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Master's Theses Theses and Dissertations

1939

John in the Continental

William A. Dehler Loyola University Chicago

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 License. Copyright © 1939 William A. Dehler JOHN ADAMS IN THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS

by

William A. Dehler, s. J.

A THESIS SUBMITTED Il~ PARTIAL FULFILLiv:ENT OF TEE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF

ARTS IH LOYOLA 1J1UVERSITY

AUGUST,

1939 VITA AUCTOiiiS

William Andrew Dehler, s. J. was born January 24 1 1912 at Terre Eaute, . He received his elementary education at st. Benedict's Grammar School in that city from September, 1918 to June, 1926. He attended Wiley High School, Terre Haute, for one year. In September, 192'7, he was transferred to the high school division of St. IViarys College, St. Mary's, , and was graduated in June, 1930. In the fdllowing September, he matricu­ lated in the College of .Arts and Sciences of Notre Dame Univer­ sity. He entered the Novitiate of the Sacred Heart at Milford, , August 31, 1931, and was enrolled in the College of Arts and Sciences of Xavier University, Cincinnati, Ohio. In June, 1935, he received the degree of Bachelor of Literature from Xav­ ier University. He was transferred, in September, 1935, to West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana, and was registered at the same time as a graduate student of Loyola University in the Department of History. TABIE OF CONTENTS

Page Chapter I The First Continental Congress 1

Chapter II The Appointment of 18

Chapter III Toward 35

Chapter IV The Declaration of Independence 54

Chapter v Work 69

Chapter VI Character of John Adams 85

Bibliography 100 CHAP'rER I

THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS

Fearing that the Royal would dissolve tl::.eir as­ sembly, the members of the House of Representatives ordered the doors of the chamber t.o be locked, June 17, 1774. They had important business to transact before they adjourned. By an overwhelming majority they voted to send delegates to Phil adelphia to consult with the delegates from the other colonies and to determine nwlse and proper measures ••• for the recovery and establishment of their just rights & liberties, civil and religious, and the restoration of union & harmony between Gre~t Britain and the Colonies.ttl Finally they selected five delegates to represent the colony of Massachusetts and passed a resolution to provide their expense money.

Meanwhile tbe Governor's Secretary had brought an order for the dissolution of the House. He did not, however, gain ad­ mlttance, for the assembly confirmed by vote their previous order to keep the doors locked. In vain the Secretary published the proclamation on the stairs leading up to the chamber; the members of the House did not vote to adjourn until they had completed their work.2 Thus ended the last provincial assembly in Massa­ chusetts under the royal prerogative.

One of the five delegates chosen was John Adams, a man of 2 thirty-eight years just rising to great prominence as a lawyer. Although he had gained considerable recognition by his formal protest against the Stamp Act before Chief Justice Hutchinson and had refused a lucrative post offered by the royal authorities as an indirect bribe, John Adams was far from being an outstand­ ing patriot leader. With full confidence, however, and Joseph Hawley had often consulted him in a legal capacity; now they decided to call him to more direct service in the cause of American liberty.

This choice was a surprise to John Adams. He had hoped to avoid public affairs. Now that he could reasonably expect his law practice to provide comfortably for his family needs, to sacrifice this professional career even for a time cost him not a little regret.3 A stronger reason for surprise was the con­ sciousness of his own lack of experience. In sharp contrast to his usual vanj_ty, John Adams confessed, ttThis will be an assembly of the wisest men upon the continent ••• I will feel myself unequal to this business. A more extensive knowledge of the realm, the colonies, and of cow~erce, as well as of law and pol­ icy, is necessary, than I am master of.tt4 He regarded the Con­ gress as a "school" and a "nursery of American Statesmen" and regretted that he could not prepare for the forthcoming term by reading points in Law, Politics, and Commerce.5 If only he were not obliged to make his professional circuit through the present state of during the last two months before Congress con- 3 vened, he could review his Law and History, and then he nmight appear with less indecency before a variety of gentlemen, whose educations, travels, experience, family, fortune, and everything" gave them a vast superiority.6 Unfortunately, familiarity breeds contempt; this saner and truer outlook gave way to vain conceit soon after John Adams came in contact with the 11 wisest men upon tb.e continent. u

Not w1til 1774 did Adams step out of the narrow confines of New :Sngland. The ride southward to in the com­ pany of his colleagues, , Samuel Adams, and , was his first opportunity "to see the world and to form acquaintances with the most eminent and famous menu in the colonies.?

