Geoarchaeological and Archaeological Investigations of the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman Brazoria County, Texas

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h Z- rhsoi oa,Baoi ony ea d’Aigle,Bradle andBernhardt The BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman, Brazoria County, Texas The BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman Brazoria County, Texas

Robert P. d’Aigle Michael R. Bradle Gilbert T. Bernhardt

Archeological Resources Protection Act April 2005

Geoarchaeological and Archaeological Investigations of The BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman Brazoria County, Texas

Prepared for: The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service The Department of the Interior Albuquerque, New Mexico Archaeological Resources Protection Act Permit (ARPA) Dated: 02-07-2003

Robert P. d'Aigle, RPA, Principal Investigator CRC, International Archaeology & Ecology, LLC 7400 Jones Drive, Suite 313 Galveston, Texas 77551 And Michael R. Bradle Gilbert T. Bernhardt American Archaeology Group, LLC 1211 W. Fourth Street Lampasas, TX 76550

With contributions by: Robson Bonnichsen, PhD John Jones, PhD Michael Waters, PhD Jason Wiersema

April 2005

Geoarchaeological and Archaeological Investigations of The BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman Brazoria County, Texas

April 2005

Acknowledgements

We express our appreciation to Bob Pickering, Ariane Pinson, Wera Schmerer, Michael Blum, James Adovasio, Michael Faught, Ron Hatfield, and the staff at the San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge for their personal assistance for this ARPA investigation. It must be noted that CRC, International Archaeology & Ecology, LLC and American Archaeology Group, LLC provided all of their effort, time, and expenditures, including the publishing of this report, without reimbursement, payment, contributions, or financial support from any outside source. Our special appreciation to Gilbert “Gib” Bernhardt for the generous donation of his time, effort, expenditures, and co-authorship of this report and to Heidi Fuller for providing editorial comments and for her assistance during the 2004 geoarchaeological investigation on behalf of American Archaeology Group, LLC To Natasha Hryshechko, Вы -лучший археолог и партнер! К Вам, моему сердцу, моей любви, моей жизни.

Cocklebur Slough San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge Brazoria County, Texas Cover photograph by Ed Christman Lake Jackson, TX Abstract

In September 2002, Robert P. d'Aigle, RPA and Nataliya V. Hryshechko, CRC, International Archaeology & Ecology, LLC (CRC) reported the discovery and partial excavation of a prehistoric human skull approximately one mile inland from the Gulf of Mexico (Figures 1-2). This location, designated as BZT-1, is within the San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge, (US Fish and Wildlife Service) in southern Brazoria County, Texas. At the conclusion of the 2002 investigation, these human remains were designated by CRC as the site of the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman. This discovery resulted in an Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA) archaeological and geoarchaeological investigation at BZT-1 and BZT-2 in May 2003. During the year 2003, a prehistoric and nearly complete, fragmented human skeleton of a young, adult female was recovered from the locality known as BZT-1 in Brazoria County, Texas. There was no evidence of a burial shaft or other soil disturbance. There were no grave goods or positive evidence of occupation at BZT-1. This person, designated as the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman, does not appear to have been intentionally buried. The female skeleton was lying in a face down, extended position with her hands crossed in front, beneath her waist, and with a complete absence of the right tibia, fibula, and foot. The person represented by the human remains at BZT-1 appears to have been killed after her hands were tied in front of her abdomen, and then discarded into the muddy west bank of a now extinct channel of Cocklebur Slough. The BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman may have been mutilated but no strong evidence was found. Since the remains were found lying on the edge of an extinct channel of Cocklebur Slough, stream avulsion may instead account for the missing tibia, fibula, and foot. The successful radiocarbon results obtained on the petrosal from the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman by Tim Jull, NSF-Arizona AMS Facility and American Archaeology Group’s geoarchaeological and geomorphological modeling and analyses completed in September 2004 support, at a minimum, a late Pleistocene age of 10,740 years ±760 RC years BP or older for the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman. The radiocarbon years BP were calibrated to 12,780 calendar years BP with a 2 sigma (95% accuracy) range of 15,250 to 10,390 Cal BP making the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman one of the oldest, and probably the oldest, human remains ever discovered on the North and South American continents. The previous location of the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman is not recommended as eligible for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. Under the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (36 CFR 800.4), the skeletal remains of the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman, as a collection, are recommended as eligible for immediate inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places under Criteria D. The skeletal remains of the Prehistoric Woman will be permanently curated at the Center for Archaeological Research, the University of Texas, San Antonio, Texas.

i TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT i LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS ii LIST OF TABLES ii LIST OF FIGURES iii CHAPTERS

I INTRODUCTION 1 II BACKGROUND AND PREVIOUS INVESTIGATION 5 III ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND 11 IV ENVIRONMENTAL DEFINITION OF THE STUDY AREA 13 V METHODOLOGY OF THE 2003 ARPA INVESTIGATION 14 VI GEOLOGY OF BZT-1 17 VII THE HUMAN SKELETON 30 VIII SKELETAL REMAINS 37 IX NON-HUMAN REMAINS AND ARTIFACTS 43 X POLLEN ANALYSIS 46 XI INTERPRETATION OF BZT-1 DATA 51 XII CONCLUSION 58 XIII NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES 59 REFERENCES CITED 60 APPENDICES

APPENDIX I: GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL MODEL STATISTICS 64 1 APPENDIX II: COMPLETE BZT-1 SKELETAL INVENTORY WITH PRESERVATION INDEX 73 APPENDIX III: MEASUREMENTS TAKEN FROM BZT-1 SKELETAL REMAINS 77 APPENDIX IV: CALIBRATION OF RADIOCARBON AGE TO CALENDAR YEARS 86

LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS

PHOTOGRAPH 1: SEDIMENT INSIDE SKULL 7 PHOTOGRAPH 2: UNIT INUNDATION BY THE CURRENT GROUNDWATER KEVEL 14 PHOTOGRAPH 3: STRATAGRAPHIC POSITION AND ORIENTATION OF THE HUMAN REMAINS AT BZT-1 16 PHOTOGRAPH 4: AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH OF BZT-1 (2001) 22 PHOTOGRAPH 5: VENTRAL VIEW OF BZT-1 REMAINS, LABORATORY EXTRACTION 32 PHOTOGRAPH 6: LACK OF EVIDENCE OF BURIAL SHAFT, TOMB, OR OTHER DISTURBANCE IN THE BTB-HORIZON 34 PHOTOGRAPH 7: LACK OF EVIDENCE OF BURIAL SHAFT, TOMB, OR OTHER DISTURBANCE IN THE BASE OF THE BTB-HORIZON 35 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1: REGIONAL CHRONOLOGY 12 TABLE 2: ABBREVIATED INVENTORY OF BZT-1 SKELETAL ELEMENTS RECOVERED 38 TABLE 3: FAUNAL REMAINS FROM BZT-1 44 TABLE 4: INVERTEBRATES FROM BZT-1 HORIZONS 45 TABLE 5: POLLEN TAXA IDENTIFIED 48 TABLE 6: POLLEN COUNTS AND PERCENTAGES 49 TABLE 7: QUANTITATIVE AMINO ACID ANALYSES – PETROSAL 52 TABLE 8: QUANTITATIVE AMINO ACID ANALYSES – TIBIA, HUMERUS, FEMUR 54 TABLE 9: RADIOCARBON AGES FROM BZT-1 AND BZT-2 55

ii LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1: INDEX MAP 3 FIGURE 2: SITE LOCATION – TOPOGRAPHIC 1:20 4 FIGURE 3: SITE LOCATION – TOPOGRAPHIC 1:6 8 FIGURE 4: SITE LOCATION – 1940 AERIAL 9 FIGURE 5: TRENCHES AAG-BHT-3, BZT-1, AND BZT-2 24 FIGURE 6: CORE LOCATIONS A/B BH8 AND A/B BH9 25 FIGURE 7: PROFILE FOR A/B BH3, A/B BH9, AAG-BHT-3, BZT-1, AND BZT-2 26 FIGURE 8: STUDY AREA AND ABANDONED CHANNEL OF COCKLEBUR SLOUGH 27 FIGURE 9: REGIONAL CHRONOLOGY 28 FIGURE 10: PRONE FORM OF SKELETON AT BZT-1 LOCATED AT TOP OF UNIT 1 29 FIGURE 11: THE ELEMENTS OF THE HUMAN SKELETON 30

iii Chapter I

Introduction

In September 2002, Robert P. d'Aigle, RPA and Nataliya V. Hryshechko, CRC, International Archaeology & Ecology, LLC (CRC) reported the discovery of a prehistoric human skull approximately one mile inland from the Gulf of Mexico (Figures 1-2). This location, designated as BZT-1, is within the San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge, (U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service) in southern Brazoria County, Texas. At the conclusion of the 2002 investigation, these human remains were designated by CRC as the site of the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman. d’Aigle and Hryshechko (2002) reported that the human remains are potentially date to the late Pleistocene. A second location, a shell midden designated as BZT-2, is located approximately 66-meters southwest of BZT-1. This discovery resulted in an Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA) archaeological and geoarchaeological investigation at BZT-1 (41BO223) and BZT-2 (41BO215) in May 2003. Subsequent to CRC’s filing an application for an ARPA permit with the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Albuquerque, New Mexico, Dr. Michael Waters of the Center for the Study of the First Americans, Texas A&M University (CSF-TAMU) contacted CRC and requested that the CSF- TAMU be allowed to participate in this ARPA investigation. As a result, the ARPA investigation reported herein was a joint effort of CRC International Archaeology & Ecology, LLC (CRC), American Archaeology Group, LLC (AAG), and the CSF-TAMU. Robert P. d’Aigle, RPA, Michael R. Bradle, MA, Dr. Michael Waters, and Dr. Robson Bonnichsen were in direct charge of the ARPA investigation. The objectives of the May 2003 ARPA investigation were to: 1. Excavate a large area surrounding the location of the BZT-1 human remains to ensure that no other human remains are present. 2. Provide detailed analyses of the stratigraphy at BZT-1 and BZT-2. 3. Correlate the stratigraphy from BZT-1 to BZT-2. 4. Obtain additional paleoenvironmental samples. 5. Build a geomorphological model of soil development at the location of BZT-1 and BZT- 2. 6. Determine the stratigraphic position of the human skeleton at BZT-1. 7. Determine the stratigraphic position of the shell midden at BZT-2. 8. Excavate the skeleton at BZT-1. 9. Determine the method of deposition for the remains. 10. Conserve, rebuild, study, and determine the age of the skeleton. In September 2004, Michael R. Bradle and Gilbert T. Bernhardt of AAG conducted an additional geoarchaeological investigation at the location of BZT-I Prehistoric Woman. AAG’s investigation, in a team effort with CRC, focused on excavating AAG-BHT-3, a 6-meter by 9- meter by 1.65-meter deep trench, in order to expose a large expansive area. This approach to the geoarchaeological investigation fulfilled the original scope of the ARPA permit that required the excavation of a large area surrounding BZT-1 to ensure that no further human remains were present. Further, the AAG and CRC 2004 geoarcheological investigation included a detailed examination of the soil and sediment stratigraphy in an attempt to identify any subsurface microtopography, and to discern the soil composition and age of the soils and sediments. This effort was designed

1 to assimilate all of the previous data and conduct an additional, detailed geoarcheological investigation.

2 3 4 Chapter II Background and Previous Investigation

In April 1999, personnel of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) at the San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge (Refuge) in Brazoria County, Texas, encountered the top of a skull that was exposed in the sidewall of an excavated borrow ditch. Concerned that the skull may be the upper portion of a human skull, CRC was contracted in 2001 to conduct an intensive Survey and site testing investigation of the remains (d'Aigle and Hryshechko 2002). Volume 1 of the 2002 final report, Intensive Survey and Site Testing At BZT-1, San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge, Brazoria County, Texas, can be found at http://www.culturalresource.com/pan.html. Volume 2 of this report contains restricted information and is not available for public distribution. CRC personnel spent four days investigating this location in May 2001. In July 2001, CRC returned to the location, now designated as BZT-1 and under the supervision of Dr. D. Gentry Steele, Physical Anthropologist, Texas A&M University, portions of the skull, mandible, and clavicle, two cervical vertebrae, and a number of partial and complete teeth were excavated (d’Aigle and Hryshechko 2002). A Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) survey of the area was undertaken to prospect for other possible human remains and other subsurface disturbances at the location (ibid). Two geologists, Howell and Moya (Moya 2002), conducted geological studies, which included backhoe trenching and coring.. In addition, numerous sediment and soil samples were taken for analyses (Drees 2002). The recovered skeletal remains, sediment samples, and soil samples were used in a number of analyses that included: 1. Radiocarbon dating and stable carbon isotope analysis of one petrosal and one complete tooth (Jull 2002). 2. Analysis of a complete bicuspid for ancient DNA (Schmerer 2002). 3. Analysis of sediment samples circumambient to the skull for human protein residues (Puseman 2002). 4. Soil and sediment samples for texture, chemical composition, and Munsell colors (Drees 2002). 5. Stable carbon isotope analysis of a partial tooth (Tykot 2002). 6. The examination of the partial human remains (Steele 2002). In addition, one sediment sample was taken from inside the skull (Photograph 1) and one sample from the Bt2-horizon ≈25-centimeters above the skull. The sediment inside the skull consisted of 5YR 4/6 yellowish red fluvial silty sand (Drees 2002:121), which is nearly identical to the B/C- horizon 5YR 4/3 silty sand and was dated at 5,135 ±40 RC years BP (CAMS-87685). The BP (Before Present) indicates years before 1950 AD. The soil sample taken from Bt2-horizon, above the skull, was dated at 4870 ± 40 RC years BP (CAMS-87686) (Stafford 2002). In addition, d'Aigle and Hryshechko (2002) discovered and examined a shell midden found in Trench 3 that is located approximately 66-meters southwest of BZT-1 (Figures 3 and 4). This location was designated as BZT-2. Trenches 3 and 4 were excavated to determine if the extinct meander of Cocklebur Slough traced out in Figure 3 could be confirmed. This extinct meander was in line with the expected course and the west bank of the meander was exposed in both trenches. The Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) survey conducted at BZT-1 indicated no subsurface anomalies at the location of the partial human remains or in the immediately adjacent areas. Further, no evidence of other human remains was located in these areas (Moya 2002). Further

5 analysis of the GPR data, coupled with the partial excavation of the BZT-1 remains, indicated no evidence of a burial shaft or tomb associated with the partial human remains.

