance. fund-raising initiatives. But Janice took us by surprise When the security ethic is highly active, the individual will when she attributed her responsible leadership to an MTP. have a difficult time in focusing on the needs of others, She began to narrate how she had been profoundly affected because this ethic resides in brain and body systems that by the unexpected death of her sister, which had happened are self-focused’ (Narvaez 2009, p. 137). Janice illustrated five years prior to our study. Only a young woman, her this, where her tremendous feelings of grief disrupted her sister had died of a heart condition. This event shook Janice self-protectionism, causing her to reflect: ‘‘… and I to the core. She described the MTP as the eulogy at her thought: Right…well at mine, what will they say about sister’s funeral: me? What do I do…for anybody else? You know? And it just gets you thinking about what you actually do… other I lost my sister—she died—she was only thirty- than…like…you know…my mum, my dad and my three…and I was only like thirty-one at the time… daughter…’’ and…you know, it makes you take stock doesn’t it? Our model posits that an affective state is generated by Do you know? What do I do to actually…make a the (M)TP event, differing along three principal dimen- difference to anybody? sions: valence, arousal and motivational intensity (Har- We theorise this psychological process in Fig. 1, where the mon-Jones et al. 2013). This is not to suggest that the (M)TP ‘influences perceptual processes and goal salience’ subject does not experience emotion prior to the (M)TP. (Narvaez 2009, p. 5). (M)TP events were described, above, Only that such events represent a tipping point that mod- as existential workplace experience, enlightening educa- erates the affective state. Indeed, we tentatively propose an tional experience, religious epiphany and critical family increasing saliency of these stories to our research subjects, illness/bereavement. We do not claim these event types to reflected in the order that we presented them, above, be definitive and thus we recommend further research into compared with the more mundane turning points and life this little understood phenomenon. But we assert that the formative experiences in the leadership development

123 A Falling of the Veils: Turning Points and Momentous Turning Points in Leadership and the… literature that we outlined earlier. The affective state is making process (Haidt 2001; Sonenshein 2007). Rather, we hormonal reaction produced as part of the ‘fight or flight’ propose that deeper, meta-reflexive thinking (Archer 2012) response (Narvaez 2009, p. 138). Hence we posit that an will be generated as a consequence of the (M)TP. This MTP produces greater levels of arousal in the individual reflects Foucault’s (2000) argument, based on ancient which may polarise as either profoundly joyous ‘peak’ Greek philosophy, that it is our capacity for reflexivity that experiences or devastating ‘desolation’ events (Maslow generates the conscience, although we posit that (M)TPs 1976), manifesting as distress or euphoria. create more than reflective thinking. Indeed, our argument We have used the transformer symbol in Fig. 1 as a is that the TP can serve to remind the individual of their device to illustrate the onset of change and it follows the core self-transcendent values. Also, that the MTP is a hormonal reaction generated by the event. In the case of the particularly powerful stimuli for developing moral vision, MTP, this would spark an individuals’ fundamental re- whereby the MTP can generate a sense of greater purpose analysis, as we propose happened to Janice and some of our in life as part of a process of self-transformation. Both other research subjects. Moreover, we propose that the event types manifesting as leadership in CSR. Here, we degree of change is moderated by the affective state that return to Janice, who described how her sister’s early death generates a re-ordering of personal values, which are had spurred her into making a conscious decision to change ‘linked inextricably to affect’ (Schwartz 2010, p. 222) and her own life for the better: where the (M)TP event stimulates meta-reflexivity (Archer It makes you take stock doesn’t it? …And you think, 2003, 2012) in the individual to motivate a re-evaluation of you start thinking…about your own…path in life work and life choices. This is akin to Hind et al.’s (2009, really, don’t you? And I thought, well, how do I make p. 7) ‘reflexive abilities’ and Blakely and Higgs’ (2014, a difference? I thought, Right! You know, this is, this p. 572) ‘consciousness-raising experiences’ in responsible is going to be…I’m going to make good this year and leadership and Blasi’s (2005) ‘reasoned reflection’ in moral do something that is going to change my life… character. But there is a key difference. As we identified