Volume i 6 Number 2. SOCIAL FORCES Decemnber,I937 CULTURE AND SOCIOLOGY

WILLIAM FIELDING OGBURN Universityof Chicago

T HE definitionof culturemost often space, held there by balancing forces. quoted is that of Tyler: "Culture The ramifications of the latter discovery, is that complex whole which in- for instance, reached as far as the theory cludes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, of the state and supported the doctrine custom, and any other capabilities and of checks and balances, so evident in our habits acquired by man as a member of own governmental structure. Likewise society." A particular culture has been the ranifications of the idea of evolution defined by Redfield as "an organized body extended quite generally, especially to of conventional understandings, mnanifest societies. Out of it were developed the in act and artifact, which, persisting organismic theories of the state. A great through tradition, characterizes a human impetus was given to biological interpre- group." Excellent definitions both, yet tations of society by such men as Spencer culture is one of those large concepts, like and Huxley. The achievements of man democracy or science, a definition of which were seen as the direct outgrowth of his seems very bare and inadequate to convey inherited capacities. The wasps build its rich meanings. Different students will one type of house, the ants another, be- emphasize different aspects of culture as cause their biological structures are dif- most significant, and in the future impor- ferent. It followed, by inference, that tant new ideas about culture may be dis- the Aztecs have one type of culture and covered. At the present time the aspects the Egyptians another because their bi- of culture of most interest to sociologists ological natures are different. Function four ideas. may be grouped around was seen as following structure very closely. The European was further along in the scale of biological evolution than The study of culture developed out of the Australian black fellow since his cul- the soil of biological sociology. The Social evolu- impact of the discoveries of Darwin, partic- ture was more advanced. ularly the evolution of man from the tion was dependent upon biological evolu- anthropoids, on social thought was tre- tion. The monkeys had no civilization mendous. Nothing like it had so shocked because they had not evolved far enough. mankind since it was discovered that the Man, however, with his larger brain case earth was round and whirling through had gone further in biological progress I6i

SOCIAL FORCES, VOL. 16, NO. 2 I6z SOCIAL FORCES and was capable of developing civiliza- Such was the background of sociological tion. thought when the concept of culture ap- It is interesting that the idea of culture, peared. But as the phenomena of cul- which later was so often opposed to tural growth were studied, it was observed biology, was developed by one of the most that social institutions evolved into new biologically-minded men of the age, forms in periods of history too short for Herbert Spencer. He remarked that there any biological evolution. Hence doubt was a time when there was no life on the was cast on any correlation of cultural earth. Everything was inorganic. In evolution and biological evolution, at the course of time, inorganic matter least during the historical period, if not evolved to a point when life appeared. since the ice ages. Peoples of the same Then the evolution of the organic matter race were noted to have greatly different began. When it reached the level of man, levels of civilization, and peoples of dif- there appearedculture or, as Spencercalled ferent racial types were observed to have it, the "superorganic" which, in turn, the same social institutions. The growth began its evolution. of a particular culture, ethnologists were Though Spencer helped to give birth to showing, was not so much from inventions the idea of culture, he never really saw its produced within that culture as from traits nature clearly. For instance, to him the imported from other cultures. Thus any superorganic was dependent in a most inevitable succession of stages was ne- intimate and direct way upon the organic. gated. The concept of the superorganic was then The close correlation of function and only the beginning of the unfolding of the structure may exist when such widely dif- concept of culture. If the variations in ferent species as rats and guinea pigs are the organic determined the nature of the compared, but among peoples the func- superorganic in detail, as Spencerthought, tions as measured by customs and institu- then sociology not only rested on biology, tions were not found to be correlated with but was really a biological science. any discernible structure. When an Es- Out of the tide of enthusiasm for bi- kimo adult who could not count above ten ology, there appeared those twin absurdi- and was thus supposed to be no further ties, the recapitulation theory and the advanced than a child was taught to solve successive stages theory. According to problems in calculus, the recapitulation the former the individual recapitulated theory lost its appeal. the history of the race, so that the less That tremendous cultural variations evolved primitive peoples were seen only were possible even if there were no races as children. According to the latter and that rapid social evolution could take theory, since social stages were determined place if biologically men evolved not at by biological stages of evolution, they all but were quite stationary, were ideas must follow in succession, as monogamy revolutionary to the biological sociology followed polygamy. Supposedly Russia of the time. Culture cut the chains that could not go from the household agricul- tied sociology to biology. This freedom tural economy to socialism without pass- meant an actual stimulus in proposing new ing through capitalism. The power of hypotheses and in generating new ideas education and of the diffusion of culture about civilization, and explanations there- traits in breaking up such a succession of for on other grounds than biology. stages was not appreciated. However, it should not be understood CULTURE AND SOCIOLOGY 163 from the foregoing account that