Photograph 1: Sediment inside skull (d’Aigle and Hryshechko 2002)

7 8 9 Based on the presence of human protein in the soil surrounding the skull (Pusemen 2002) and no apparent disturbance in the soil deposits, d'Aigle and Hryshechko (2002) determined that the body decomposed in situ. Further, it was suggested that the remainder of the human skeleton may be articulated and in a vertical position (ibid). DNA analyses on a tooth produced negative results (Schmerer 2002). These findings led d'Aigle and Hryshechko (2002:169) to suggest the preliminary excavations at the location of the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman indicated "...a death by mishap as sinking and suffocation in a muddy bog." After analysis of the skull and teeth recovered from the location, Steele (2002) determined that the remains were probably those of a female approximately 20 to 30 years of age. No artifacts or grave goods were found with the BZT-1 skull and thus the cultural affiliation could only be opined by Steele’s examination of an incisor. Stable carbon isotope analyses of a tooth fragment suggested that the person represented by these human remains might have been a resident of the Texas Gulf Coast with marine resources as part of her diet (Tykot 2002). However, the stable carbon isotope value for the dated petrosal suggested "this person was not from the Gulf Coast region and was instead from an inland, tropical region significantly distant geographically from the ocean..." (d'Aigle and Hryshechko 2002:96). This data comports with what we know about Paleoindians and their ranging ability across many environmental zones. The age of a petrosal from BZT-1 was reported to be 10,740 ±760 14C yr BP (AA-45910) and calibrated to 2-sigma (95% probability) Cal BP 15,250 to 10,390 calendar years.

The petrosal bone that was located inside the skull was 14C dated a minimum of 10,740 years ±760 RC years BP (AA45910) and yielded a bone collagen δ 13C of – 26.5‰. The soil inside the skull (BZT1L1S15) dated at a minimum of 5,135 years ±40 RC years BP (CAMS-87685) and yielded a δ13C value of –16.28‰. The soil immediately above the skull (BZT1L2S1) dated at a minimum of 4,870 years ±40 RC years BP (CAMS-87686) and yielded a δ13C value of –15.17‰. This indicates that the δ13C of the bone collagen was not contaminated by the surrounding sediment from inside or above the skull. These δ13C values are much more positive (heavier) than the -26.5‰ value for the Arizona radiocarbon date on petrous bone. Therefore, humic acid contamination of the bone organic carbon dated by Arizona is very unlikely. Humate contamination of the bone would be indicated only if the δ13C values of the humic acids were -25‰ to -30‰. If the bone is contaminated by geologically younger carbon, the contamination is not from humates. ...the possibility of degraded collagen skewing the results significantly (±0.5‰) is remote. The most likely contamination of the bone would have been with soil and sediment humates. Since we know the humic acids contain modern carbon, any humate contamination of the bone would have caused the bone RC date to be too young. Therefore, the University of Arizona bone date is either correct or the bone is even older than that 14C age (Stafford 2002:165).

10 Chapter III Archaeological Background

Archaeological Chronology In the Brazoria County Area Brazoria County is located in the Central Coastal Plain cultural-geographical region as defined by Biesaart et al (1985:76). This area is also referred to as the Southern Coastal Corridor as defined by Bailey (1987) and addressed in more detail by Mercado-Allinger et al (1996). This area is still poorly understood. The local cultural prehistoric chronology has been divided into the Historic, Late Prehistoric, Archaic, and Paleoindian (Table 1). These periods reflect changes in subsistence patterns, and technology (Patterson 1979; Aten 1983). Historic Period The early historic period in Texas began in the late 16th century with the first documented arrival of Europeans. Brazoria County is situated within the historic range of the Karankawa Indians who inhabited the area in the 16th Century (Newcomb 1986; Aten 1983). Contact period occupations are often identified by the occurrences of glass beads, gun parts, gunflints, metal projectile points, and European manufactured ceramics. Ricklis (1996) provides a thorough synthesis of the history of the Karankawa Indians. European contact with the Karankawa Indians occurred in 1528 when the Navarez Expedition became shipwrecked on Brazoria Island, in present day Brazoria County, Texas. The Karankawa Indians seized Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca and three other shipmates. Cabeza de Vaca actually lived among the Karankawa for approximately 8 years before escaping to Mexico. His journal has yielded valuable data on the Karankawa Indians (Newcomb 1986). The Karankawa Indians did not see any other Europeans until February 20, 1685, when Rene Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, a French explorer, anchored in Brazoria Bay with 300 colonists. LaSalle and his colonists moved north to Garcitas Creek in nearby Victoria County and established a French Fort called Fort Saint Louis (41VT4). Currently, the Texas Historical Commission is excavating this site, which should yield extremely valuable data on the early European adaptations to this area and their interaction with the local Karankawa Indians. Late Prehistoric Period This period has been referred to as the Neo-American Stage (Suhm et al 1954). Technological changes are the primary distinguishing characteristic of this stage. The most obvious changes that emerged at the beginning of the Late Prehistoric period is the introduction of the bow and arrow, decreased use of the atlatl or spear thrower, and the appearance of ceramic storage and service vessels (Aten 1983). Aten identified six subperiods in the Galveston Bay area, based on his ceramic seriation studies, but the Brazoria County area is still relatively unknown. Archaic Period The Archaic period is generally divided into three subperiods consisting of Early, Middle, and Late. The Early Archaic period generally ranges from approximately 6,000 B.C. to 5,000 B.C. During this time, it appears that the social organization remained similar to Paleo-Indian traditions. Projectile point styles changed and included a number of stemmed points such as Andice, Baird, Bell, and Wells (Wheat 1953; Turner and Hester 1985). The Middle Archaic period generally ranges from approximately 5,000 B.C. to 1,500 B.C. During this period, shellfish became a major source of food and indicates a seasonal collection strategy. Populations begin to increase and regional variation in artifact styles and assemblages 11 denote the formation of group territoriality (Aten 1983:155). Projectile point types indicative of this period are Bulverde, Carrollton, and Trinity (Patterson 1979). The Late Archaic period generally ranges from approximately 1,500 B.C. to A.D. 100 when ceramic storage and service vessels appear (Aten 1983:287). Populations increased significantly at this time (Aten 1983:158-159), and it is postulated that seasonal movement occurred with groups dispersing along the coastal areas during the summer months. Projectile point types indicative of this period are Ellis, Gary, Kent, Palmillas, Refugio, and Yarbrough (Turner and Hester 1985). Prehistoric cemeteries begin to appear during this time (Aten 1983). Paleoindian Period According to Willey and Phillips (1958:80), problems exist with the term “Paleoindian.” The term Paleoindian is used in this discussion although the Native American Indian has not been unequivocally proven the only Native American. Paleoindian typically refers to those cultures, which were oriented toward big game procurement adaptation. However, it has also been argued that subsistence in Clovis times, for example, Paleoindians exploited a diverse fauna base that not only included large herbivores such as mammoth, bison, and horse but also included smaller animals such as turtles, land tortoises, alligators, mice badger, and raccoon. Generally, it is believed that this period lasted from about 10,000 B.C. until 6000 B.C. Diagnostic artifacts of the period include dart types Angostura, Clovis, Folsom, and other lanceolate projectile points as defined by Suhm and Jelks (1962) and Turner and Hester (1985). These early sites are often found on old terraces of major river drainages and may be more distant from major streams than some more recent occupations. Wheat (1953), and Aten (1983) report on archaeological sites in the region representing this period.

Table 1: Regional Chronology

Calendar Years Geologic Epoch Regional Periods Years Before Present (BP)

1950 A. D. Historic 0

500-1500 A. D. Late Prehistoric 500-1,500 Late Holocene 500 A.D. – 500 B. C. Late Archaic 1,500-2,500

3000-500 B. C. Middle Archaic 2,500-5,000

6000-3000 B. C. Middle Holocene Early Archaic 5,000-8,000

9450-6000 B. C. Early Holocene* Paleoindian 8,000-11,450

13450-9450 B. C. Late Pleistocene* Early Paleoindian 11,450-15,450 Adaptations

(*Anderson and Smith 2003:349)

12 Chapter IV Environmental Definition of the Study Area

General Overview The San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge (Refuge) was established in 1968 and is administered as an integral unit of the National Wildlife Refuge System, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, for the protection and preservation of nationally and internationally important species of wildlife and their habitats. Acquisition of lands within the approved refuge boundary is not complete. As of September 30, 1977, acreage in the refuge ownership totaled 21,865 acres. It is bordered on three sides by fences and by Cedar Lake Creek on the southwestern boundary. This central Flyway refuge is located in Brazoria County, Texas between the San Bernard River and Cedar Lake Creek, approximately 70 miles southwest of Houston, Texas. Physical features of southwestern Brazoria County are described as being flat coastal prairies, drained by the San Bernard and Brazos River. Extensions of inland wooded areas reach toward the Gulf of Mexico, along major drainage systems. The climate of the upper Texas Gulf Coast is characteristic of the marine type, with comparatively uniform temperatures in all seasons and a small diurnal range. There are several ecological units on the Refuge. In the area of the current ARPA investigation, the two primary units are fresh marsh and nonsaline prairie. Fresh Marsh Open water occurs mostly within the nonsaline prairie unit. They are often dry in mid-summer, but exhibit a flora peculiar to them. The dominant species are California bulrush, longtom grass, Mexican sprangletop, barnyard millet, purple pluchea, water-lettuce, burhead, and grassy arrowhead. Many low, wet, sluggish-flowing drains and swales occur on the Refuge. Plants, which are present at this time, include Mexican devilweed, Drummond Sesbania, longtom grass, jointed flatsedge, water panicum, and switchgrass. The deeper water depressions and drains consist primarily of swamp smartweed. Nonsaline Prairie The principal ground cover on this unit consists of buffalograss, slimspike three-awn, oldfield three-awn, silver bluestem, bushy bluestem, tumblegrass, smut grass, brownseed paspalum, Texas wintergrass, and little bluestem. The dominant herbs are (the) western ragweed, narrowleaf and seacoast sumpweed, purple pleatleaf, common brownweed, and green wild indigo. Shrubs such as huisache and eastern baccaris are also found in this unit. (Reprinted with the permission of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fleetwood, Nd).

13 Chapter V Methodology of the 2003 ARPA Investigations

The ARPA investigations of BZT-1 and BZT-2 took place from May 6 to May 12, 2003. Project personnel included Robert P. d'Aigle, RPA; Nataliya V. Hryshechko; Dr. Juan Moya; Dr. Michael Waters; Dr. Robson Bonnichsen; William Dickens; Maria Parks, and Jason Wiersema. In order to remove the bones as quickly as possible, to minimize bone exposure, most of the crew generally worked 12-hour days. Personnel from the San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge assisted with the excavations. At BZT-1, a trackhoe was used to clear much of the overlying, sterile, and younger sediments from the bank of the borrow ditch and the immediately surrounding area to about 50-centimeters above the known position and elevation of the skull. The grid system established by d'Aigle and Hryshechko (2002) was reestablished and four 1 X 1- meter² units were excavated by hand. Once the skeleton was located, the remains were excavated as a feature. Excavation was made difficult by the presence of a high water table. The swimming pool pump that was brought to the investigation by Waters failed to keep water away from the excavation area (Photograph 2). As specified in the terms of the ARPA permit application, a trench box or cofferdam was to be installed to prevent water from inundating the excavations. However, Waters and Bonnichsen decided, before excavation had commenced, that the trench box installation would not be necessary. Unfortunately, rising water was a constant source of interference with the excavation and necessitated cutting numerous small, hand-troweled trenches to permit the excavation to continue.

Photograph 2: Unit inundation by the current groundwater kevel.

14 This excavation illustrated that the remains lay in a horizontal plane. Although Waters and Bonnichsen stated that, “This skeleton was found to lie exclusively within the Btb horizon about 1-cm above the BC horizon.” (2005:4), it is obvious in Photograph 3 that the remains were lying entirely within the B/C-horizon of Unit 1 and impressed approximately 1- to 2-centimeters into the base of the overlying Btb-horizon of Unit 2. All excavation of the BZT-1 skeleton was conducted with wooden hand tools to avoid causing any damage to the bones. All removed soil and sediments were water-screened through 1/8th inch perforated aluminum screen; with the exception noted below. Once the remains were uncovered, Waters and Bonnichsen dug an approximately 46 X 46-centimeter by 46-centimeter deep hole in the same location from which the skull had been removed in the 2001 excavation (Photographs 2 and 3). Although it was previously known that not all of the braincase, mandible, and possibly additional teeth, had been removed in the original investigation, (d’Aigle and Hryshechko 2002 and see Chapter VIII, Skeleton Remains) the sediments removed from this “hole” by Waters and Bonnichsen were not screened but instead were discarded. d’Aigle and Hryshechko inspected the excavated hole and attempted to recover as much as possible of the discarded soil. Less than 10% of the discarded soil was recovered. Several fragments of unidentified skull fragments were recovered from the discarded soil. Bonnichsen indicated that this hole had been dug and the soil discarded because he did not believe there were any additional remains associated with the previously removed skull fragments. The second hole, visible in top portion of the excavated unit in Photograph 3, was excavated under the direction of Waters and Bonnichsen to determine if any elements of the right patella, tibia, fibula, or foot were present. The sediment from this hole was water screened but no bone samples were found. The remains were too fragile to remove as individual elements because many of the bones appeared to be crushed or broken. As a result, portions of the skeleton, namely the trunk of the skeleton and the right femur, were pedestaled and wrapped in a hard protective plaster jacket. This jacket was then transported to the Physical Anthropology Laboratory at Texas A&M University. Exploratory Backhoe Trench In order to examine the stratigraphy adjacent to BZT-1, one mechanical trench was excavated; not two as stated by Waters and Bonnichsen (2005:28). This trench, approximately 0.75 X 5- meters and 1.5-meters deep, was excavated with a backhoe ≈20-meters behind BZT-1. The trench quickly collapsed because of the high water table and the instability of the B/C-horizon, and therefore could not be studied. Additional trenches were excavated at BZT-2 under the direction of d’Aigle and Moya. The shell midden previously discovered by d’Aigle and Hryshechko (2002) was relocated. A small portion of the shell midden was examined. The shell midden occurs throughout portions of the Btb- horizon. In some places, the midden encounters the B/C-horizon at the base of the Btb-horizon to approximately 1- to 2-cm into the B/C-horizon. The midden appears to be ≈16-meters² in diameter. Rangia cuneata dominates the midden. After water screening about one-gallon of the midden materials, a few fragments of non-human animal bones were found. A single Rangia cuneata from the midden yielded a radiocarbon age of 5,585 +40 14C yr BP (CAMS-94573). This is the only date obtained from BZT-2. Moya and Waters profiled the stratigraphy at BZT-2. (See Chapter VI Geoarchaeology of BZT-1 for an explanation of the stratigraphic profiling.)