in our discussion earlier, meta-reflexivity is more than Subsequent to the re-evaluation phase, where self-tran- learning from one’s experience. Indeed, Archer’s (2012, scendent personal values are consolidated or become see Chapter 6) Meta-reflexives were described as ‘critics of dominant, we posit that the ethic of imagination precedes market and state’. Such as Kate, with her ‘passion’ for the ethic of engagement (Narvaez 2009) to produce moral politics (p. 212) or Halina, who was disengaged from her vision (Johnson 1993). According to Narvaez (2009) the family and an active member of Greenpeace (p. 217). ethic of imagination can be linked to either self-protec- These were the ‘cultural idealists, trapped in a search to tionism (security) or engagement. Here, our exploratory pursue a vocation’ (Archer 2012, p. 255), perhaps driven data indicates the vision and imagination (Johnson 1993, by the ethics of imagination and engagement. Hence, in p. 207; Moberg and Seabright 2000) that is generated as Fig. 1, meta-reflexivity mediates the individual’s system of part of this process, as a precursor to responsible leader- personal values to produce a re-evaluation phase, where ship. The ethic of imagination uses ‘reasoning capacities to self-transcendent and openness to experience values adapt to ongoing social relationships and to address become dominant. This was demonstrated by Janice when concerns beyond the immediate…[allowing]… the indi- she described the moment during her sister’s eulogy when vidual to step back from and review instincts and she realised that her perspective on her immediate family intuitions’ (Narvaez 2009, p.138). At this point in the was too narrow. This illustrates universalism values con- transformation process, the individual becomes more open tained within self-transcendence (Schwartz 2010). to new experiences and is motivated by generativity. Citing However, it is the perceived magnitude of the event, in Erikson (1963), McAdams (2001) defined generativity as: terms of the degree of arousal experienced by the indi- ‘an adult’s concern for, or commitment to, promoting the vidual, that determines the status of the event as TP or well-being of future generations…and engaging in a wide MTP; where the latter experience would manifest as ‘a range of activities aimed at leaving a positive legacy of the falling of the veils’. This comes from Maslow’s (1976, self for the future’ (p. 17). In addition to the cases above, p. 77) discussion of human peak and desolation experi- this was also exemplified by Francesca, when she was ences, which he argued produced revelations which can be explaining her ethical stance in response to significant a natural part of lifelong development and humanity. commercial pressure to conduct product testing on animals: Maslow’s thesis connected with Nietzsche’s description of …why don’t they think, well, we’ve been in this the drive to self-transcendence as the human condition business for a hundred years, we want to be in it for (Painter-Morland 2008, p. 145) and the notion of our another hundred years and not, you know, we’re not ongoing search for meaning in life (Weick 1995). Further going to jeopardise a product like X for a short- to this, we do not deny the role of intuition in the decision 123 C. A. Hemingway, K. Starkey

term…so that some person can make and impact in investigation of both the emotional significance of such the organization, can get a nice advert out. critical life events and longitudinal research into the extent of the perceived behaviour change. We propose that the Janice’s moral vision was also sparked and her new greater the arousal associated with the TP, then the more motivation was not only to ‘‘improve myself’’, but also to profound the effect, in terms of the amount, frequency and be remembered as someone who had made a significant duration of prosocial behaviour and leadership in CSR. contribution to the lives of others: Further, we would like to see more neuroscientific studies So that’s where it all came from, really. I thought, to enhance our understanding of how brain chemistry is what do I do to actually…make a difference to any- important in these processes, combined with many more in- body, other than, you know, my mum, my dad, my depth and semi-structured interviews. daughter, do you know what I mean? I thought: Get We wonder about the extent to which TPs might pro- off your arse and go and do something… to make a duce a second wave of formative experience for some difference to somebody… existing leaders. It is also an interesting possibility that MTPs can create leadership from a previous non-leader. This is reminiscent of the sentiment expressed by a We do not yet know whether the MTP will produce a more participant after immersion in a particular leadership longer-lasting impact than a TP, although we could development