all fields being carried out by ethnologists in the of sociology were affected in this manner field. The literature was greatly en- by biology. There were, for instance, riched on different types of culture among many aspects of institutional relationships different peoples, and much was learned which were studied without any particu- about the organization of culture and the lar relationship to race, inheritance, or variations among the social institutions. instinct. However, many more phases of This type of phenomenon was inherently sociology were related to biological theo- interesting aside from race and tended to ries than was, for instance, the case with overshadow the description of biological economics or political science. behavior of groups. One angle from which these relation- The question then may be raised as to ships may be viewed was the controversy whether the definition of sociology as over the veiy nature of sociology itself. the study of the group gave the proper It was being variously described as the emphasis. It may be argued that there study of society, of the group, or of group was a large group of sociologists never behavior. Certainly back of these vari- much interested in psychological or ous conceptions was the idea of the group biological behavior of the group, but and group relations. The individual was who were rather more interested in the object of study of psychology or social organization, or in the culture biology, but the group was the particular carried by the group. Nevertheless, province of sociology. Sociology is de- if interest is primarily in the culture rived from the Latin word socios, mean- carried by the group, why say that the ing companion and implying a plural num- interest is in the group? To do this, ber of individuals. there must be a special definition of the With the wider acceptance of the mean- group. It must mean that the group and ing of culture, group behavior as a mere the culture carried by the group were type of inherited activity became of less very closely related, if not synonymous. importance. Discoveries regarding group Under the influence of biology, group processes such as social control, collective activity and behavior were seen as biolog- behavior, social pressure, mob action, ical products. It was the nature of man social contagion, ostracism, leadership, to behave this way in groups. It was and the social instincts, remained of im- instinct. The objective of sociology was portance to sociology, but interest tended to define more elaborately the nature of to shift to the cultural forms and patterns this group behavior. If this fuller de- carried by the group and to the various scription carried the investigation into habits and personalities favored by these social institutions, these became still the cultural influences. The field of group elaboration of instinctive social nature. action, viewed as a psychological and Since function was seen as so closely re- biological phenomenon, had been pretty lated to structure, the different group well cultivated, and, though still yield- functions, the different social institutions ing discoveries, had perhaps reached the were the product of different group capac- point of diminishing returns, at least at ities. With this view, sociology as a that time. Interest shifted to the cul- study of the group was, ipso facto, a study tural forms and their influence on the indi- of the group products, that is, its culture. vidual. Meanwhile descriptive work on But with the recognition that cultural the various cultures of the world was variations could occur without biological i64 SOCIAL FORCES variations, the group and the group's considered it for the primitive cultures, culture were no longer the same. The and have brought forward such indicative group might remain biologically the same terms as culture pattern and configuration. yet have a succession of different cultures. An ethnologist goes to a primitive people Hence, for the definition of sociology to and writes for the record an account of the be the study of the group, implied no whole culture of the people he visits, but longer that it was the study of the culture he does not generally confine himself to of that group. It was customary to say any particular part as, for instance, their at this earlier period that man created his economic institutions, as a social scientist culture. This was true if men of all time often does in a modern culture, such as are considered and if man is being con- those of Europe or North America. The trasted with another species. But one mere write-up of the whole culture of a cannot say that the Greeks or the Mayans people necessarily brings out the integra- created their culture, much less the inhab- tion of the different parts into the whole, itants of any one village or the peoples of especially when comparisons are made any one century. The culture is rather an with other cultures. environment in which they live, which, No scientific body seems to do for if conditions are favorable, they may modern civilization quite what the ethnol- modify somewhat in a given time by ogist does for a simpler culture. Perhaps invention. The term social heritage, the task is too large. The historian often used interchangeably with culture, doesn't do it. He is describing usually suggests the futility of saying that a events rather than institutions, and the particular group creates a culture. events he describes are often selected as Concluding this part of the discussion for instance, political occurrences, mili- then, the idea of culture is- necessarily at tary records, or economic achievements. least as significant for sociology as is In actual practice, the field of labor in biology. As Darwinism and biology studying modern civilization is subdi- tended to give sociology a definition as vided. The economist concerns himself the study of the group, culture, being in a with the institutions used in the produc- way the antithesis of biology has neces- tion and consumption of wealth. The sarily changed the definition of sociology political scientist deals with the govern- and added to the tasks of sociology the ments and their operation. And so on. study of cultural processes. This change Perhaps there is no