Photograph 3: Stratagraphic Position and Orientation of the Human Remains at BZT-1.

16 Chapter VI Geoarchaeology of BZT-1

Introduction The geoarchaeological investigation of the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman is located within the San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge and is situated in southwestern Brazoria County, Texas. The study area is situated on the western Coastal Plains approximately six kilometers inland from the mid-Texas coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Modern major drainage in the area is provided by the San Bernard River, located north and roughly parallel to the study area, and New Caney Creek, located south and roughly parallel to the study area. Cocklebur Slough and Cedar Lake Creek provide local drainage. The study area is located near the confluence of Cocklebur Slough with Cedar Lake Creek and on the interfluve between Cocklebur Slough and Cedar Lake Creek. Sediments associated with the Colorado River system, particularly those centered on the San Bernard River, dominate the stratigraphy of the area. The ancestral Colorado River carved a broad deep valley during the Late Pleistocene low-stand and then aggraded its lower valley to roughly the elevation of the surrounding uplands in Late Holocene (Abbott 2001). This complex valley fill subsumed multiple meander belts that documented a series of avulsions from Middle to Late Holocene, and a series of older Deweyville terraces. Evidence of stream piracy dominates the geomorphology of the study area. This was either the result of stream piracy by a headward eroding coastal stream or by simple diversion into a relict coarse-grained meander belt associated with the Beaumont deltaic system (Aslan and Blum 1999). The objectives of the 2004 geoarchaeological investigation were twofold. 1. To spatially and chronologically delineate the alluvial environments of deposition, and 2. To assess the influences of these environments on the spatial and temporal distribution of the archaeological record. Methods The late Quaternary record of the study area was constructed from the following sources: 1. Three backhoe trenches of which two were analyzed by CRC (BZT-1 and BZT-2) and one analyzed by AAG (AAG-BHT-3) (Figure 5); 2. Two Cores (Figures 6 and 7) from a study by Aslan and Blum (1999); 3. The Cedar Lane NE 7.5 minute quadrangle topographic map (U.S. Geologic Survey 1972), The Cedar Lane 7.5 minute quadrangle topographic map (U.S. Geologic Survey 1972), and the Sweeny 7.5 minute quadrangle topographic map (U.S. Geologic Survey 1972); 4. The Geologic Atlas of Texas, Houston Sheet (Fisher 1982) and Geologic Atlas of Texas, Beeville-Bay City Sheet (Fisher 1975); 5. The Soil Survey of Brazoria County, Texas (Crenwelge et al 1981); and, 6. The computer program EPIC, an erosion/productivity impact calculator (Williams et al 1984). A large trench (AAG-BHT-3) 6-meters by 9-meters by 1.65-meters deep was excavated and analyzed by AAG. The selected study localities are shown in Figures 1 and 2. The baseline for the cross-section was established roughly along the interfluvial divide between Cocklebur Slough

17 and Cedar Lake Creek (Figures 6 and 7). The backhoe trenches were placed to sample the differing stratigraphy and geomorphological features represented in the study area. The alluvial stratigraphic chronology was based on modeling, the degree of soil development, topographic location, and correlation to other coastal Texas alluvial stream histories. Model Development Agriculture Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture (Williams et al. 1984) developed an Erosion/Productivity Impact Calculator (EPIC). They further developed a Model 1 that achieved the following goals: 1. Physically based and capable of simultaneously and realistically simulating the processes involved in erosion by using readily available inputs; 2. Capable of simulating the processes as they would occur over hundreds and thousands of years; 3. Applicable to a wide range of soils, climates and crops encountered in the United States; and, 4. Computationally efficient, convenient to use, and capable of assessing the effects of environmental and ecological changes on erosion and soil productivity. The Brazoria soil series were modeled for this study (Figure 5). The model duration was set for 1,450 years. The climate was set to mimic current conditions of upper central Coastal Texas from statistical probabilities derived from long-term weather information at the Matagorda Weather Station. The crop was set for range conditions with dense, high grasses and grazing set at 20 % utilization. The grasslands were managed by periodic random burns and short periods of over grazing. Actual model inputs and average annual outputs for a number of variables are shown in Appendix I. Modeling indicated that the average rate of erosion for Brazoria soils for upper central coastal Texas was 0.0012685 meters per year. Stratigraphy Modern evolution of the study site’s landscape began in late Pleistocene between 12,000 years BP and 11,000 years BP (Before Present 1956) with the deposition of Holocene sediments on Deweyville Strata. In the study area, these sediments were deposited upon the Deweyville interfluve (Figure 7) between Caney Creek and the San Bernard River (Aslan and Blum 1999: 203). The boundary between the High Deweyville surface and Holocene deposits have been denoted as the Post Deweyville stratigraphic boundary in Figure 7. The lower portion of the Holocene sediments (denoted as Unit 1) probably accumulated rapidly under the influence of a frequently shifting and avulsing channel, while the upper portion of the Holocene sediments (denoted as Unit 2) accumulated more slowly due to more stable meandering channels (Figure 7). General stratigraphic description of the Holocene sediments of Unit 1 (flood basin clay) and Unit 2 (bioturbated silt and sand) are based on cores 8 and 9 of a series of 12 cores (Figures 6 and 7) taken along FM 521 west of Brazoria, Texas, by Aslan and Blum (1999: 203). There are two basic soil series associated with their respective geomorphic locations found within the San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge study area (Figure 5): 1. Brazoria series consists of nearly level to gently sloping, somewhat poorly drained, nonsaline soils. Brazoria soils formed in recent clayey fluvial deposits; and, 2. Surfside clay consists of deep, nearly level, poorly drained, saline soils. These soils formed in marshes on recent clayey fluvial deposits (Crenwelge et al. 1981).

18 Unit 1, located lower in the Brazoria soil profile includes the Cb horizon of AAG-BHT-3, and the B/C horizons of BZT 1 and BZT 2 and are described below. Unit 2 overlies Unit 1 and includes horizons A, Btk1, Btk2, and Ab of AAG-BHT-3 (Figure 7) and horizons A, Bt1, Bt2, C, and Btb of BZT 1 and BZT 2. The lithology of the three excavations are discussed below are described below. Lithology Backhoe trench AAG-BHT-3 was described by Bernhardt (AAG) and is the locus of our recent work. AAG-BHT-3 is adjacent to BZT-1. BZT-1, the location of the human remains, and BZT- 2, the location of the shell midden, were also described by Waters and Bonnichsen (2005). All trenches were located within the Brazoria map unit. The Brazoria Series (Figures 1-3) was described by the Soil Conservation Service as a thermic Typic Chromuderts (Crenwelge et al 1981). At AAG-BHT-3, Unit 2, the 48 centimeter thick A-horizon consists of a reddish brown (5YR 3/2) silty clay. The horizon has medium granular and medium subangular blocky structure with clear smooth lower boundary. The A-horizon has a few pitted CaCO3 nodules. The A-horizon overlies a 40-centimeter thick, dark reddish brown (5YR 3/3), silty clay, Btk1-horizon, with medium subangular blocky structure and abundant krotovina. The Btk1-horizon has a gradual smooth lower boundary and a few CaCO filaments and nodules. The Btk1-horizon overlies a 26- 3 centimeter thick, dark reddish brown (5YR 3/4), silty clay, Btk2-horizon with fine and medium subangular blocky structure with a few slickensides and abundant krotovina. The horizon contains few CaCO filaments and nodules. The Bt2-horizon has a wavy abrupt unconformable 3 lower boundary. The Btk2-horizon overlies a 20-centimeter thick, dark brown (7.5YR 3/2), silty clay, Ab-horizon with a fine and medium prismatic structure and a few krotovina. This horizon contains few CaCO filaments and nodules. The Ab-horizon has a clear wavy unconformable 3 lower boundary. The Ab-horizon overlies a 31-centimeter thick, dark reddish brown (5YR 3/4), silty clay, Cb-horizon, Unit 1, with fine and medium subangular blocky structure, and a few slickensides. The horizon contains few to abundant CaCO filaments and nodules, dark clay filled 3 krotovina, and many tan mottles. The trench ended at 1.65-meters in depth below the surface. At BZT-1 (Waters and Bonnichsen 2005), in Unit 2, the 2-centimeter thick A-horizon consists of a dark gray (10YR 4/1), silty clay. The horizon has massive structure with clear smooth lower boundary. The A-horizon has a few pitted CaCO nodules. The A-horizon overlies a 36- 3 centimeter thick, very dark gray (10YR 3/1), silty clay, Bt1-horizon with medium to coarse subangular blocky structure and clay film on peds. The Bt1-horizon has a transitional lower boundary and CaCO nodules. The Bt1-horizon overlies a 24-centimeter thick, dark grayish 3 brown (10YR 4/2), silty clay, Bt2-horizon with medium to coarse subangular blocky structure, slickensides, and clay films. The Bt2-horizon has a transitional lower boundary. The Bt2- horizon overlies an 11-centimeter thick, dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4), silty clay, B/C- horizon with massive structure. The B/C-horizon overlies a 20-centimeter thick, strong brown (7.5YR 4/6), silty clay, C-horizon with micro granular structure, greenish gray (5 GY 5/1) redox mottles, clay film on peds, and krotovina. The C-horizon overlies a gray (10YR 5/1), silty clay, Btb horizon with massive structure, dark gray mottles, and clay film on peds. The Btb-horizon overlies the Unit 1, 10-centimeter thick, yellowish red (5YR 4/6), silty clay, B/C-horizon, with massive structure and krotovinas. The horizon contains 3 to 5 percent CaCO filaments and 3 nodules, dark clay filled krotovina, and many tan mottles. The excavation ended at 1.45-meters below the surface.

19 At BZT-2 (Waters and Bonnichsen 2005), in Unit 2 the 4-centimeter thick A-horizon consists of a dark gray (10YR 4/1) silty clay. The horizon has massive structure with transitional lower boundary. The A-horizon overlies a 30-centimeter thick, very dark gray (10YR 3/1), silty clay, Bt1-horizon with microgranular structure and a transitional lower boundary. The Bt1-horizon overlies a 27-centimeter thick, dark gray (10YR 4/1), silty clay, Bt2 horizon with clay film on peds and krotovina. The Bt2- horizon has a wavy, transitional, lower boundary. The Bt2-horizon overlies an 18-centimeter thick, yellowish brown (10YR 5/8), silty clay, B/C-horizon with massive structure and transitional lower boundary. The B/C-horizon overlies a 40-centimeter thick, light brownish gray (10YR 6/2), silty clay, C-horizon with massive structure, red (10YR 4/8) redox mottles, fine clay film on peds, and many vertical krotovinas filled with clay from above. The C-horizon overlies silty clay, Btb-horizon with granular structure, dark gray to dark yellowish brown mottles, and clay film on peds. The Btb-horizon overlies the Unit 1, 11- centimeter thick, dark brown (7.5YR 3/4), silty clay, B/C-horizon, with massive structure and krotovinas. The trench ended at 1.75-meters below the surface. Waters and Bonnichsen originally described Unit 1 and Unit 2 during the 2003 ARPA investigation (ibid). They placed the division between the two Units at the top of the paleosol, denoted with the lowercase letter b in the above soil descriptions. In this report, the bottom of the paleosol defines the limits of Unit 1 and Unit 2. The bottom of the paleosol was chosen because the sediments above and below this zone are separated by an unconformity discussed below. Differences in the three trenches are due mainly to differences in interpretation of soil color and differences in horizon nomenclature. There was general agreement between the three descriptions on the location of the paleosol horizon, texture of the horizons, general solum structure, clay film on peds, and krotovina. The main differences were in description of Unit 2. This is due mainly to stratigraphy. Unit 2 at BZT-1 and BZT-2 is located in a clay plugged meander channel. The evidence for the abandoned channel is seen in Photograph 4 and Figure 8. The darker colors and redox features in the lower horizon of Unit 2 imply a reduced environment due to water saturation. Unit 2 at AAG-BHT-3 is composed of overbank sediments. The redder colors imply an oxidized environment and a more abundant presence of calcium carbonate indicated water movement up and down the solum due to a fluctuating water table. The B/C horizons described by Waters and Bonnichsen (2005) for BZT-1 and BZT-2 indicated a soil that has not developed and a soil with both clearly defined B- and C-horizons, as found in AAG- BHT-3 (Bettis 1992). Chronology Modeling of the Brazoria soils suggest modern evolution of the study site began with the deposition of Unit 1 flood basin clays on the Deweyville Formation (Figure 7) approximately 11,360 years before present (BP). The regional chronology is shown in Figure 9. The temperature of the upper Texas Coast was warm with warm temperate forest prevailing (Adams 2003). In addition, eustatic sea level was rising to an elevation approximately 63 meters lower than present day elevations. This was followed by a sea level regression that reached an elevation approximately 100 meters below present mean sea level around 8,000 years BP (Rice 1988; Abbott 2001). Modeling indicates that the division of Unit 1 flood basin silty clays found below the base of the paleosol horizon and Unit 2 bioturbated silt and sand above the base of the paleosol occurred about 8,000 years BP. The prone form of a human skeleton found in upper Unit 1 was located in the upper B/C-horizon and impressed approximately 1 to 2-centimeters into the Btb-horizon at the base of Unit 2 (Figure 10). Radiocarbon 14 dating of a human petrosal yielded an age of 10,740 ±760 14C yr BP (AA-45910). The intercept of a radiocarbon age with the calibration 20 curve for the petrosal bone yielded calibrated results of 12,870 calendar years BP. In addition, Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory gave a 95% probability that the petrosal bone has a calibrated age ranging from 10,390 to 15,250 years Cal BP calendar years (Appendix III). The soils around and in the upper skull in the Btb-horizon of BZT-1 yielded a 14C date of 5,135 years ±40 RC years BP and a Rangia Cuneata shell found in a midden within the Btb-horizon of BZT 2 yielded a 14C date of 5,585 years ±40 RC years BP. The 14C dating difference implies that an erosional unconformity of a minimum age of 3,000 years occurred between Units 1 and 2. The unconformity lies between the Cb- and Ab-horizon of AAG-BHT-3 indicating that erosion had removed approximately 3,000 years of soil deposits. Between 8,000 years and 5,000 years BP, temperatures were warming and sea level was rising. Streams in the area were adjusting to rising base levels and increased flow by meandering resulting in avulsion and redeposition of sediments (Abbott 2001). Aronow suggested that present sea level is generally estimated to have stabilized between 3,500 and 5,000 years BP (Crenwelge et al. 1981). The sediments deposited from 8,000 years BP to 5,000 years BP were stripped down to the top of Unit 1. This is the erosional unconformity discussed above. The unconformity was possibly due either to avulsion by streams or erosion because of isostatic adjustment of the coast to basinal deposition. The sea level stabilized and a thin alluvial veneer was deposited over Unit 1 and soil developed (the paleosol) on the alluvial sediment veneer approximately 5,000 years ago. A stream, probably a mid-Holocene channel of Cocklebur Slough, was located within a portion of the study area. BZT-1 and BZT-2 were excavated within the channel of this slough. AAG-BHT- 3 was excavated on the ancestral floodplain of this channel and adjacent to BZT-1. Apparently, additional alluvial deposition ensued. The mid-Holocene channel was pirated by the present channel of Cocklebur slough. Evidence for the meander is seen in the aerial photograph of the project area (Photograph 4). This channel and its mid-Holocene floodplain were then filled slowly and continuously until present by silty clay flood sediments. Based on this evidence, there does not appear to be a correlation between the human skeleton found in the very upper Unit 1 at BZT 1 and the shell midden found at basal Unit 2 of BZT 2 as previously postulated by Waters and Bonnichsen (2005). Geoarchaeology At the time of Unit 1 deposition, the sediments were probably deposited on a wide meander belt of the ancestral Colorado River (Abbott 2001). These clay sediments were gently deposited and were part of a floodplain environment. Therefore, they would have a high probability of containing buried assemblages of Paleoindian sites. Unit 1 was found only in the subsurface of AAG-BHT-3, BZT-1, and BZT-2. Unit 2 is located on a silty clay interfluve between Cocklebur slough and Cedar Lake Creek. Locally, especially areas adjacent to abandoned meanders, the sediments would have a high probability of containing buried assemblages of artifacts ranging from Early Archaic to Historic times. Because of the slow deposition of sediments during Unit 2, it is doubtful, that locally, the surface would contain sites spanning Early Archaic to present. However, in undisturbed topographically high areas within the San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge, it may be possible to find intact, undisturbed, assemblages of artifacts dating to no later than late Prehistoric times. Unfortunately, even this may not be likely due to high storm surge in the local area. U. S. Army Corp of Engineers has reported storm surges that have elevated bay levels by almost 4.5 meters. While a Category 5 hurricane could be expected to result in storm surge greater than six meters (Abbott 2001).