programme, who declared that the experience hypothesise that it might. We anticipate variation in levels had ‘‘changed my mind completely’’ and that her habitus of commitment to CSR leadership and variation in how had ‘shifted’ (Blakeley and Higgs 2014, p. 568 and p. 570). long the behaviour will last. People revise their priorities in Thus, our model posits how CSR leadership emerges, life (Archer 2003). Has every CSR leader had a (transfor- whereby the TP produces meta-reflexivity causing the mative) MTP (where values shifted from dominantly SE to individual to grow as a leader and where the MTP creates a ST)? We doubt it, but we suggest that it might be common. seismic shift to the subject’s personality. As Janice said, We also posit that those CSR leaders with already domi- she had personally transformed from being: ‘‘…a person nant ST values (and who have not experienced a trans- that would be just carried along, to a person that wants to formative MTP) who have allowed the situational context lead it.’’ This stage in the process is represented by Modus to temporarily compromise their personal values may at Vivendi 2, characterised in our model by the ethic of times ‘slip up’ and behave anti-socially. This might include engagement, i.e., ‘oriented to face-to-face emotional affil- not speaking up when encountering misdemeanour at work iation with others, particularly through caring relationships (Hemingway, 2013) and perhaps experiencing a reminder and social bonds’ (Narvaez 2009, p. 138). But we reiterate of what their priorities are in the form of the (less dramatic) that the event does not have to be momentous to produce a TP. In other words, a more moderate ‘shuffling’ of values shift from modus vivendi 1tomodus vivendi 2. as opposed to the seismic shift of the MTP. But the TP still produces re-evaluation, only in more modest form com- pared to the consequences of the MTP. Hence, our rec- Conclusions ommendation for more research to identify how widespread (M)TPs are in CSR leaders. Our theoretical model at Fig. 1 illustrates a psychological According to Janson (2008, p. 87), much of the literature process that we posit has emerged as an important ante- on the antecedents of leadership is rooted in early child- cedent in CSR leadership development. Much more hood, whereas our tentative findings support the notion of empirical work is now required to investigate our proposals the development of the individual throughout the life concerning (M)TPs, in order to further develop our course and notion that moral character can develop later in understanding and produce practical management insights. life (Foucault 2000; Narvaez 2009, p. 151). Moreover, our Importantly, the responsible leaders identified in our study exploratory findings support previous work on the role of did not make any claims to be ‘better leaders’ as a result of personal values in identity work (e.g., Bennis and Thomas their formative experiences (e.g., Bennis and Thomas 2002; Gehman et al. 2013) and specifically on the role of 2002, p. 40). Some did talk at length about how their pri- the life narrative in producing leadership identity (Pless orities and behaviour had radically altered. They attributed 2007). These narratives accord with the notion of devel- their leadership to these events, often without using the opmental crisis and the formation of character integrity word ‘leader’. All this indicates that further research is (Erikson 1979; Horowitz 2002; Maslow 2011), suggesting required on a larger scale and we would recommend much a formation of character, as opposed to the fluidity of more hermeneutic phenomenological research to probe identity change between roles, which is a common per- subjects’ biographies to further contextualise the (M)TP spective in organisation theory, particularly amongst those and produce deeper insights. We also recommend in the critical management school (e.g., Banerjee 2008;but 123 A Falling of the Veils: Turning Points and Momentous Turning Points in Leadership and the… see also Maak and Pless 2006; Trevin˜o et al. 2006). Our the developmental value for both organisation and individ- own social psychological perspective on character accords ual is not missed, we also support Shamir and Eilam’s with, as one might expect, virtue ethics theory. Crossan (2005, p. 413) warning against the potential for violating et al. (2013) develop a value-based model of ethical deci- norms of privacy or intimacy. So our findings imply an sion making and suggest that character strengths can be equally or more indirect approach to the one we have deepened along the virtuous mean via self-reflection in demonstrated, for any future study of the role of the (M)TP action which promotes learning, as well as learning from in CSR leadership, not least because the relative scarcity of experience after the event. (M)TPs, from our