With the ovations tendered the delez:sates in , John Adams was very much pleased. The reception at lJew Haven excelledin ceremony the treatment accorded a ttGovernor of' a Provincett or a uGeneral of an Army.n A large escort came out to meet them; the people crowded to the doors and windows; bells rang; and cannons boomed out a welcome. Adams properly inter­ preted these respectful attentions as a demonstration of sy~pathy for the suffering province of Massachusetts and of expectation of great results from the Congress.8 Thus the journey was more like a triumph than a trip to the scene of labors. For the most part the people along the route were very :favorably inclined to the meeting of Congress, though Adams thought ttsome persons in 4 Hew York and Philadelphia wanted a little animation.u9 After nineteen days on the road the delegates from Massachusetts were escorted into the city of Philadelphia to the City Tavern.l0 During the next few days they were busy forming acquaintances with the delegates arriving from the other colonies.

Before leaving their native province, the Bay Colony delegates had been warned against acting in a manner likely to hiEder the unity and harmony of the Congress. The opinion was somewhat prevalent in the other colonies that uMassachusetts gen­ tlemen ••• do affect to dictate and take the lead in continen­ tal measures" and ''to assume big and haughty airs.u Consequently, Joseph Hawley cautioned the delegates to act with circumspection. Knowing well the particular propensities of John Adams, Hawley assured him that men of. equal ability would represent the other colonies and wa.rned him against giving 11 umbra~:;e, disgust, or affront" to members of Dutch, Scotch, or Irish descent.ll

Again at Frankfort, just before their arrival in Philadel­ phia, the four lilassachusetts .delegates received advice from Dr.

Rush, ~ifflin, Bay&rd, and other "active " in Philadelphia, vfho had come out to meet them. '.L'he New ::i:nglan.d Tories had spread reports abroad that these four dele3ates were "desperate adventurerstt a::J.d poor men who courted popularity. Since their native colony had felt the chastening rod of England, the Massachusetts delegates were considered tttoo warm, too zeal­ ous, too sanguinett in their opposition to tho Eother Country. 5 Consequently, Dr. Rush and his companions pointed out that under these circumstances Adams and his colleagues must surrender the honor of leading to the delegates from the Old Dominion to whom the other colonies would willingly concede first place in the Congress. John Adams confessed himself deeply impressed by this sound advice and to i~ in later years, attributed the leadership of Virginians during the .l2

In Congress a strong prejudice against the Bostonians in­ clined many members to listen to their sentiments with great caution. John Adams and his colleagues were forced to keep them selves "out of sight, and to feel pulses, and to sound the depths to insinuate ••• sentiments, designs, and desires, by means of other persons, sometimes of one province, and sometimes of another."l3 Surely they had a "delicate course to steer between too much activity and too much insensibility" in the critical situation of their province at this time.l4 The Bostonians were so circumspect and cautious that spoke of them as more moderate than the delegates from and the Carolinas, Even Galloway remarked that the Bostonians were very modest "in their Behavior and Conversationu yet "not so much so as not to throw out Hints.ttl5

While John Adams found many of the members "full of pre­ judices and jealousies" which he had not expected, he too was prejudiced and ignorant of other colonies.l6 Willingly, however he sacrificed himself for the sake of the cause. From morning 6 till night, he was busy studyin8 the characters and views of his fellow members, learning the peculiar interests of each colony, reading multitudes of pamphlets, newspapers, private letters, and visiting the leading men of the Congress.l7