21 BZT-1 (2001)

Photograph 4: Aerial Photograph of BZT-1 (2001).

22 Conclusions The stratigraphic record in the study area conditions the spatial and temporal distribution of the archaeological record, whereas environments of deposition influence site forming processes and preservation potentials. Stratigraphy, modeling, and 14C dating have dated the upper portion of Unit 1 to be minimally 8,000 years BP, while radiocarbon dating of a midden (BZT-2) and soil humate from the paleosol at the base of Unit 2 (BZT-1) have yielded dates of approximately 5,000 years BP. The conclusion is there was an unconformity between the deposition of Unit 1 and Unit 2 that minimally spans 3,000 years indicating erosion of soil deposits located directly above the BZT-1 human remains. This unconformity is most probably due to avulsion of meandering stream channels. After sea levels stabilized at their current elevations around 5,000 years BP, deposition has continued uninterrupted to the present. The soil modeling parallels the results of the radiocarbon date of the soils found within the cranium of the BZT-1 remains. The avulsion process appears to explain the differences of radiocarbon dates from the soil within the cranium and the petrosal recovered from the same cranium. Unit 1 was found only in subsurface deposits. These sediments were deposited in large flood basins. Due to marshy conditions within the San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge, where accessible, it is possible to find buried assemblages of Paleoindian sites. Unit 2 is located on a clayey interfluve between Cocklebur slough and Cedar Lake Creek. Locally, especially areas adjacent to abandoned meanders, these deposits would have a high probability of containing buried assemblages ranging from Early Archaic to Historic periods. Locating undisturbed surface assemblages of deposits is problematic due to high storm surge along the coast. Dating soil stratigraphy based on the degree of soil development, topographic location and correlation to other coastal Texas alluvial stream histories are problematic. Future studies should incorporate more computer modeling, additional radiocarbon dating, and more detailed soil- stratigraphic descriptions from soil borings within the geographical region to help elucidate and expand upon archaeological research and geoarchaeological theories. Larger and more expansive areas should be excavated or cored to provide larger subsurface stratigraphic profiles. This will allow for a more detailed analysis of localized soil development and depositional processes.

29 Chapter VII The Human Skeleton

This section discusses the techniques used to preserve and analyze the human remains and is followed by a discussion of mortuary characteristics (information regarding the deposition of the remains) and the orientation of the remains within the sediment. An inventory of the remains and a discussion of its taphonomy are then provided. This is followed by a discussion of the biological characteristics of the remains, including sex, age, stature, and biological affinity. Finally, the health of the individual is discussed, the stable carbon isotope results are evaluated, and the geological age of the skeleton is projected. Figure 11, below, is provided as an aid to understanding the elements of the human skeleton.

Figure 11: The Elements of the Human Skeleton.

30 Extraction, Preservation, and Analysis of the Human Remains To facilitate the successful removal of the remains from the extremely wet sediment within which they were embedded, the remains were excavated in the field only enough to account for each skeletal element. The sediment surrounding the skeleton was removed leaving the skeleton situated atop a pedestal. The entire pedestal was then encased in plaster. After the plaster was dry, the pedestal was undercut and a piece of plywood was placed beneath it. Following their recovery, the BZT-1 remains were delivered to the Physical Anthropology Laboratory on the campus of Texas A&M University. Waters and Bonnichsen removed the skeleton from the casing within which its was transported from the field. d’Aigle, as the third Principal Investigator, was not notified or allowed to participate. Removal of the remains from their plaster encasement commenced immediately after their arrival at the lab to prevent further damage by the shrinking soils in which they were embedded. A striker saw was used to cut through the plaster cast and expose the remains. Once exposed, the remains were cleaned, and the exposed surface treated with PVA to prevent further fragmentation. Samples for radiocarbon dating and other potential future analyses were removed before the PVA was applied. After the exposed surface of the remains was consolidated, a layer of thin plastic was laid over them. Sand was poured over the plastic and enclosed within it to create sand "mattress" atop the bones. A layer of foam was laid on top of the sand layer, followed by a second piece of plywood. The entire unit was wrapped in duct tape to facilitate its 180° rotation. After being rotated, the duct tape and plywood which was originally located beneath the skeleton, was located above the skeleton, leaving approximately eight inches of silty clay from the B/C- horizon that was on the on top of the remains. This silty clay was removed with care to recover any artifacts or skeletal elements that may have been present. Once these bones were fully exposed, their surfaces were treated with PVA in the same way as the other side, again with the exception of samples reserved for radiocarbon dating and other potential, future analyses. After the appropriate remains were consolidated with PVA, all remains were photographed, inventoried, and removed individually from the sand. It is unknown, and remains unexplained, why Waters and Bonnichsen (2005) removed the left tibia, fibula, and foot before encasing the remains in the plaster jacket (Photograph 5). Further, there was no explanation given by Waters and Bonnichsen (ibid.) for cutting a section from the right femur (Photograph 5) before the remains were removed from the case. Portions of the left femur, tibia, and fibula were removed and sent to Stafford Research Laboratories for radiocarbon dating (Michael Waters, Texas A&M University, per, comm. August 14, 2004). The remaining bones were stabilized with Polyvinyl Acetate (PVA). Despite d’Aigle’s repeated requests to Waters and Bonnichsen for photographs of the elements as they were removed from the case or screened, Photograph 5 was the only photograph provided by Waters. After the extraction of the bones from the plaster cast, extensive cleaning, and reconstruction were undertaken for approximately four months. With the exception of the ribs, vertebrae, sternum, and scapulae, every bone surface was cleaned of any adherent sediment to facilitate trauma and pathological analysis. This process was not possible for the ribs, vertebrae, sternum, and scapulae given their fragile condition, and as a result, those remains were left within the sediments. Following reconstruction and inspection of the skeletal remains for evidence of pathology, measurements were taken from the postcranial skeleton. The data collected from the remains were used to develop a biological profile. Sex, age, and stature were estimated using standard accepted osteological techniques. Because a portion of the 31

Photograph 5: Ventral view of BZT-1 remains, laboratory extraction.

32 diagnostic skeletal and all of the dental material recovered during the 2001 investigation had previously been consumed by DNA, isotope, and radiocarbon analyses (d'Aigle and Hryshechko 2002), very few data were available for collection with regard to biological affinity. A few, very small skull fragments were recovered during the 2003 investigation. Deposition Characteristics During the initial excavation in 2001, the arrangement of the cranial remains and their particular association with the upper cervical spine, led Steele (2002) to suggest that the BZT-1 remains may have been oriented in an upright position, perhaps with the legs flexed. Upon excavation of the remainder of the skeleton in May 2003 however, it became evident that the remains were instead oriented roughly north south, head to south with foot to north, in an extended, horizontal, face down position, with the hands crossed beneath the abdomen. The orientation of the remains correlates to the orientation and location of the west bank of the extinct channel of Cocklebur Slough. These and other characteristics of the deposition of the remains initially may have been suggestive of a deliberate interment, rather than an accidental one as previously indicated (d’Aigle and Hryshechko 2002). There were, however, no indications of a burial tomb, shaft, or other prehistoric or historic disturbances during the 2001and 2003 investigation. (See Photograph 3 for the soil profile in which the skeleton lay and Photographs 6 and 7). The yellowish red (5YR 4/6) silty clay of the B/C-horizon in Unit 1 also can be seen in Photograph 7. Further, there were no grave goods or positive evidence of occupation found during the 2001 or 2003 investigations.

Photograph 6: Lack of evidence for burial shaft, tomb, or other disturbance in the Btb-horizon (Unit 2).

Photograph 7: Lack of evidence for burial shaft, tomb, or other disturbance in the base of the Btb-horizon (Unit 2).

35 Further, consultations with Dr. James Adovasio in regard to this issue led him to the conclusion that, I do not believe that water table movement alone would erase indications of a burial shaft, nor do I believe that in that sort of environment a paleosol could be reconstituted to the point that an intrusive pit was obscured. (James Adovasio, Director, Mercyhurst Archaeological Research Institute, Mercyhurst College, Pennsylvania, Pers. comm. February 9, 2005).

Chapter VIII Skeletal Remains Jason Wiersema Department of Anthropology (Student) Texas A&M University (Edited by Robert P. d’Aigle, RPA, Principal Investigator)

A nearly complete but partially fragmented human skeleton was recovered over the course of two separate archaeological excavations (Figures 13 and 14, and Photograph 7). During the excavations of 2001, a portion of the skull and mandible, a number of partial and complete teeth, two cervical vertebrae, and a small part of a clavicle were recovered. During the 2003 excavations, the remainder of the skeleton, with the exception of the right tibia, fibula, and foot, was excavated. Table 2 provides a summary inventory of the skeletal remains recovered from the 2003 investigations and elements from the 2001 excavations that remained after submission of portions of the skull and all of the teeth to various laboratories for DNA, human protein, isotope, and dating analyses. A detailed skeletal inventory is given in Appendix II with measurements of these remains provided in Appendix III. The majority of the elements of the skeleton were in nearly anatomical position. However, the right tibia, fibula, and foot were conspicuously missing at excavation. The partial absence of the scapulae, sternum, small hand bones, and the small bones of the left foot probably resulted from postmortem taphonomic influence.

Table 2: Abbreviated inventory of BZT-1 skeletal elements

Anatomical Region Skeletal Elements

Small isolated fragments of the frontal, parietals, occipital, temporals, Cranium maxilla, zygomatics, and mandible.

Fragmented portion of the cervical spine and complete but fragmented Vertebral column thoracic and lumbar spine.

Thorax Portions of most ribs and sternum Fragments of both clavicles, and right scapula. Fragmented distal 2/3 Pectoral girdle and of both humerii. Both radii and ulnae complete but fragmented. upper limbs Numerous elements of both hands (both almost completely represented).

Complete, but fragmented left and right innominates and sacrum. Pelvic girdle and Complete but fragmented left and right femora. Fragmented left tibia lower limbs and fibula. The right tibia, fibula, and foot were missing. Most elements of the left foot were represented but in fragmented condition.

Taphonomy The high level of fragmentation of the remains probably are the result of postmortem expansion and contraction from the clay matrix of the Btb-horizon of Unit 1 that overlaid the remains, as well as their inundation by the rising and falling water table. There was no evidence of scavenging by any animals. Root etching was noted to only a few skeletal elements, but resulted in only minor damage to the bone surfaces. There was no evidence of burning or cremation on the skull fragments recovered from the 2001 investigation (Steele 2002). That a slight portion of the top of the cranium was protruding from the B/C-horizon of Unit 1 into the Btb-horizon of Unit 2 appears to be evidence of stream avulsion and channel plug deposition. The unconformity discussed in Chapter VI indicates that at least 3,000 years of sediments were eroded, thus causing an erosional feature into the Btb-horizon and exposing a very small portion of an intact human cranium. Under magnification, the cortical surfaces of most of the skeletal elements display evidence of long-term chemical and mechanical degradation. The articular ends of the each of the long bones was less completely preserved than the diaphyseal portions due to the lesser density of the bone in these areas. Little postmortem dislocation of skeletal elements was evident, even of the small bones of the hands. Although there was no visible evidence of trauma to the distal right femur, which is in close anatomical proximity to the missing elements (right tibia, fibula, and foot), it should be noted, however, that many of the joint surfaces were not sufficiently preserved to rule out the presence of trauma. There were no observable cut marks or other trauma to the remainder of the skeleton. Dark staining was present on numerous elements and was often associated with areas with attached calcium carbonate concretions. 38