great demand for a in concept of sociology itself suggests description of the whole of western civili- questions of new relations of sociology to zation. What the future may produce in ethnology and to the special- social integrated studies of the whole of a cul- sciences, such as economics and political ture is not known. science, which are, however, not appropri- This demand for an integrated picture of ate for the present discussion. the whole of a culture in modern times has come nearer to fruition in the description II of communities. It has long been the One aspect of this new relationship of tradition of the sociologist to do for a sociology to ethnology and the special particular village or city what the ethnol- social sciences is the consideration of cul- ogist does for a primitive culture. The ture as a whole consisting of interrelated primitive culture though is more nearly a parts. The ethnologists have always so closed system than is a single modern CULTURE AND SOCIOLOGY I65 community. Hence these modern com- ness men more than it is upon economists munity studies do not describe with com- or political scientists. Government, to- pleteness the political, social, and day, as it expands its functions is making economic institutions of a community. contacts with many more social institu- They omit what the readerswill in general tions, such as the family, clubs, recrea- know, for instance, about the religious or tional organizations, schools and church. educational system, only noting the varia- But the political scientists seldom study tions supposed to be peculiar to the village as social scientists these interrelationships. being described or else facts not available How these interrelationships of different for the country as a whole. parts of society may be studied in the fu- While it is then true that the rise of the ture is a question. But the concept of study of culture has forced upon the special- culture precipitates the issue. It is true ists studying modern society the idea that the issue has been injected also by the the parts make up a whole, the demand is pressure of practical problems, but here not so much for a description of the whole, the demand is for a practical solution as it is for the interrelationships of the rather than a scientific study. The parts. The culture pattern is of interest ethnologist objects to the treatment of any as a whole but also because of the inter- part of culture apart from the culture relationships of the parts. pattern. Thus he may say that a treat- Thus, in some cultures, religious prac- ment of marriage alone, for illustration, tices are closely related to recreational throughout a region or a period of time activities in ceremonies, rituals, and religi- should not be done since the full meaning ous festivals. The economic system may of marriage cannot be appreciated except be closely related to customs of hospi- as a part of the culture. Marriage should tality. For instance, the interchange of be always studied in connection with the gifts associated with ceremonies may be culture of which it is a part. The inter- a substitute for money and serve as a relationships of the parts of culture seem medium for the exchange of goods. Or, to be given relatively more attention in again, wealth and economic values may be the study of primitive cultures than in subordinated to prestige as found in rank. modern civilization. Religious ideas may be connected with It hardly seems practicable that soci- medical practice, art forms, or even eco- ologists should be the ones to study these nomic activities, and yet have little to do interrelations, though theoretically it with moral questions. might be argued that it is their task. There are interrelationships between the They would have difficulty in covering parts of modern society as truly as in the the necessary ground to give the detailed cultures of preliterate peoples. But these study necessary for dealing with the prac- interrelationships tend to be neglected by tical questions that arise. But, it is pos- modern social scientists because of their sible that they might do much to study specialization in particular fields. They the interrelationship of the functions of are, though, the concern of practical men the different social institutions, from the who have to deal with them. For in- point of view of social science. stance, the points of contact between gov- ernment and business are very numerous III and some study of their interrelations is A third significance of the concept of forced upon government officials and busi- culture lies in its contribution to the study i66 SOCIAL FORCES of social change. The evolution of cul- change, for the very term "pattern" indi- ture, once free of biology, came to be seen cates that the parts of culture are fitted in terms of cultural factors such as inven- together in a configuration, rather than tions, the diffusion of culture traits, cul- the aggregation of so many unrelated ture contacts and isolation, the relation units. The parts of culture are not related of the stock of knowledge existing at any so simply as the links of a chain, but are one time to the rate of new inventions, integrated more like the parts of a ma- social attitudes toward change, resistance chine, so that when one part is changed to the adoption of inventions, and other the various' other parts are likely to be such factors of a social nature. affected also, even though in some cases The idea of change is not central to the only slightly. ethnologist's study of culture. It is true The correlation between the different he sees the culture of primitive peoples parts of culture is in unequal degrees. undergoing profound changes due to con- The church and art may be more closely tacts with the culture of the white related than government and art. Litera- peoples, but usually his search is to recon- ture is more closely related to education struct the ancient culture as it was before than to economic processes. Medicine the changes due to contacts with the was at one time in closer connection with whites. The study of the effect of the religion than with science, while in white man's culture on the native cul- another culture it may be closer to science tures is, of course, a very