perspective, responsible leaders, as we have already suggested and due to are a major impetus to reflection and learning and we agree the extremely sensitive and private nature of this under- with Crossan et al. (2013) that we need further work to researched phenomenon. Sometimes, though, proactive develop our understanding of the development of character organisation development can be the important CSR cata- as an aspect of virtue. But whilst we recognise the lyst. As Armstrong (2017) argued: HR professionals could importance of internal character traits and natural tenden- look to create ‘safe’ spaces in which leaders and managers cies towards goodness, we also acknowledge structural can openly reflect on their challenges and struggles as crit- constraints that limit their expression. As Crossan et al. ical moments of learning, which then sets a tone and culture (2013) point out, character in leadership is enacted in a for learning across the organisation. Nevertheless, our the- nexus of behaviours, relationships and structures. oretical model demonstrates the capacity for change, What is interesting in our study, is that significant life because moral agency opens up all kinds of possibilities events can and do provide the impetus to reframing one’s through our capacity for reflexivity. Bearing in mind the values and acting accordingly in certain cases. Major ongoing organisational misdemeanours that feature in events can even over-ride predispositions, as in Saint almost daily reports of corporate malfeasance, we hope that Paul’s conversion on the road to Damascus illustrates. the reader agrees that this is an important research area Once virtue traits are strongly triggered, they can become where scholars of business ethics might find new impetus stable aspects of character going forward. In other words, within which to ‘fight the good fight’ (Ciulla 2013,p.703). (M)TPs can provide the stimulus to the emergence of CSR leaders. Conversely, as Joosten et al. (2014) argue, the Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Guest constant pressure that existing leaders are under may lead Editor and the reviewers for their most helpful feedback in the pro- duction of this article. Also, we wish to say many thanks to Andy to ‘ego depletion’ and undermine the capacity for self- Crane and Mark Carrigan for their comments, plus, the participants of regulation, thus creating the conditions for unethical the symposium on reflexivity at the Centre for Social Ontology behaviour. (M)TPs remind individuals that alternative (University of Warwick, UK, 24th May 2016). In addition, we are paths are possible. However, we recognise that CSR and grateful to Amy Armstrong and the participants and organisers of the responsible leadership stream at the European Group for Organization sustainability remains a major challenge for individuals Studies (EGOS), where this paper was first presented (Athens, 3rd and organisations, not least because our current variant of July 2015). Finally, we wish to say thank you very much to Lesley market-driven and financialised capitalism tends to over- Bukraba and Stephanie Gorst, of the Nottingham University Business ride consideration of questions about what forms of eco- School, UK. nomic and social activity might improve our capacity for Compliance with Ethical Standards the pursuit of a sustained good life. Hopefully, manage- ment education is slowly beginning to have an effect in this Conflict of interest Both authors declare that they have no conflict of area in promoting questions about how to develop char- interest. acter and mindfully pursue an ethical life through Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the empowering individuals to rely on their own reasoned Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://crea judgments and virtuous intuitions and emotions (Akrovou tivecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, and Sison 2016). Crossan et al. (2013, p. 296) argue that distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a business educators can help to enable leadership character link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were development and that we as educators have a responsibility made. to help foster positive relationships, enabling rules of engagement and behaviour norms. Our micro- and meso-perspective supports the much References wider perspective of some organisational researchers who have argued that the past can be an important source of Aguinis, H. (2011). Organizational responsibility: Doing good and doing well. In S. Zedeck (Ed.), APA handbook of industrial and political and ethical guidance in organisations (Hassard organizational psychology, Vol 3: Maintaining, expanding, and 2012;Orr2014). Now, whilst Armstrong (2014)advocated contracting the organization (pp. 855–879). 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