Biological characteristics Sex Sex estimation was made largely based on pelvic morphology, with supportive evidence from the remainder of the skeleton, most notably cranial characteristics. The series of above mentioned taphonomic factors complicated estimation of the sex of the skeleton from the coxal bones. However, a number of important sex-related characteristics were available for analysis. The left and right greater sciatic notches for example were very wide and shallow relative to both the teaching and archaeological collections housed at Texas A&M University, a characteristic typical of females. The rugosity of the auricular surface of the right innominate was also consistent with a female. Additionally, a small pre-auricular sulcus was noted on the right innominate, another trait most commonly associated with females. Analysis of the cranial remains also yielded information regarding the sex of the individual. The overall muscularity of the skull, primarily of the mastoid and occipital areas, was consistent with female. The upright profile of the frontal bone was also suggestive of a female sex estimate. The extent of gonial eversion present on the portion of the mandible was minimal and consistent with a female. Finally, the supra-orbital margin was fairly narrow and sharp lending further support to the female sex interpretation. Measurement of the maximum femoral head diameter yielded a value considerably below the threshold for distinction between males and females, providing further support of a female sex determination. These individual characters are all supported by the relatively small size and nominal muscularity of the remains as a whole. Age As indicated by the complete fusion of all of the available epiphyses in the skeleton, the BZT1 remains are those of an adult. Few elements were available to narrow the age range. The sternal rib ends and the pubic symphysis for example, sustained sufficient postmortem damage to preclude their use in age estimation. The right auricular surface, however, was carefully extracted from the fragmented remains of the pelvis. The technique devised by Lovejoy et al (1985) for age estimation from the auricular surface was utilized. The result was the classification of the BZT-1 remains into phase two. According to Lovejoy et al (1985), this stage of degeneration is typical of individuals between the ages of 25 and 29. The lack of degenerative changes to the joint surfaces supports the notion that the BZT-1 remains are those of a young adult within this age range. The extent of occlusal dental wear apparent on the dentition, though severe, is consistent with other central and southeast Texas Archaic skeletal remains of the same approximate age. A reasonable age estimate of the individual, based collectively on all indicators, is between the ages of 20 and 30 years. Stature The size and stature of the BZT-1 skeleton is, even upon cursory visual inspection very small. However, reliable estimation of the stature of the individual was made difficult by the fragmented condition of the bones. Stature was estimated using measurements of the nearly complete left femur. The estimate was made utilizing Steele (1970) in conjunction with Genovese's (1967) formula devised for stature estimation of Mesoamerican females. For comparative purposes, the maximum length of the left femur was calculated three times using the three available segments (segments 1, 2, and 4). In each case, the maximum length of the femur was extrapolated using discriminate functions derived by Steele (1970) from a sample of Anglo American females:

39 Segment 1: 0.62 (6.8) + 38.21 = 42.426 + 2.15 centimeters Segment 2: 0 .93 (21.9) + 19.05 = 39.417 + 1.03 centimeters Segment 4: 4.23 (4.3) + 27.63 = 45.819 + 2.49 centimeters Segments 1-2: 1.04 (6.8) + 1.04 (21.9) + 8.80 = 38.648 + 0.63 centimeters The results differed within a range of approximately 7-centimeters depending on the segments used. The final stature was calculated from the function which incorporated both segments 1 and 2 because the margin of error is smaller, and the result is likely most reflective of true stature. Genovese's (1967) formula derived for use with Mesoamerican females was then used to calculate the stature of the individual: -2.59 (38.638) + 49.742 = 149.792 + 3.816-centimeters. Because Genovese' formula is based on a cadaveral sample, 2.5-centimeters were subtracted from the value that resulted from Genovese' formula to account for the postmortem change in stature that noted by Trotter and Gleser (1952) in cadaver populations. Following this correction, the living stature of the BZT-1 female is estimated to have been approximately 1.47-meters ±5.2- centimeters, or approximately 4.8-foot tall. The result compares favorably to the females in Genovese's Mesoamerican sample, but should be considered a rough approximation given the unknown membership in the reference populations. Biological affinity Assessing the specific ancestry of ancient remains is often a population rather than an individual level concern. Thus, comparison of the ancestral traits of a single specimen to multiple other individuals of similar geographic and temporal affiliation is the most favorable means to shed light on the likely affinity of a single individual. Skeletally, ancestry is a characteristic that is nearly completely limited to variation in cranial shape and dental form. Ideally, comparison of 11 the BZT-1 cranial and dental remains to others of similar affiliations might have shed light on its own place in the classification of early Americans. Unfortunately, the fragmentary condition of the cranial remains precluded the meaningful evaluation of these variables. Even following reconstruction of the available cranial elements, ancestry estimation was impossible due to the absence of metric and non-metric variables available for evaluation. No dental material was available at the time of analysis for morphologic and morphometric analysis. However, Steele (2002:150) reports that one of the lateral incisors showed "...extreme shoveling..." typical of North American Indian or Asian population affinity. Osteopathology Degenerative disease Degenerative joint disease is the most common disorder afflicting joint surfaces in both archaeological and contemporary populations (Ortner and Putschar 1981). Thorough inspection of all of the available joint surfaces revealed no evidence of arthritic activity or other degenerative disease including lipping, eburnation, porosity, or new bone deposition. It should be noted, however that many of the joint surfaces were not preserved sufficiently to rule out the presence of minute degenerative changes. It should also be noted that the vertebral column, a frequent site of degenerative disease including arthritis and others, was not preserved sufficiently to evaluate its condition with regard to these types of changes. Metabolic and Hematologic Disorders The skeletal material was generally free of evidence of either metabolic or hematologic disorders including scurvy, rickets, or anemia, with the exception of areas of porotic hyperostosis lesions and minimal thickening of portions of the frontal bone. The appearance of the lesions was 40

consistent with having resulted from a past insult from which the individual fully recovered. The presence of lesions of this type is increasingly thought to be indicative of an individual who underwent an episode of iron-deficient anemia as a child sufficient to result in the proliferation of marrow cavities within the diploe of cranial bones (Stuart-MacAdam 1989). Infection Periostitis and osteitis are indicators of localized trauma or infection that are often used to make generalized inferences about stress level. Periosteal lesions appear as plaques or abnormally porous deposits on bone surfaces, and osteitis as areas in which the bone has itself responded to local trauma or infection with swelling, and often associated periostitis. Lesions of this type are most commonly noted on the bones of the skull (often sinuses), as well as the bones of the lower legs, which are unusually prone to local trauma. Complete inspection all of the BZT-1 skeletal elements yielded no evidence of localized infection in the form of periostotic bone growth. There was also no evidence of bony response in the form of osteitis. Trauma A thorough inspection of the available skeleton was undertaken in an attempt to locate any evidence of antedeposition trauma, blunt force, and sharp projectile whether accidental or otherwise. Included in this assessment was a visual examination for evidence of both deliberate violent trauma and accidental trauma including occupation or activity related fractures. No evidence of trauma was noted on any element of the skeleton. However, many of the joint surfaces were not preserved sufficiently to rule out the presence of minute evidence of antedeposition trauma. Neoplasms, Improper Ossification Detailed inspection of the entire BZT-1 skeleton revealed no evidence of neoplastic bone growth, benign or malignant. There also was no evidence of abnormal bone growth in terms of ossification, or in the age-related closure of the various long bone diaphyses. Dental health All pathologic inferences made from the teeth were based on photographs taken by d'Aigle because all teeth removed during the 2001 investigation were submitted for either dating or DNA analysis (d'Aigle and Hryshechko 2002:88). Dental Wear A large number of the teeth showed signs of extensive use wear as indicated in photographs taken in 2001 (d’Aigle and Hryshechko 2002:88). In spite of the extensive wear to each of the teeth, little resorption to the recovered alveolar bone was noted suggesting that the individual likely maintained much of her adult dentition at the time of her death. The wear to the 1st and 2nd left maxillary premolars and the left 1st and 2nd maxillary molars was sufficient to completely penetrate the enamel and expose the underlying dentin. The degree of wear was greater in the premolars and the 1st molar than in the 2nd molar. This may be due to their more lengthy exposure to abrasive agents related to their earlier eruption. The third molar showed little or no signs of wear in contrast to the remainder of the dentition. The posteriorly increasing degree of wear lends support to the age estimate made above. Dental Calculus and Caries It was not possible to definitively evaluate the extent to which the teeth displayed evidence of caries lesions or calculus accumulations in the photograph of the teeth. However, no significant 41 calculus was clearly visible on the BZT-1 dentition, which would indicate that minimal if any calculus was present. Steele reports that no evidence of hyperplasias or caries was observed on the teeth (2002:160).

Chapter IX Non-Human Remains and Artifacts

Vertebrate Faunal Non-human vertebrate faunal remains were recovered during the excavation and delivered to the Physical Anthropology Laboratory at Texas A&M University. Jason Wiersema, using the zooarchaeology comparative collection housed at Texas A&M University, identified the elements. Identification was made to the lowest specific level of taxonomy. Each specimen was inspected thoroughly for any evidence of cultural modification, including cut marks, other trauma, and discoloration from exposure to fire. Approximately 150 skeletal fragments representing a variety of mammal species were recovered and analyzed from the Bt1-, Bt2-, and C-horizons of Unit 2 (Table 3). The majority of the elements represented small mammal species. Large mammals, including members of the cervidae family were also well represented. The remains showed no signs of cultural modification such as cut marks or breakage. Six fragments from the Bt1-, Bt2-, and C-horizons of Unit 2 were calcined (heated until it oxidized). Invertebrate Remains Fourteen invertebrate remains were recovered during the 2003 excavation (Table 4). D. Gentry Steele identified these remains. One terrestrial/freshwater gastropod was located in the C-horizon of Unit 2. Twelve specimens came from throughout the Btb-horizon of Unit 2. These included both gastropods and pelecypods. The gastropods are found in terrestrial and freshwater environments and the pelecypods are found in freshwater. Of these 12 specimens, three brackish water Rangia cuneata were recovered from the Btb-horizon of Unit 2. One unidentifiable, fragmented freshwater gastropod was recovered from the upper 2- to 3-centimeters of the B/C- horizon of Unit 1 and parallel to the left shoulder of the remains (Photograph 3). Artifacts Two small flakes of chert were found during the 2003 excavation. Both are secondary interior flakes measuring 5 X 12-mm and 6 X 10-mm with a thickness of less than 0.5-mm. Both flakes came from the Btb-horizon of Unit 2. One flake was found while screening and the other was found close to the human remains. These lithic flakes appear to have been produced during tool resharpening. These flakes were found in a fluvial zone, and considering the large area excavated at BZT-1 with no other lithics or other artifacts found, their presence is probably fluvial redeposition. Small pebbles of the same approximate weight as the two small lithic flakes were found in the C- and Btb-horizons of Unit 2 and the B/C-horizon of Unit 1.

43 Table 3: Faunal remains from BZT-1

Unit 2: Bt1- and Bt2-horizons Taxonomic Classification Number Element Remarks Cervidae (family) 1 Fragment of proximal tibia Small mammal 2 Distal ½ of femur (right) 1 Long bone shaft fragment 2 Cranial fragment 65 Unidentifiable 3 Unidentifiable Calcined 1 Cranial fragment Calcined 3 Long bone shaft fragment Calcined Small/Medium Mammal 2 Long bone shaft fragment Medium mammal 2 Long bone shaft fragment 1 Rib fragment 2 Long bone shaft fragment Calcined Medium/Large Mammal 3 Unidentifiable Large mammal 1 Cranial bone fragment Calcined 4 Vertebral fragment

Unit 2: C-Horizon Taxonomic Classification Number Element Remarks Cervidae (family) 3 Fragments of ilium and ischium (adult, left) 1 Distal 1/3 of femur (no epiphysis) (juvenile, right) 1 Proximal 1/3 of ulna (adult, right) Small mammal 28 Unidentifiable 4 Unidentifiable Calcined Medium mammal 1 Vertebra fragment 2 Rib fragments

Out of Context: Small mammal 1 Long bone shaft fragment Crawfish hole Small mammal 4 Unidentifiable Spoil Medium mammal 6 Rib and Long bone fragments Spoil Medium-Large mammal 2 Long bone shaft fragments Spoil 44

Table 4: Invertebrates from BZT-1 Horizons

Unit 2: Above Btb-Horizon

Taxonomic Classification Number Remarks

Gastropod:

Unidentified fragment 1 Terrestrial/Freshwater

Unit 2: Btb-horizon

Taxonomic Classification Number Remarks

Gastropod:

Rhabdotus (formerly Bulimulus) 3 Terrestrial c.f. Mesodon 1 Terrestrial

Polygyra 1 Terrestrial

Helisoma 1 Freshwater

Unidentified 1 Terrestrial/Freshwater

Pelecypod:

Quadrula 1 Freshwater

Unionidae (family) 1 Freshwater

Rangia cuneata 3 Brackish

Unit 1: B/C-horizon

Taxonomic Classification Number Remarks

Pelecypod

Unidentified fragments 1 Freshwater

45 Chapter X Pollen Analysis

John G. Jones, Ph.D. Department of Anthropology Washington State University

A series of four pollen samples collected around the skeleton of the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman were examined for fossil pollen content. These samples were collected from various locations in and around the skeleton, including the pelvic region (Sample No. 1), near the distal left humerus (Sample No. 3), between the midshaft of the left and right femurs (Sample No. 4), and from the presumed colon area (Sample A). It was anticipated that these samples might provide insights into past environmental conditions in the area, and possibly shed some light on the prehistoric diet of the individual. Previous pollen studies in this region are largely lacking, due to the highly oxidizing environment of Brazoria County. Here, cycles of wetting and drying of soils provides conditions favorable for bacteria and fungi known to destroy organic remains, including pollen. In fact, most soils from this type of environment are barren of fossil pollen grains, making these types of analyses impossible. Still, sediments that have remained permanently wet or dry, and occasionally sediments composed of heavy clays do contain some fossil pollen grains, thus we believed that an attempt to identify fossil pollen in the sediments was warranted. Methodology Recognizing that less than ideal pollen preservation was to be expected, a conservative extraction technique was employed. The BZT-1 pollen samples were first quantified (3-5 mls), placed in sterile beakers, and a known quantity of exotic tracer spores was added to each sample. Here, European Lycopodium spp. spores were chosen as an exotic, because these spores are unlikely to be found in the actual fossil pollen assemblages from this region. Tracer spores are added to samples for two reasons. First, by adding a known quantity of exotic spores to a known quantity of sediment, fossil pollen concentration values can be calculated. Second, in the event that no fossil pollen is observed in the sediment sample, the presence of Lycopodium tracer spores verifies that processor error was not a factor in the pollen loss. Following the addition of the tracer spores, the samples were washed with concentrated Hydrochloric Acid. This step removed carbonates and dissolved the bonding agent in the tracer spore tablets. The samples were then rinsed in distilled water, sieved through 150 micron mesh screens, and swirled to remove the heavier inorganic particles. Next the samples were consolidated, and 50% Hydrofluoric Acid was added to the residues to remove unwanted silicates. After the silicates had been removed, the residues were rinsed thoroughly, and sonicated in a Delta D-5 sonicator for 30 seconds. This step deflocculated the residues, effectively removing all colloidal material smaller than two microns. Next, the samples were dehydrated in Glacial Acetic Acid, and were subjected to an acetolysis treatment (Erdtman 1960) consisting of 9 parts Acetic Anhydride to 1 part concentrated Sulfuric Acid. During this process, the samples were placed in a heating block for a period not exceeding 8 minutes. This step removed most unwanted organic materials, including cellulose, hemi- cellulose, lipids and proteins, and converted these materials to water-soluble humates. The samples were then rinsed in distilled water until a neutral pH was achieved.