The Massachusetts delegates were really beggars at the Congress, desirous of sympathy and support in their resistance to Great Britain •• Obviously, as beggars, they could not hope to dictate the policy of the Congress. Yet Massachusetts had defi­ nite expectations from the Congress; she desired permission to resume her charter and wanted the colonies to prepare for the armed resistance which she considered inevitable if the Mother Country did not redress colonial grievances. Such proposals startled most people outside of , who from a distance did not fully appreciate the difficulty of living without legis­ lature and courts of law.l8

Even before Congress convened for its first session, two parties had formed. The liberals,sympathizing with suffering

Massachusetts, were prepared to support her against Great Britain~ the conservatives, led by and , dis­ trusting the radical influence of New England, desired to precede slowly and cautiously. The first group would employ passive re­ sistance; the conservatives sought reconciliation with England at any cost.

On Monday, September 5th, all the delegates walked from 7 the City Tavern to inspect Carpenters' Hall. The undei'standing had been that they were also to examine the State-house as a place for their meetings. But the liberals had already privately determined not to use the more suitable State-house simply be­ cause the conservative leader, Galloway, had offered it. Accord­ ingly, even before the delegates had viewed the State-house, Thomas Lynch of proposed that Carpenters' Hall be used. By a large majority the delegates decided in the affirma­ tive, despite the protests of Duane, Galloway, and a few others from and :i:~ew York.l9

The Congress unanimously chose of Virginia chairman. Then, soon after the , the liberals won a second victory in the unanimous choice of Thompson as Secretary of the Congress. This uunanimousu election hardly e,x­ pressed the surprise and chagrin of Galloway, Jay, Duane, and their party. Galloway's determined opposition to his election was the only reason why Thompson had not been chosen as a dele­ gate to the Congress from Pennsylvania. The choice of a man of the middle class as Secretary, however, was a move calculated to win the sympathy of and to placate the mechanics and common peo­ ple of Plilladelphia.20 The two reverses that Galloway's party suffered in the choice of Carpenters 1 Hall and of Thompson, were undoubtedly due to the influence of the Bostonians on the dele­ gates from Virginia and Carolina.21

Despite this bit of discord, Congress continued its work 8 of organization by drawingup rules of conduct. Thomas Cushing proposed that the business of Congress be opened with a prayer, but Jay and Rutledge objected that the religious sentiments of the members were too diverse. Samuel Adams, however, interposed that he "could hear a prayer from a gentleman of piety and virtue, who was at the same time a friend to his country," and suggested , that Reverend Mr. Duche, an Episcopal clergyman, say the opening prayer.22 His suggestion was followed. On the following morning the new chaplain struck out into an extemporary prayer that even delighted the heart of the non-conformist John Adams, who con­ fessed that he had never heard a better prayer "with such fervor, such ardor, such earnestness and pathos, and in language so ele­ gant and sublime."23 Very likely this praise was partly due to the motif of the prayer, for Duche prayed especially and very appropriately for the town of , which a false rumor had re- ported as cannonaded. Other members also lauded this pertinent , extemporaneous prayer of the Reverend Duche. claimed that "it was worth riding one hundred miles to hear n; Samuel Ward extolled it as one of the umost sublime, ca tho lie, well-adapted prayers" he had ever heard.24 Surely the choice of Duche was a "masterly stroke of policytt on the part of the Bostonians, who thus took care lest any religious difference prevent the harmon­ ious union of the colonies.25 Though at this time Duche was esteemed a 11 wa.rm advocate of the religious and civil rights of America," three years later he turned traitor to the cause of liberty.28 9 John Adams' impression of these first few meetings was very favorable. "Congress is such an assembly as never before came together, on a sudden, in any part of the world.u27 Never before had he met -vvith such ttabilities, learning, eloquence, acuteness.u To compare the llsordid, venal herd" of his own pro­ vince with these :magnanimous and public spirited men was impos­ sible.28 Naturally, he cherished highly their conversation both in Congress and at the frequent banquets in the evenings.