special type of than to religion. A change therefore be- social change. ginning in any one part of culture will The historian records happenings and affect the other parts in unequal degrees. events but makes no systematic record of Similarly impinging forces in any part of institutional changes and the causes there- culture come with unequal forces from for. The specialists in the various social other parts of culture. sciences do make analyses of the changes The evolution of the superorganic then in the particular institutions concerned, is the change of a whole where various political, economic, educational, or what- parts are more or less integrated. But the ever they may be. But, again, it may be various parts are not propelled forward observed that no institution exists alone with equal force. Some are changing and unrelated to any other; hence the rapidly, some slowly. Some parts change specialist is handicapped if he restricts because of inventions occurring in that his attention to the causes of change lying part. So, for instance, technology or within the institution concerned. True, science changes today. Other parts are he does not always so restrict himself for changing more from inventions occurring the reason that often causes of great outside. Such was largely the case with change in any organization come from the family in Europe and the United States outside. The specialist though is likely in the nineteenth century. These unequal to see only the more obvious external fac- rates of change in the different correlated tors, since they lie without his special parts of culture cause stresses and strains field. The growth or change of the in the relationship of the parts of culture. superorganic is not best approached by a There thus occurs in a changing society study of the changes in the different parts maladjustment between its parts, adjust- of the whole. It is better to view the ments which are either less satisfactory whole culture pattern as undergoing than either previous or possible future CULTURE AND SOCIOLOGY I 67 relationships. As an illustration, the This approach radically revised the ex- relationship that exists between science planation of personality. It was once and religion has been disturbed at various thought that personality was largely the times by virtue of discoveries in science gift of inheritance. But the personality relating to the nature of the world and of the young is now held to be more the of man. These acute tensions become outgrowth of group experience and of the eventually smoothed out, but for the time culture pattern in which the child is there is a serious maladjustment, usually reared. Group relationships, as in the for the part of culture which receives the family, church, school, club, playground, force of invention, social or mechanical. are of great importance in shaping the These strains are in many cases caused by personalities; but so also are the culture the fact that there is a delay or lag in patterns carried by the group, be they keeping up with the precipitating those of warlike Sparta or the peaceful changes. In modern society mechanical Greenland Eskimo. invention and scientific discovery are, in This study of cultural and group influ- fact, the precipitators of many changes in ences on the personality of children is not other parts of culture. So that the various as amenable to study by the ethnologist social organizations, philosophies, habits, as is the description of culture pattern. are forced to adjust, after a delay, to new The ethnologist is not in a good position situations brought about by these mechan- nor well equipped to watch the growth of ical and scientific innovations. young children in a primitive culture, Thus the study of cultural evolution though comparisons may be made in the gives rise to important hypotheses of a personalities of adults in different cultures. purely cultural nature. The early Icelanders were so murderous that it was thought they could never IV settle the island because they killed each A last influence of culture to be con- other off so fast. But the culture pattern sidered here is on social psychology. It has changed and it is said there were only a seemed, from the so-called instinct psy- dozen murders in Iceland in the nineteenth chology, that one could start with a blue century. Comparative studies show the print of man's original nature and read off influences of different cultures on produc- his social institutions. One started with ing different personality traits. The de- motives and found there the explanation velopment of personality ceases then to be of custom and other human behavior. wholly in the province of psychology. But inquiries into the explanation of The psychologist who works in the labor- cultural phenomena have reversedthe proc- atory is concerned with the account of ess. It is better to start with the cul- general inventories, habits and the proc- tural phenomena and by history and de- esses of the conditioned reflex, rather scription to arrive at motives as the end than the influence of particular culture result. Similarly the social institutions patterns on young people. The labora- must first be accounted for on cultural tory psychologist is not well trained for ground before one can be sure what parts studying the various cultural stimuli, as of original nature are involved. A psy- appear in custom and institution, which chological inventory of original nature shape personality. Likewise it is a study cannot be used as a blue print for predict- not to be undertaken by special social ing social organization. scientists such as economists or political i68 SOCIAL FORCES scientists. The study of personality shown many marvelous new habits that would seem to fall within the sphere of can be set up on the principle of the con- activity of the special science of education ditioned reflex. Thus the modifiability or of the general science of sociology as of original nature, rather than a relatively well as in psychology. If sociologists rigid set of instincts, is a lesson from acquire the task of studying personality psychology that offers a basis for de- as influenced by culture, they cannot be scribing the different effects of culture on concerned with only one