Following this treatment, the samples were next subjected to a heavy density separation using Zinc Bromide (Sp.G. 2.00). Here, the lighter organic fraction was isolated from the heavier minerals. After this treatment, the lighter pollen and organic remains were collected and washed in 1% KOH to remove any remaining humates. The residues were then dehydrated in absolute alcohol, and transferred to a Glycerin medium for curation in glass vials. Permanent slides were prepared using Glycerin as a mounting medium, and identifications were made on a Jenaval compound stereomicroscope at 400-1250x magnification. Identifications were confirmed by using the Texas A&M University Palynology Laboratory's extensive pollen reference collection. Minimum 200-grain counts, standard among most palynologists (Barkeley 1934), were made for each sample when pollen was preserved in the sediments. 200-grain counts are thought to be fairly reflective of past vegetation and paleoenvironmental conditions. Concentration values were calculated for all samples. Hall (1981) and Bryant and Hall (1993) note that concentration values below 2,500 grains/ml of sediment may not be well reflective of past conditions, and usually record a differentially preserved assemblage. As a result, counts with low concentration values should be viewed with caution. Results Well preserved pollen was identified in all of the BZT-1 samples, and concentration values ranged from 3,327 to 11,868 grains/ml of sediment, values considered to be low to moderate. A minimum of 23 different pollen taxa was identified in the assemblages in Table 5, and counts and percentages are presented in Table 6. All identified pollen taxa represent species found in the vicinity today. As a whole, the assemblages are dominated by grains from low spine Asteraceae (ragweed or goldenrod group), Cyperaceae (sedge), Poaceae (grass), Typha (cattail), Juniperus/Taxodium (cedar or bald cypress), Pinus (pine) and Quercus (oak). These types are frequently encountered in archaeological assemblages in high percentages for several reasons. First, these pollen types are all wind-pollinated and rely on chance for pollination, thus their grains are produced in large numbers. Most of these grains are also quite durable, and are frequently preserved, even in degraded pollen assemblages. Finally, most of these pollen types possess diagnostic features making them readily identifiable, even when distorted or degraded. Other pollen types identified in the assemblages represent marshy or semi-aquatic environments, and include Alismataceae (pickerelweed family), Apiaceae (umbel or parsley family), Polygonaceae (knotweed family), and Platanus (sycamore) and Salix (willow), both of which favor moist bottomland or riverside settings. Probable upland taxa identified in the assemblages include several members of the Asteraceae family, including high spine Asteraceae (Sunflower group), Liguliflorae (dandelion-type) Cirsium (thistle), as well as Cheno-Ams (goosefoot, pigweed), Cnidoscolus (bull nettle), and members of the Euphorbiaceae (spurge), Fabaceae (legume), Malvaceae (mallow) and Nyctaginaceae (Four O’clock) families. Carya (hickory or pecan) and Ulmus (elm) pollen were represented by single grain occurrences in three samples, and likely represent pollen grains blown into the area from some distance away. All of these taxa, however, can also be found in a marshy environment.

47 Table 5: Pollen Taxa Identified

Pollen Taxa

Non-Arboreal Common Name Alismataceae Pickerelweed Family Apiaceae Umbel or Parsley Family Low Spine Asteraceae Ragweed Group High Spine Asteraceae Sunflower Group Liguliflorae Dandelion-Type Cirsium Thistle Cheno-Ams Goosefoot, Pigweed Cnidoscolus Bull Nettle Cyperaceae Sedge Family Euphorbiaceae Spurge Family Fabaceae Legume Family Malvaceae Mallow Family Nyctaginaceae Four O’clock Family Poaceae Grass Family Polygonaceae Knotweed Family Typha Cattail Arboreal Common Name Carya Hickory, Pecan Juniperus/Taxodium Cedar/Bald Cypress Pinus Pine Platanus Sycamore Quercus Oak Salix Willow Ulmus Elm Indeterminate Too poorly preserved to identify

Table 6: Pollen Counts and Percentages

Sample Taxa 1 3 4 A Alismataceae 1 (0.5) Apiaceae 5 (2.5) Low Spine Asteraceae 100 (50.0) 91 (45.5) 107 (53.5) 124 (62.0) High Spine Asteraceae 1 (0.5) 1 (0.5) 1 (0.5) Liguliflorae 7 (3.5) 11 (5.5) 23 (11.5) Cirsium 3 (1.5) 5 (2.5) 1 (0.5) 1 (0.5) Cheno-Ams 1 (0.5) 4 (2.0) 4 (2.0) Cnidoscolus 1 (0.5) Cyperaceae 4 (2.0) 6 (3.0) 13 (6.5) Euphorbiaceae 1 (0.5) Fabaceae 3 (1.5) 3 (1.5) 1 (0.5) Malvaceae 1 (0.5) Nyctaginaceae 1 (0.5) 1 (0.5) Poaceae 23 (11.5) 45 (22.5) 14 (7.0) 15 (7.5) Polygonaceae 3 (1.5) 2 (1.0) 2 (1.0) Typha 23 (11.5) 10 (5.0) 20 (10.0) 1 (0.5) Carya 1 (0.5) 1 (0.5) 1 (0.5) Juniperus/Taxodium 8 (4.0) 10 (5.0) 6 (3.0) 4 (2.0) Pinus 5 (2.5) 4 (2.0) 5 (2.5) 6 (3.0) Platanus 2 (1.0) 1 (0.5) Quercus 5 (2.5) 2 (1.0) 5 (2.5) 18 (9.0) Salix 2 (1.0) Ulmus 1 (0.5) Indeterminate 9 (4.5) 12 (6.0) 3 (1.5) 5 (2.5) Total 200 (100) 200 (100) 200 (100) 200 (100) Concentration Values 3956 3327 4018 11,868 (Grains/ml)

49 Discussion and Summary

Discussion The well-preserved pollen grains identified in the BZT-1 sediment samples are likely to be modern contaminant grains introduced into the sediments through bioturbation. Pollen types identified in the assemblages represent species likely to be found in areas favored by crawfish, and variations in species composition and percentages probably represent pollen-bearing anthers introduced into the sediments either through natural means or by crawfish activity. Further, the pollen assemblages from samples 1, 3 and 4 appeared to display the same quality of pollen preservation, generally good, suggesting that the grains were all introduced into the sediments at the same time, while sample A from the colon region, displayed excellent preservation, possibly indicating that these grains are younger or have been exposed to less oxidation. Owing to the general oxidizing conditions of the location area, it seems likely that all of the grains identified in the BZT-1 samples are probably quite young relative to the skeleton, although it is impossible to safely assign an age to the pollen. Summary Four sediment samples associated with the BZT-1 location were examined for fossil pollen content. These samples were collected from various locations among the skeleton, and it was anticipated that some insights into past environmental conditions or prehistoric dietary practices might be gained from this type of study. Well-preserved fossil pollen was present in all of the samples, and 200 grain counts were achieved for each sample. Evidence suggests that these grains are not associated with the deposition of the BZT-1 human remains, but rather were introduced into the sediments from crawfish burrows. Vegetation recorded by the pollen assemblages is consistent with a marshy area favored by crawfish. The pollen from samples 1, 3 and 4 displayed some degree of oxidation, but was still very good, while sample A from the colon region displayed excellent preservation. The fact that two distinctive suites of pollen were found from the same internment again argues for multiple episodes of postdepositional introduction of pollen. Without radiocarbon dating the pollen assemblages, it is not possible to know the actual ages of these pollen suites, but it is likely that they are fairly modern.

Chapter XI Interpretation of the BZT-1 Data

Geological Age of the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman d'Aigle and Hryshechko (2002) reported that the human remains from BZT-1 dated to the Late Pleistocene. This was based primarily on two radiocarbon ages obtained from the NSF-Arizona AMS Facility at the University of Arizona. One date on a human tooth yielded an age of 8,700 ±2,300 14C yr BP (AA-45909) and a human petrosal yielded an age of 10,740 ±760 14C yr BP (AA-45910). The 14C yr BP age for the petrosal were calibrated to 12,780 calendar years BP with a 2-sigma (95% accuracy) range of 15,250 to 10,390 Cal BP (Appendix III). As previously stated in this report, the BZT-1 human remains were located entirely within the B/C-horizon of Unit 1 and impressed approximately 1-2 centimeters into the bottom of the Btb- horizon of Unit 2. Ages on sediment humic acids derived from the Bt2-horizon as well as the shell carbonate fraction of a Rangia cuneata shell from the Btb-horizon range from about 5,000 to 5,600 14C yr. BP. These dates are similar to the age of ca. 5,600 14C yr BP obtained from the BZT-2 shell midden in a similar stratigraphic context. BZT-2 is approximately 66 meters southwest of the deposition of the BZT-1 human remains. The humate and shell age are significantly different than the dates derived from a petrosal and tooth from the human skull excavated during the 2001 investigation. These shell and humate dates suggest a middle Holocene age while the 2001 bone dates suggest a significantly older, late Pleistocene age. The primary reason for the difference in the sediment humic acids, shell carbonate fraction of a Rangia cuneata shell, and the dates and the human tooth age of 8,700 ±2,300 14C yr BP (AA-45909) and the human petrosal age of 10,740 ±760 14C yr BP (AA-45910) has previously been explained Chapter VI: Geoarchaeology of BZT-1 of this report. A second petrosal sent to Stafford Research Laboratories from the 2001 investigation had a noncollagenous amino acid composition (Table 7) and accordingly was not dated. A non- collagenous amino acid composition can result from at least three different geochemical pathways: (1) the degradation of collagen whereby amino acids are differentially leached from the bone, (2) the amino acids are derived from bacterial and other foreign biological materials that have a similar amino acid spectrum, or (3) a combination of both collagen-derived and bacteria-derived protein residues. In May 2003, three additional samples obtained from the left humerus, femur, and tibia were analyzed at Stafford Research Laboratories. The amino acid assays showed a non-collagenous composition of the organic matter (Table 8). No teeth remained from the 2001 investigation and consequently their amino acid composition could not be determined.

51 Table 7: Quantitative Amino Acid Analyses - Petrosal Comparing BZT-1 Homo sapiens petrosal bones to Modern Bone. Values are expressed in residues per 1000 (R/1000). Protein content is expressed as nanomoles of amino acids per milligram of bone (nm AA/mg bone). Bone with less < 100 nm AA/mg bone are considered not dateable. The five amino acids marked with an asterisk (*) are those most important for assessing protein degradation. Is the protein composition collagenous or non- collagenous?

MODERN SR-6206 SR-6207 SR-6207 Bovid Bone Petrosal Petrosal Petrosal AMINO ACID AAA-1235 AAA-1232 AAA-1233 AAA-1234 (R/1000) R/1000) (R/1000) (R/1000) Hydroxyproline* 81 0 0 0 Aspartic Acid* 49 238 216 195 Threonine 18 27 27 27 Serine 19 26 33 26 Glutamic Acid* 79 146 162 136 Proline* 119 28 30 27 Glycine* 325 203 202 190 Alanine 115 93 90 108 Valine 25 55 50 93 Methionine 5 0 0 0 Isoleucine 13 30 30 30 Leucine 30 49 57 47 Tyrosine 5 7 12 4 Phenylalanine 15 18 22 13 Histidine 7 16 10 34 Hydroxylysine 11 0 0 0 Lysine 30 29 25 0 Arginine 52 34 33 68 Total R/1000 998 999 999 998 nm amino acids/mg of bone 2369 2 2.3 1.9 % protein vs modern bone 100% 0.08% 0.10% 0.08%

Stafford's results indicate that the amino acid spectrum of the bone organic matter from the 2003 investigation is not that of collagen. The samples that were prepared and dated by the NSF Arizona AMS Facility were extremely small and their carbon yields were equally low. The tooth yielded five æg (a metric unit of mass equal to one thousandth (10-3) of a kilogram). of carbon, while the petrosal yielded 40 æg of carbon. Detailed amino acid analyses of both petrosals (Table 8) indicated the presence of 1.9 to 2.3 nm of amino acids/mg of bone; 1/1000 of modern bone (ca. 2500 nm of amino acids/mg of bone). Samples from the left tibia, humerus, and femur that were sent to Stafford Research Laboratories from the 2003 investigation yielded similar, very low amino acid contents. The tibia, humerus, and femur contained 1 to 2 nm of amino acids/mg of threshold needed for accurate dating. Samples yielding less than 0.05 mg (50 æg) of carbon are difficult to date accurately because geological processes have proportionately greater effect on the measurement's accuracy while measurement precision becomes increasingly large.

53 Table 8: Quantitative Amino Acid Analyses – Tibia, Humerus, Femur

Comparing BZT-2 Homo sapiens Tibia, Humerus, and Femur Bones to Modern Bone. Values are expressed in residues per 1000 (R/1000). Protein content is expressed as nanomoles of amino acids per milligram of bone (nm AA/mg bone). Bone with less < 100 nm AA/mg bone are considered not dateable. The five amino acids marked with an asterisk (*) are those most important for assessing protein degradation — is the protein composition collagenous or non- collagenous?

MODERN SR-6396 SR-6397 SR-6398 Bovid Bone Tibia Humerus Femur AMINO ACID Bos taurus Homo sapiens Homo sapiens Homo sapiens Femur AAA-1306 AAA-1307 AAA-1308 (R/1000) R/1000) (R/1000) (R/1000) Hydroxyproline* 93 0 0 0 Aspartic Acid* 50 276 264 224 Threonine 19 32 29 22 Serine 33 31 31 25 Glutamic Acid* 79 175 167 179 Proline* 115 31 22 25 Glycine* 327 153 176 224 Alanine 113 67 88 90 Valine 20 55 44 22 Methionine 11 0 0 0 Isoleucine 14 31 29 29 Leucine 31 55 55 49 Tyrosine 6 4 11 45 Phenylalanine 14 12 33 9 Histidine 8 8 9 9 Hydroxylysine 8 0 0 0 Lysine 28 31 22 22 Arginine 31 39 22 27

Total R/1000 1000 1000 1002 1001 nm amino acids/mg of bone 2500 1.7 1.4 2.2 % protein vs modern bone 100% 0.07% 0.0.6% 0.09%

Sediment-derived older carbon is an unlikely contaminant for two reasons. First, the organic matter would have to be chemically similar to the fraction dated. Particulate plant organic matter, kerogen or refractory and geologically ancient (>50,000 yr BP) carbon would have been eliminated during the chemical purification steps. These types of organic compounds would have been excluded chemically from amino acids that were dated. Second, the contaminants most likely to have affected the tooth and petrosal dates are humic or fulvic acids, predominately the latter. To test the probability that ancient humates were present in sediments, humates from sediments enclosing the bones were dated. The resulting ages were ca. 5,600 14C yr BP (Table 9). Consequently, it is unlikely that sediment-derived, ancient carbon contaminated the teeth and petrosal samples.