Besides these- pleasures, Adams found :many difficulties in Congress, for business was tedious, uslow as snails.u Fifty strangers unacquainted ttwith each other's language, ideas, views, designs" were naturally jealous and feai•ful of one another.29 Each colony had its own :method of transacting public business; each had its own peculiar rights and interests to guard. Since unanimity was considered of prime importance, every delegate was allowed to speak on every question. Even unimportant topics were discussed minutely. Besides, the deliberations were long because each of the fifty gentlemen had been 11 habituated to lead and guide in his own Province.U30 Adams, who had longed to associate with the greatest men on the continent, soon wearied of the tedi­ ous business of Congress. nThis assembly is like no other that ever existed. Every man in it is a great man, an orator, a crit­ ic, a statesman; and therefore every :man on every question must show his oratory, his criticism, and his political abilities. 11 31

After settling the preliminary business of procedure,_ Con- 10 grass chose several . One of these, composed of two members from each colony, was instructed to state the rights of the colonies, to point out violations, and to determine means of obtaining the restoration of these rights.32 This committee met regularly each morning for many days and thus "became an object of jealousy to all the other members of Congress." John Adams, a member of the committee, deplored that these important questions were not discussed in Congress at large. One of the mooted topics was the amount of authority to be conceded to Parliament. After fruitless discussion, the committee appointed a sub-committee, including John Adams, to draw up ~ set of articles. In his Auto­ biography Adams claimed that the key phrases in the article limit­ ing the authority of Parliament were his work, but his memory may have failed him, for these ideas seem to have originated with Duane.33 Adams, however, put the articles in form and reported a fair draught for final acceptance. Though these ten resolutions on the rights and liberites of the colonies met with considerable opposition, they were passed unanimously.

One of the peaceful means of redress resolved upon in this Declaration of Rights was a non-importation, non-consumption, and non-exportation association. The colonists nat1~ally had faith in this proposal, for history had not yet proved it ineffective. But the measure which they hoped would force England to come to terms, only hastened hostilities and emptied colonial warehouses on the very eve of the war when military supplies were most needed. 11 Congress' sanction of the was a decisive vic tory for the liberals. In t~_1ese resolves the delegates of suffolk , Massachusetts, desirfng to resist the "unparallel ed usurpation of unconstitutional power,n and to preserve nthose civil and religious right and liberties, for which many of our fathers fought, bled and died, n had declared that the late acts of Parliament did not demand obedience because they were contrary to the natural law, the British , and the charter of 11lassachusetts.34 Despite the opposition of Galloway and Duane, the Suffolk Resolves were unanimously approved by a full Congress on September 17th.

John Adams considered this day one of the happiest in his life, for the "generous, noble sentiments, and manly eloquencett in Congress convinced him nthat America will support Massachusett or perish with her.tt35 He told his wife that the expressions of s;y'Tnpathy and admiration for the people of i:.~assachusetts and the determination to support them "were enough to melt a heart of stonen a.nd actually ca-c:.sed tears to "gush into the eyes of the grave pacific of Pennsylvania.tt36

Samuel Adruns wrote that Congress had sanctioned the Suf­ folk Resolves, "one of which is to act merely on the defensive, so long as such conduct may be justified by reason and the prin­ ciple of self-preservation, bu~ E.£ longer." He added that dele­ gates from other provinces had privately assured him that their colonies would support Massachusetts if force were necessary to 12 defend her liberty.37 Clearly, the endorsement of the Suffolk Resolves was but a step in the policy of Massachusetts. The other colonies, however, had not yet advanced very far in their opposi- tion to Great Britain. John Adams warned a friend in Massachu- setts to expect a great deal from Congress, for the delegates .. · "start at the thought of taking up the old charter," and "shudder at the prosp3ct of blood; yet they are unanimously and unalterablJ against your submission to any of the Acts for a single moment." Thus the members wanted to straddle the fence and not commit them- sevles to any treasonable act. When the Massachusetts delegation represented to Congress the impossibility of living without law and government, the other members gave panegyrics on the "wisdom, fortitude, and temperancen of the people of Massachusetts and ex­ horted them to perseverance.38 John Adams clearly foresaw the impracticality of trying to combine patience and forebearance witr absolute and open resistance to the rule of General Gage. Advis- ing.the people of his native province to prepare for war, he in­ sisted that they be peaceable and avoid conflict if possible.39