institution. personality. The family may be the most important. Not even the different personalities of But schools, churches, communities, the sexes, is now admitted to be wholly clubs, occupations, etc., must all be determined by the obviously different studied. He really must look at culture sexual co stitutions of male and female. as a whole. The sociologist, trained in But traits which are considered masculine psychology, is also in a very good posi- in our culture are found to be feminine in tion to make such studies because of his other cultures and vice versa. Further- interest in the group and group processes, more, as cultural change is now taking which are particularly important in place in modern culture, the feminine per- stamping the culture pattern on the indi- sonality is quite different today from what vidual, in making him conform to the it was so years ago in, say, the Victorian pattern or become a variant. Also in era. No doubt there are limits to which studying the influence of culture on the biological nature can be bent; and what individual, it is. necessary to view culture is more important, there is probably some as a whole. kind of biological norm of behavior to With regard to the old question of the which, as culture moulds personality, psychological adjustment of man, the there is a more harmonious relationship primitive hunter, to modern culture, the established. But for the moment, the question is not now expressed in the culture enthusiasts are forgetting the earlier biological language of adaptation biological limits to cultural influence, even and environment. It is rather phrased in though there be an alarming number of the expression the interrelationship be- psychotics. tween personality and culture. Though With a fixed biological nature and a personality may be the product of culture, rapidly changing culture, optimistic man the individual may deviate from the pat- with notions of progress is even looking tern and hence not be adjusted. If the forward to possibilities of bending culture deviation is rather far, he may be called to make a better relationship. But the a neurotic personality. In a modern question on the other hand is being raised society there are patterns within patterns. whether a rapidly changing culture, with Society is heterogeneous and consists of all its lags and inequalities of rates, of many groups, with different folkways, change and uncertain futures, is not a so that the effect of culture on the person- more difficult one to which to make an ality is far from simple. The new ap- adjustment than a stationary culture. proach to culture and personality is not Personality and culture is more often wholly due to the growing apprecia- viewed as a one way relationship. But, of tion of culture. Psychology also makes course, a personality may influence cul- its contribution. Researches there have ture. The question of the impact of the SOCIALMETABOLISM AND PROGRESS I 69 great man on culture has no special new curve of inherited traits or combination of emphasis since the intrusion of the cul- traits. ture concept, except perhaps to strengthen In conclusion, it has been shown that the case of social forces influencing the the biological influences on sociology of great man, rather than the great man in- a generation or so ago acted as a spring fluencing social forces. board for hurtling the new idea of culture The personality influences the super- into sociological thought. The magni- organic through inventions-mechanical, tude of the idea is quite comparable with social, or ideational. Hence the import- the magnitude of social biology. Indeed, ance of how inventions originate. Little the importance of culture has forced a re- evidence seems to be forthcoming that the orientation of many of the most important inventor is a biological mutation, or even concepts of sociology and even the con- in the upper extreme of some distribution sideration of a redefining of sociology. SOCIAL METABOLISMIN ITS BEARINGS ON PROGRESS BENOY KUMAR SARKAR CalcuttaUniversity

N O OTHERdoctrine appears to be ing senescence with the solitary excep- more dominant in the social tion, perhaps, of the Italians.2 American thinking and constructive states- sociologists are not immune to this de- manship of today than that established by cline-cult and some of them are anxiously Lapouge in Les Selections Sociales (Paris discussing the question with reference to I896). It is in his message, namely-that the decline in the natural fertility of the (i) the annihilation of the Aryan is in- Eur-American population.' evitable; (z) all the forms and processes In all these decline-cults of today the of contemporary civilisation are but cumu- student of sociology is being forced to latively heading towards regression and grapple with the problems of social lon- decay; and finally, (3) progress cannot be gevity, growth, and expansion, and along considered to be the rational conclusion with them the question of social metab- from the data of world-history-that con- olism and transformation.4 It is in and temporary philosophy, sociology and poli- through social mobility, vertical or hori- tics find a challenge as well as a prob- zontal, that group metabolism manifests lem.' itself.5 An examination of the dynamics The names of thinkers who, in recent of life or of the forces that serve to trans- years, have preached the doctrine of man- form and reconstruct the races, classes, kind's decline or regress are legion. From castes, and other groups ought, therefore, Spengler's Untergangdes Abendlandes,has 2 come the formula that the West is headedfor Gini: I. Fattori Demographici delle Evolu2ione delle Uomini (Torino I9I2), pp. 2-5-30, 36-40. decay. Romain Rolland has popularized 3Hankins: "Civilisation and Fertility," a paper the notion that Western civilization is for the International Population Union, London, doomed. In the Italian demographist I93I- Gini's analysis of "the parabola of evolu- 4 Siredey: Influencedes Facteurs biologiquessur la diminutiondes naissance,a paper for the International tion," the European races are all exhibit- Congresson Population, Rome I93z. I Sorokin: ContemporarySociological Theories (New 1 Les SelectionsSociales, chapters XIII, XV. York i9L8), pp. 749-752-