Table 9: Radiocarbon ages from BZT-1 and BZT-2.

BZT-1 Date (14C yr BP) Laboratory Number Remarks 4,870 +40 CAMS-87686/SR-6210 humic acids (above skull) (d’Aigle and Hryshechko 2002) 5,135 +40 CAMS-87685/SR-6211 humic acids (inside skull) (d’Aigle and Hryshechko 2002) 5,590 +40 CAMS-101892/SR-6590 Rangia cuneata 8,700 +2,300 AA-45909 human tooth (d’Aigle and Hryshechko 2002) 10,740 +760 AA-45910 human petrosal (d’Aigle and Hryshechko 2002) BZT-2 Date (14C yr BP) Laboratory Number Remarks 5,585 + 40 CAMS-94573/SR-6210 Rangia cuneata

Inherent problems in measuring the concentrations of carbon isotopes in very small samples also resulted in the large standard deviations associated with the two ages generated by the NSF Arizona AMS Facility. The tooth had a 1-sigma error of 2,300 years and the petrosal had a one- sigma error of 760 years. The tooth sample has such a wide standard deviation that it could either date to the late Pleistocene or to the middle Holocene very close to the ages generated by the shell and humate samples. In summary, human bones from BZT-1 that were submitted to Stafford Research Laboratories had a non-collagenous amino acid composition and less than 1/1000th their original organic matter content. Bone samples analyzed by Stafford Research Laboratories all had very low organic matter contents and non-collagenous compositions. The collagen from the samples submitted to Stafford may have been destroyed by fluctuating, oxidizing water tables, as indicated by the bones' high ferric iron and manganese contents. The non-collagenous amino acid composition, the low organic matter content, and the microgram yields from samples submitted to Stafford Research Laboratories from the 2001 and 2003 investigations precluded the bones from yielding accurate radiocarbon or stable isotope measurements. Finally, it is probable that the measured ages on the BZT-1 petrosal and tooth 55 excavated during the 2001 investigation are correct because no indications have been presented that would indicate that ancient carbon was incorporated into the sample by soil humates or during laboratory processing at the University of Arizona. The following are Stafford’s 2002 interpretations for AMS radiocarbon analyses he performed on sediments from site BZT-1 as well as laboratory observations on BZT-1 human bone that was 14 submitted, but not processed for C dating. The bone received from BZT-1 comprised two human petrous bones, one of which the University of Arizona had dated. A total of 892.8 mg were chemically processed 14 at SRL, Inc., with the eventual decision being not to date the specimen by AMS C methods. The bone was white, soft, and porous. The decalcification solution was pale yellow, an indication of ferric iron. Upon freeze-drying, the HCl-insoluble residue showed the dominant presence of salts and oxides of iron and manganese. Consequently, the bone was termed not suitable for radiocarbon dating by definitions used by SRL, Inc. and chemical processing was terminated. Two sediment samples — one from a stratum outside the human cranium (SR-6210) and sediment within the skull (SR-6211) were processed for humic acid dating. Humic acids were chosen as the target compound because 1) bulk sediments would have contained recent plant and other organic matter, 2) the humic acids were considered coeval with the sediment's deposition adjacent the skull, 3) sediment within the skull was believed to have an even greater chance for retaining original carbon, and 4) the chemical processing of humic acids would be preferable to dating bulk sediment or humin organic matter. The AMS radiocarbon results from dating the two BZT-1 sediment samples are:

13 14 SR-6210 Humic Acids, BZT1L2S1 4870±40 RC yr. BP, δ C = –16.28‰ C = - 454.5±2.4‰, Fm = 0.5455±0.0024 (CAMS-87686)

13 14 SR-6211 Humic Acids, BZT1L1S15 5135±40 RC yr. BP, δ C = –16.28‰, C = - 472.3±2.3‰, Fm = 0.5277±0.0023 (CAMS-87685) I interpret the above observations and radiocarbon results as follows: 1. The petrous bone dated by the University of Arizona had very low protein content and therefore low carbon content. Although the carbon yield was very low, the resulting age measured by UA agrees with the human's stratigraphic position and the age assigned for the disconformity (erosional unconformity) overlying the human remains. Because the organic matter content was so low, the bone's age could be either an exact or a minimum age for the human skeleton. 2. The humic acids from sediments enclosing the human remains and within the individual's cranial cavity have nearly identical radiocarbon ages. The significance is that rather than reflecting the geologic age of the sediments' and the human's deposition, the humic acids' radiocarbon "ages" actually reflect intensive, thorough and pervasive contamination of sedimentary humic acids with more modern humates. This postdepositional contamination by percolating surface and groundwater is corroborated by the large amount of oxidation evident in the bones and sediments. The bones and sediments contain abundant limonite and pyrolusite, both of which are deposited by 56

oxidizing waters. The extensive oxidation by waters circulating through the site is the primary reason why the human bone contains such low amounts of organic carbon. 3. The presence of geologically young radiocarbon ages for the humic ages further strengthens the conclusion that the single radiocarbon age on the human remains is either its absolute age or is a minimum geologic age. The most likely contaminant for a bone radiocarbon date is humates. If traces of humates, or especially the high molecular weight humins, were still present after chemical purification, the geologic age for the human bone would be older than the age measured by the University of Arizona. Therefore, the geologic age for the human remains is at least as old as the overlying disconformity (erosional unconformity), and possibly older if humic acid contamination still affected the bone sample. ...My opinion is the BZT-1 human remains have the greatest chance of any Paleoindian skeleton in the United States to be Clovis-age or older. The BZT-1 remains are older than the Anzick Site, Montana human remains, dated by this lab at 10,750 RC yr. BP. Finally, the BZT-1 remains are either coeval with or older than the Arlington Springs, CA human remains, also dated by this lab, and which are assigned an age of 10,850 RC yr (Stafford 2002:164-165). Stable Carbon Isotope Analyses Two stable carbon isotope values were reported by d'Aigle and Hryshechko (2002). These were used to interpret the diet of the individual and provide data on the origin of the person. Tykot analyzed one sample of tooth enamel from a partial tooth root (2002). He obtained a value on the enamel of -10.5%. Tykot (2002:167) concluded that C4 plants contributed "25% of the diet at the time of crown formation." He also concluded "marine foods from the Gulf may have contributed significantly to this individual's diet." Tykot concluded, "...the isotope result obtained on this single tooth is consistent with residency along the Gulf Coast." A stable carbon isotope value of -26.5% was obtained by the NSF-Arizona AMS Facility on the petrosal dated to 10,740 ±760 14C yr BP (AA-45910). Tykot (2002) noted that this value was not consistent with the isotope value obtained for the tooth. Tykot (2002:167) comments, "...if done on a sample of intact collagen . . . [the stable carbon isotope value] . . . is not consistent with any marine food or C4 resource consumption, and suggests residence in an environment in which there was no free circulation of atmospheric carbon dioxide such as under the canopy of a tropical forest." However, the noted difference may represent a truly nomadic Paleoindian that had traversed through multiple environments.

57 Chapter XII Conclusion

During the years of 2001 through 2003, a prehistoric and nearly complete, partially fragmented, human skeleton of a young, adult female was recovered from BZT-1 in Brazoria County, Texas. An analysis of the GPR data completed in the 2001 investigation indicated no evidence of a burial shaft associated with the human remains. Further, during the 2003 ARPA excavation of BZT-1, there was no evidence of a burial shaft or other soil disturbance in the B/C-horizon of Unit 1, or in the Btb-horizon of Unit 2 that is immediately above the human remains. There were no grave goods or positive evidence of occupation at BZT-1. This person, designated as the BZT- 1 Prehistoric Woman, does not appear to have been intentionally buried. The female skeleton was lying in a face down, extended position with her hands crossed in front, beneath her waist, and with a complete absence of the right tibia, fibula, and foot. The person represented by the human remains at BZT-1 appears to have been killed after her hands were tied in front of her abdomen, and then discarded into the muddy west bank of a now extinct channel of Cocklebur Slough. The BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman may have been mutilated but no strong evidence was found. Since the remains were found lying on the edge of an extinct channel of Cocklebur Slough, stream avulsion may instead account for the missing right tibia, fibula, and foot. The successful radiocarbon results obtained on the petrosal from the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman by Tim Jull, NSF-Arizona AMS Facility and American Archaeology Group’s geoarchaeological and geomorphological modeling and analyses completed in September 2004 support, at a minimum, a late Pleistocene age of 10,740 years ±760 RC years BP or older for the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman. The radiocarbon years BP were calibrated to 12,780 calendar years BP with a 2-sigma (95% accuracy) range of 15,250 to 10,390 Cal BP making the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman one of the oldest, and probably the oldest, human remains ever discovered on the North and South American continents. As Tom Stafford, Stafford Research Labs, stated in CRC’s final report for the 2002 investigation, “Therefore, the University of Arizona bone date is either correct or the bone is even older than that 14C age. ...My opinion is the BZT-1 human remains have the greatest chance of any Paleoindian skeleton in the United States to be Clovis-age or older. The BZT-1 remains are older than the Anzick Site, Montana human remains, dated by this lab at 10,750 RC yr. BP. Finally, the BZT-1 remains are either coeval with or older than the Arlington Springs, CA human remains, also dated by this lab, and which are assigned an age of 10,850 RC yr”.

Chapter XIII National Register of Historic Places Recommendations

Under the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (36 CFR 800.4), buildings, structures, objects, and historic districts that are shown to meet Criteria A, B, C, or D for archaeological districts and sites must retain enough elements of integrity or its historic fabric and character to be eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). Elements of integrity include integrity of location, design, setting, workmanship, materials, feeling, and association. Typically, an eligible property need not possess all seven integrity factors, but must at least meet more than one. In October 2002, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) acting under 36 CFR 800.4 confirmed that the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman site is eligible for inclusion the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). However, in accordance with the above stipulations, and considering that all known or suspected elements have been removed or destroyed at the previous location of the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman, BZT-1 is not recommended as eligible for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. The skeletal remains of the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman, as a collection, are recommended as eligible for immediate inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places under Criteria D. The skeletal remains of the BZT-1 Prehistoric Woman will be permanently curated at the Center for Archaeological Research, the University of Texas, San Antonio, Texas. In CRC’s 2002 Final Report, archaeological site BZT-2 was recommended as eligible for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places (d’Aigle and Hryshechko 2002:174).

59 References Cited

Aten, L. E. 1983 Indians of the Upper Texas Coast. Academic Press, New York. Abbott, J. T. 2001 Houston Area Geoarchaeology: A Framework for Archeological Investigation, Interpretation, and Cultural Resource Management in the Houston Highway District. Archeological Studies Program Report no. 27. Texas Department of Transportation, Austin, Texas. Adams, J. 2003 North America During the Last 150,000 Years; Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tenn., p. 15. Anderson, D. G. and Smith S. D. 2003 Archaeology, History, and Predictive Modeling; Research at Fort Polk 1972- 2002.University of Alabama Press p. 349. Anderson, J. B., A. Rodriguez, K. C. Abdulah, R. H. Fillon, L. A. Banfield, H. A. McKeowan, and J. S. Wellner 2004 Late Quaternary Stratigraphic Evolution of the Northern Gulf of Mexico Margin: A Synthesis. In Late Quaternary Stratigraphic Evolution of the Northern Gulf of Mexico Margin. Edited by J. B. Anderson and R. H. Fillon, pp. 1-23. SEPM Special Publication No. 79, Society for Sedimentary Geology, Tulsa, Oklahoma. Aslan, A. and M. D. Blum 1999 Contrasting styles of Holocene avulsion, Texas Gulf Coastal Plain, USA; Special Publication of Ass. Sediment, vol. 28, pp. 193-209. Barkeley, F.A. 1934 The statistical theory of pollen analysis. Ecology, 47, 439-447. Bailey, G. L. 1987 Archeological Bibliography of the Southern Coastal Corridor Region of Texas. Office of the State Archeologist, Special Report 29, Texas Historical Commission. Austin. Bettis, E. Arthur 1992 Soil Morphologic Properties and Weathering Zone Characteristics as Age Indicators in Holocene Alluvium in the Upper Midwest: In Soils in Archaeology; Landscape Evolution and Human Occupation; Vance T. Holliday, ed.; Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D. C., p. 254. Blum, M. D. 1990 Climatic and Eustatic Controls on Gulf Coastal Plain Fluvial Sedimentation: an Example from the Late Quaternary of the Colorado River, Texas; GCSSEPM Foundation Eleventh Annual Research Conference Program and Abstracts, Sequence Stratigraphy as an Exploration Tool, pp. 71-83. Biesaart, L. A., W. R. Roberson, and L. C. Spotts 1985 Prehistoric Archaeological Sites in Texas: A statistical Overview. Office of the State Archaeologist, Special Report 28.