Another work of this Congress was to write addresses to the people of Great Britain, to George III, to the inhabitants of Quebec, and to the people of the British Colonies. These docu- ments were not very popular with the more radical element in Con- gress,who were not satisfied with merely listing grievances and petitioning redress. In later years John Adams confessed that he had been unaware at the time of the importance of preparing these 13 addresses. Writing compositions had seemed inadequate and use­ less. His thoughts had been "nearly monopolized by the theory of our rights and wrongs, by measures for the defense of the countrY: and the means of governing ourselves." In later life, however, he realized the need of these addresses to justify the cause and cement the union of the colonies.40 Never had he expected to ob­ tain redress by means of these petitions and the non-importation and non-exportation agreements. In fact, he claimed to have con­ vinced in 1774 that these documents would be but ttwaste papertt in England, and that the issue could only be set­ tled by war.41

Before adjourning, Congress resolved to meet again on May 10, 1775, at Philadelphia, provided the colonial grievances had not been redressed. Thus, after less than two months in session, the First Continental Congress dissolved on October 26. Two days later, John Adams left the "happy, the peaceful, the elegant, the hospitable and the polite city of Philadelphia." He thought the, prospect of his seeing that ttpart of the world" again was unlike­ ly, perhaps because he did not expect to be reelected as delegate to the Congress.42 En route to Braintree, he celebratea his thirty-ninth birthday.

The Congress, indeed, had not accomplished much. After all, the members could only consult about the best policy; they lacked authority to enforce their resolutions. Naturally the delegates from the southern and were entirely 14 unwilling to conrrni t themselves to open resistance to :.:i:ngla.c1d, for they knew their constituents were not ready to Leep step with radical I.J:assachusetts •· They feared a 11 rupture with the Troopsu would likely involve the whole continent in war and render recon­ ciliation hopeless •. Since they were decisively averse to any hostilities unless absolutely necessar:r, tbe members of Congress did not vote to raise money and arms as l\Iassachusetts vainly hoped. 43 The people of that province must be patient and endure a hi?.rd winter, for conrrnerce was almost s tac;nant, laws unenforced, criminals unpunished, and debts m1collected. John Adruas, even before Congress assembled, foresaw this turn of events and ex­ pected the meeting at Philadelphia to be disappointing to the people of ll~assachusetts. At the time he had consoled himself with the hope of doing his duty and enjoying ugood company, good conversation, and ••• a fine ride.»44

Even though the people of r~:assachusetts were not entirely satisfied, the Congress had accomplished all that could have rea­ sonably been expected. The Bay Colony was assured of sympathy and support. The brightest hope was the precedent now establishec, for another Congress was to assemble in May. Much could happen il1 a few months. 15

NOTES TO CHAPTER I

1. Journals of the Continental Congress, I. p.l6. 2, American Archives (Fourth Series), I. p.421-2. 3. J. Adams to Woodfall, May 14, 1'7'74, in The Works of John Adams, IX. p.338. Diary, July 1, 1'7'72, Ibid., II: p.298. 4. Diary, June 20, 1'7'74, Ibid., II. p.338. 5. J. Adams to Warren, June 25, 1'7'74, Ibid., IX. p.339. 6. J. Adams to , June 30, 1'7'74, in Familiar Letters p.5. '7. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Aug. 28, 1'7'74, Ibid., p.26. Only four of the delegates chosen in lvlassachuse~attended the Congress; declined the appointment. 8. Diary, Aug. 16, 1'7'74, in The Works of John Adams, II. p.342-3 9. J. Adruns to Abigail Adams, Sept. 18, 1'7'74, in Familiar Let­ ters, p.38. 10. John Adams called the City Tavern ttthe most genteel one in America." Diary, in The Works of John Adams, II. p.35'7. This tavern was also called Sffiitn 1 s Tavern-.- 11. Hawley to J. Adams, July 25, 1'7'74, Ibid., IX. p.344-5. 12. J. Adams to Pickering, Aug. 6, 1822, Ibid., II. p.512, note. 13. J. Adams to Tudor, Sept. 29, 1 '7'7 4, Ibid., IX. p.348. 14. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Sept. 18, 1'7'74, in Familiar Let- ters, p.40. 15. Caesar Rodney to , Sept. 9, 1'7'74, in Letters of Members of the Continental Congress, I. p.2'7. Galloway to 1he Governorof , Sept. 3, 1'7'74, Ibid., I. p.5. 16. J. Adams to Lloyd, Jan. 1815, in The Works of John Adruns, X. p.llO. 1'7. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Sept. 14, 1'7'74, in Familiar Let­ ters, p.32. J. Adams to Abigail Adams,- Oct. 7, 1774, Ibid., p:-4"4. 16 18. J. Adams to Palmer, Sept. 26, 1774, in Letters of Members of the Continental Congress, I. p.48. -- 19• Diary, Sept. 5, 1774, in The Works of John Adams, II. p.356. Silas Deane to Mrs. Deane;-3ept. 1-3; 1774, in Letters of Members of the Continental Cong:ess, I. p.4. Galloway-ro Governor-of-rr6w Jersey, Sept. , 1774, Ibid., I. p.9. Duane, Notes of Proceedings, Sept. 5, 1~ Ibid., I. p.8. 20. Silas Deane to Mrs. Deane, Sept. 7, 1774, Ibid., I. p.ll. 21. Galloway to Governor of New Jersey, Sept. 5, 1774, Ibid., I. p.9-10. 22. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Sept. 16, 1774, in Familiar Let­ ters, p.37-8. 23. Loc. cit. 24. Silas Deane to Mrs. Deane, Sept. 7, 1774, in Letters of Mem­ bers of the Continental Congress, I. p.l8. Samuel Ward-,-­ TIQary;-Sept. 7, 1774, Ibid., I. p.l9. 25. Samuel Adams to Warren, Sept. 9, 1774, Ibid., I. p.27. 26. Diary, Sept. 10, 1774, in The Works of John Adams, II. p.378. J. Adams to Abigail Adams,~t. 25, T77~n Familiar Let­ ters, p.320. 27. J. Adams to Tudor, Sept. 29, 1774, in The Works of John Adams IX. p.346. 28. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Sept. 8, 1774, in Familiar Let­ ters, p.31-2.

29. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Sept. 25, 17741 Ibid., p.42.

30. Diary, Oct. 10, 1774, in The Works of ~Adams, II. p.395. 31. Diary, Oct. 24, 1774, Ibid., II. p.401. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Oct. 9, 1774, in-Familiar Letters, p.45. 32. Journals of the Continental Congress,(Sept. 6, 1774} I. p.26. 33. Autobiography, in The Works of John Adams, II. p.373. Cf. note by Burnett, in Letters 0I Mambers of the Continental Congress, I. p.44-5. ------