Bryant, V. M., Jr. and S. A. Hall 1993 Archaeological Palynology in the United States: A Critique. American Antiquity, 58, 277- 286. Crenwelge, G. W., J. D. Crout, E. L. Griffin, M. L. Golden, and J. K. Baker 1981 Soil Survey of Brazoria County, Texas: United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service in cooperation with the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station; p. 140. d'Aigle, R. P., and N. V. Hryshechko 2003 Paleoindian Remains from the East Texas Gulf Coast. Current Research in the Pleistocene 20:89-91. d'Aigle, R. P., and N. V. Hryshechko 2002 Cultural Resource Investigation Intensive Survey and Site Testing at BZT-1, San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge, BZT-1 County, Texas. Volume 1. CRC International Archaeology and Ecology LLC, Spring, Texas Drees, R. 2002 Soils Analysis. Cultural Resource Investigation Intensive survey and Site Testing at BZT- 1, San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge, BZT-1 County, Texas. Volume 1. CRC International Archaeology and Ecology LLC, Spring, Texas Erdtman, G. 1960 The acetolysis method: a revised description. Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift 54:561-564. Fisher, W. L. 1975 The Geologic Atlas of Texas, Beeville-Bay City Sheet; Bureau of Economic Geology, the University of Texas at Austin. 1982 The Geologic Atlas of Texas, Houston Sheet; Bureau of Economic Geology, the University of Texas at Austin. Fleetwood, Raymond J. (Nd) Plants of Brazoria/San Bernard National Wildlife Refuges, Brazoria County, Texas. United States Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Fritz, G., and T. Dillehay 1975 Matagorda Bay Area Texas: A Survey of the Archeological and Historical Resources. University of Texas, Austin, and General Land Office. Genovese, S. 1967 Proportionality of the Long Bones and Their Relation to Stature Among Mesoamericans. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 26:67-78. Hall, S. A. 1981 Deteriorated pollen grains and the interpretation of Quaternary pollen diagrams. Review of Paleobotany and Palynology, 32, 193-206. Jull, T. 2002 AMS Radiocarbon Analysis. Cultural Resource Investigation Intensive Survey and Site Testing at BZT-1, San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge, BZT-1 County, Texas. Volume 1. CRC International Archaeology and Ecology LLC, Spring, Texas

61 Lovejoy, C. O., R. S. Meindl, T. R. Prysbeck, and R. P. Mensforth 1985 Chronological Metamorphosis off the Auricular Surface of the Ilium: A New Method for the Determination of Adult Skeletal Age at Death. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 68:15-28. Mercado-Allinger, P. A., N. A. Kenmotsu, and T. K. Perttula, (Editors) 1996 Archeology in the Central and Southern Planning Region, Texas: A Planning Document. Office of the State Archeologist, Special Report 35 and the Department of Antiquities Protection, Cultural Resource Management Report. Moya, J. C. 2002 Remains and soil samples description and analysis. In Cultural Resource Investigation Intensive Survey and Site Testing at BZT-1, San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge, BZT- 1 County, Texas. Volume 1, CRC International Archaeology and Ecology LLC, Spring, Texas. Newcomb, W. W., Jr. 1986 The Indians of Texas: From Prehistoric to Modern Times. The University of Texas Press. (Seventh Paperback Printing). Patterson, L. W. 1979 A Review of the Prehistory of the Upper Texas Coast. Bulletin of the Texas Archeological Society 50:103-124. Ortner, D. and W. G. J. Putschcar 1981 Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology no. 28. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Pons, A., de Beaulieu, J. -L., Guiot, J., and M. Reille 1987 Abrupt Climatic Change Evidence and Implications. Berger, W. H., and L. D. Labeyrie, editors. D. Reidel Pub. Co., Boston pp. 195-208. Puseman, K. 2002 Protein Residue Analysis of a Bone Fragment and Soil Samples From Brazoria County, Texas. Cultural Resource Investigation Intensive Survey and Site Testing at BZT-1, San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge, BZT-1 County, Texas. Volume 1., CRC International Archaeology and Ecology LLC, Spring, Texas. Rice, R. J. 1988 Fundamentals of Geomorphology, Second Addition; Longman Scientific and Technical; pp.420. Ricklis, R. A. 1996 The Karankawa Indians of Texas: An Ecological Study of Cultural Tradition and Change. University of Texas Press. Austin. Schmerer, W. M. 2002 DNA Analysis. Cultural Resource Investigation Intensive Survey and Site Testing at BZT- 1, San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge, BZT-1 County, Texas. Volume 1., CRC International Archaeology and Ecology LLC, Spring, Texas.

Stafford, T. 2002 Interpretations for AMS Radiocarbon Analysis. Cultural Resource Investigation Intensive Survey and Site Testing at BZT-1, San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge, BZT-1 County, Texas. Volume 1. CRC International Archaeology and Ecology LLC, Spring, Texas. Steele, D. G. 2002 Osteological Analyses. In Cultural Resource Investigation Intensive Survey and Site Testing at BZT-1, San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge, BZT-1 County, Texas. Volume 1. CRC International Archaeology and Ecology LLC, Spring, Texas. Stuart-MacAdam, P. 1989 Nutritional Deficiency Diseases: A Survey of Scurvy, Rickets, and Iron Deficiency Anemia. In Reconstruction of Life From the Skeleton, edited by M. Y. Iscan and K. A. R. Kennedy, pp. 201-222. Alan R. Liss, New York. Trinkaus, E. n.d. Unpublished List of Skeletal Measurements. Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri. Suhm, D. A., and E B. Jelks 1962 Handbook of Texas Archeology: Type Descriptions. Bulletin of the Texas Archeological Society 25. (Entire volume). Suhm, D. A., A. D. Krieger, and E. B. Jelks 1954 An Introductory Handbook of Texas Archeology. Bulletin of the Texas Archeological Society 25. (Entire volume). Publication Number 1 and Texas Memorial Museum, Bulletin Number 4. Trotter, M., and G. Gleser 1952 Estimation of Statue From Long Bones of American Whites and Negroes. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 10:463-514. Turner, E. S., and T. R. Hester 1985 A Field Guide to Stone Artifacts of Texas Indians. Texas Monthly Press. Tykot, R. H. 2002 Stable Isotope Analysis of a Tooth Enamel Sample from the Gulf Coast of Texas. In Cultural Resource Investigation Intensive Survey and Site Testing at BZT-1, San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge, BZT-1 County, Texas. Volume 1. CRC International Archaeology and Ecology LLC, Spring, Texas. Waters, M. R. and Bonnichsen, R. 2005 Archaeological and Geomorphological Investigations of BZT-1 and BZT-2. Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas. Wheat, J. B. 1953 The Addicks Dam Site: An Archaeological Survey of the Addicks Dam Basin, southeast Texas. River Basin Survey Papers 4:1, In: Bulletin of the Bureau of Ethnology 154:143- 252. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Willey, G. R. and P. Phillips 1958 Method and Theory in American Archeology. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Williams, J. R., Jones, C. A., and P. T. Dyke 1984 A modeling approach to determine the relationship between erosion and soil productivity: Transactions ASAE; pp. 129-144.

63 Appendix I: Geoarchaeological Model Statistics

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brazoria.dat

Wea: 46 TX MATAGORDA wi: 46 TX MATAGORDA soil: 00 BRAZORIA C

______GENERAL INFORMATION______

SIMULATION DURATION = 1450 Y

BEGINNING DATE = 1- 1- 1

LEAP YEAR CONSIDERED

DRAINAGE AREA = 134.64 HA

LATITUDE = 29.16 DEG

ELEVATION = 1.8 M

CHANNEL

LENGTH = 1.90 KM GRAD = .0002 M/M MANNINGS N = .075 DEPTH = .500 M

LAND SLOPE

LENGTH = 318.0 M GRAD = .0002 M/M MANNINGS N = .150

WATER EROSION FACTORS--DRIVING EQ = USLE

LS= .112 P = .600

TIME OF FLOW CONC = 7.18 H

DAILY CN--STOCHASTIC

PEAK RATE EST WITH MOD RATIONAL EQ

PEAK RATE-EI ADJ FACTOR = 1.000

INITIAL WATER CONTENT OF SNOW = .0 MM

CULTIVATION PERIOD BEFORE SIMULATION = 100.0 Y

AVE N CONC IN RAINFALL = .80 PPM

CONC OF SALT IN IRRIGATION WATER = .0 PPM

COSTS

N FERT = .51 $/KG

P FERT = .57 $/KG

LIME = 31.00 $/T

IRR WATER = .04 $/MM

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brazoria.dat

Wea: 46 TX MATAGORDA wi: 46 TX MATAGORDA soil: 00 BRAZORIA C

______WEATHER DATA______

CO2 CONC IN ATMOSPHERE = 330. PPM

PERIOD OF RECORD FOR P5MX = 10. Y

**********RAIN, TEMP, RAD, WIND SPEED, & REL HUM ARE GENERATED********** 64

WET-DRY PROB COEF = .750

RAINFALL DIST IS SKEWED NORMAL

1.00 1.03 1.15 .99 1.22 1.07 1.10 1.05 1.05 1.01 1.02 .98

********** PENMAN-MONTEITH EQ USED TO EST POT ET **********

VERNALIZATION TIME = 33. D

ANNUAL HEAT UNITS = 7498. C

-----AVE MO VALUES

1450

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC YR

TMX 17.64 19.04 21.91 25.23 28.55 31.40 32.64 33.07 31.34 28.07 22.89 19.33 25.93 TMX

TMN 7.95 9.41 12.69 16.96 20.72 23.85 24.88 24.44 22.03 17.41 12.32 9.02 16.81 TMN

SDMX 5.61 4.76 3.77 2.63 1.91 1.58 1.52 1.64 2.41 3.07 4.68 4.98 SDMX

SDMN 6.34 5.67 5.50 4.61 3.33 2.37 1.55 1.89 3.31 4.94 6.08 5.94 SDMN

PRCP 72.9 69.2 54.8 79.9 104.5 92.2 85.4 91.7 142.1 88.1 84.6 89.8 1055.2 PRCP

SDRF 15.7 16.5 21.6 26.4 39.6 30.5 25.7 21.6 32.5 26.7 24.4 17.8 SDRF

SKRF 2.27 1.69 4.95 2.05 4.39 3.17 2.98 3.00 3.81 3.71 2.46 1.64 SKRF

PW/D .170 .150 .130 .120 .120 .110 .120 .150 .170 .120 .140 .170 PW/D

PW/W .380 .400 .270 .250 .270 .410 .390 .390 .450 .380 .320 .380 PW/W

DAYP 6.67 5.80 4.69 4.14 4.38 4.71 5.10 6.12 7.08 5.03 5.12 6.67 65.50 DAYP

P5MX 18.5 15.2 25.7 43.4 53.6 44.5 33.5 46.2 41.1 40.6 28.2 22.1 P5MX

RAD 12.2 14.3 17.1 19.0 23.7 25.7 25.9 23.8 19.8 17.2 12.2 11.1 18.5 RAD

RAMX 16.3 19.0 23.2 27.9 31.1 32.6 32.7 31.4 28.5 24.3 19.7 16.7 RAMX

HRLT 10.27 10.75 11.52 12.45 13.30 13.90 13.98 13.52 12.69 11.79 10.92 10.35 HRLT

RHUM .74 .76 .70 .73 .76 .74 .71 .69 .72 .70 .68 .72 RHUM

ALPH .27 .22 .36 .38 .38 .38 .33 .45 .33 .38 .29 .27 ALPH

WSPD 5.02 5.24 5.45 5.74 5.66 5.39 5.07 4.66 4.38 4.49 4.88 4.73 5.06 WSPD

-----WIND EROSION DATA

FIELD LENGTH = .63 KM

FIELD WIDTH = .32 KM

FIELD ANGLE = 0. DEG

WIND SPEED MOD EXP POWER PARM = .50

SOIL PARTICLE DIAM = 500. UM

ACCELERATE WIND EROS FACTOR = .000

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brazoria.dat

Wea: 46 TX MATAGORDA wi: 46 TX MATAGORDA soil: 00 BRAZORIA C

______SOIL DATA______

SOIL ALBEDO = .06

MAX NUMBER SOIL LAYERS = 10. 65 MIN THICKNESS FOR LAYER SPLITTING = .10 M

MIN PROFILE THICKNESS--STOPS SIMULATION = .10 M

SPLITTING PRIORITY THICKNESS = .15 M

WATER TABLE DEPTH

MIN = 50.00 M

MAX = 100.00 M

INITIAL = 75.00 M

WEATHERING CODE = 0.

RETURN FLOW TT = 10.00 D

CN SCRV SCRP(14) = 50. 10.

RUNOFF CN2 = 74.0

SLP ADJ CN2 = 69.3

CN SCRP(4) = .42377E+01 .10516E-01

SOIL LAYER NO

1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 TOT

DEPTH(M) .01 .13 .26 .38 .51 .65 .79 .94 1.08 1.65

POROSITY(M/M) .630 .630 .630 .630 .630 .547 .547 .547 .547 .547 .573

FC SW(M/M) .520 .520 .520 .520 .520 .492 .492 .492 .492 .492 .501

WP SW(M/M) .360 .360 .360 .360 .360 .382 .382 .382 .382 .382 .376

SW(M/M) .447E .447E .447E .447E .447E .442E .442E .442E .442E .442E .444

SAT COND(MM/H) .20 .20 .20 .20 .20 .20 .20 .20 .20 .20

SAT COND(MM/H) .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00

BD 33KPA(T/M3) .98 .98 .98 .98 .98 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20

BDD OV DRY(T/M3) 1.54 1.54 1.54 1.54 1.54 1.54 1.54 1.54 1.54 1.54

SAND(%) 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8 8.9 8.9 8.9 8.9 8.9

SILT(%) 22.7 22.7 22.7 22.7 22.7 21.1 21.1 21.1 21.1 21.1

CLAY(%) 67.5 67.5 67.5 67.5 67.5 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0

ROCK(%) .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0

PH 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.9

SM BS(CMOL/KG) .0E .0E .0E .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0

CEC(CMOL/KG) 45.6 45.6 45.6 45.6 45.6 38.7 38.7 38.7 38.7 38.7

AL SAT(%) .0E .0E .0E .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0

CACO3(%) .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0

LAB P(G/T) 30. 30. 30. 30. 30. 10. 10. 10. 10. 10. 287.

P SORP RTO .50E .50E .50E .50 .50 .50 .50 .50 .50 .50

MN P AC(G/T) 30.E 30.E 30.E 30. 30. 10. 10. 10. 10. 10. 287.

MN P ST(G/T) 120.E 120.E 120.E 120. 120. 40. 40. 40. 40. 40. 1147.

ORG P(G/T) 291.E 291.E 291.E 291. 291. 291. 291. 291. 291. 291. 5440.

NO3(G/T) 10. 10. 10. 10. 10. 5. 5. 5. 5. 5. 118.

ORG N AC(G/T) 291.E 291.E 291.E 291. 291. 117. 117. 117. 117. 117. 3051.

ORG N ST(G/T) 2039.E 2039.E 2039.E 2039. 2039. 2213. 2213. 2213. 2213. 2213. 40469.

ORG C(%) 2.32 2.32 2.32 2.32 2.32 2.32 2.32 2.32 2.32 2.32

CROP RSD(T/HA) 1.00E .08E .08E .08 .08 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 1.34

RWT(T/HA) .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00

______MANAGEMENT DATA______

DRYLAND AGRICULTURE

AUTO FERT

N STRESS TRIGGER = .80

MIN APPL INTERVAL = 0 D

APPLICATION RATE = 0. KG/HA 66

MAX N FERT/CROP = 500. KG/HA

FLEXIBLE APPLICATIONS

NO LIME APPLICATIONS

-----OPERATION SCHEDULE FOR 20 YR ROTATION

YR 1

TILLAGE OPERATIONS

ID COST MX RR DP RHT RIN DKH DKI OP HV HV MAT SCS IRR Q/ HU