34. Suffolk Resolves, in Journals of the Continental Con~ress, I. p.32-3. Cf. Galloway, Statement;-In Letters of Mem ers of the Continental Congress, I. p.54-5. - . - 17 35. Diary, Sept. 17, 1774, in The Works of John Adams, II. p.380. 36. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Sept. 18, 1774, in Familiar Let­ ters, p.39-40. 37. Samuel Adams to Warren, Sept. 25, 1774, in Letters of Members of the Continental Congress, I. p.47. 38. J. Adams to Tudor, Sept. 29, 1774, in The Works of John Adams IX. p.347. 39. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Oct. 7, 1774, in Familiar Letters, p.44. 40. J. Adams to Jefferson, Nov. 21, 1813, in The Works of John Adams, X. p.78-9. 41. J. Adams to Wirt, Jan. 23, 1818, Ibid., X. p.278. 42. Diary, Oct. 28, 1774, Ibid., II. p.402. 43. J. Adams to Palmer, Sept. 26, 1774, in Letters of Members of the Continental Congress, I. p.48. J.~ams-to-Tudor, oc~ -~1774, Ibid., I. p.65. 44. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, July 6, 1774, in Familiar Letters, p.18. ~------~

CHAPTER II

THE APPOINTNIENT OF WASHINGTON

Bloodshed at Lexington and Concord changed the whole aspect of things. Riding to Cambridge soon after the conflict, John

~dams saw the disorder and lack of supplies in the New England a:rmy gathering there. Proceeding to Lexington, he gathered in­ formation at the scene of the battle. On his return he was ill with fever and was unable to set out for Philadelphia with

~is colleagues. He quickly recovered, however, and overtook his companions at .l

All along the route to Philadelphia, the colonists showed their approbation of the conduct of Massachusetts by warmly re­ ceiving her delegates to the Congress. At New York, the

~nd "almost the whole cityn welcomed the delegates with not a word of blame for the conflict at Lexington. As a token of their approbation the people of Philadelphia received the Bostonians with open arms.2

Just like the last Congress, this Second Continental Con­ gress opened with the appearance of a great spirit of unanimity.

~t first, John Adams expected Congress to support Massachusetts, for he thought that Lexington had aroused the military spirit of the continent,3 but very soon he was disillusioned. Every day convinced him more and more that the old jealousy and suspicion of 19 4 New England was still prevalent.

The critical state of affairs at Boston demanded the as- sistance of Congress 1 for General Artemus Ward could not keep his men together very long without aid from the outside. Clothing1 money1 munitions were needed sorely. Encouragement from the southern and middle colonies was essential if the New Englanders were to keep Gage's army in Boston. To propose that Congress should adopt the army at Cambridge under the command of a New England general was folly. The profound sectional jealousy would certainly have defeated such a proposal. Besides, the conserva- tive element in Congress was urging a second and stoutly opposing any leanings toward independence. Accord- ingly, to insure the adoption of the. New England army by Congres~ John Adams was willing to concede the appointment of George Wash- ington as conooander-in-chief.

In his Autobiography written many years later, John Adams recounted with much ado his part in the appointment of Washington. Surely .in 1775 he did not fully realize the significance of his action, any more than he foresaw the happy result of his appoint- ment of John Marshall as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. His ' reminiscences of the nomination of Washington took on a glamor in his eyes because of the happy outcome of the event. Somewhat co~trary to the impression Adams has left in his Autobiography, some leaders in Massachusetts saw the prudence of making Washing-

.l, ton "generalissimo." At least and Dr. Warren were ,.... ------,20 willing to concede to Virginia the honor of first place, that Massachusetts might secure the support of the other colonies in this crisis. 5

Over the choice of a general the members of Congress were greatly divided. A few favored of Massachusetts, President of the Congress, who may have ambitioned the appoint­ ment merely as a compliment. John Adams testified that he no- ticed a sudden change in Hancock's countenance when he nominated Washington. A larger number were for General , who had frequently visited the members of the Congress in their lodg­ ings and was reputed "one of the greatest generals in the world.n Some favored Washington, but the largest number of.delegates sup- ported Artemus Ward. 6 Undoubtedly, this last group comprised most of the delegates from New England.

To propose Washington was a hazardous step. John Adams realized that sending a stranger to Cambridge to supplant General Ward would not be very agreeable to the New England militiamen. The officers of that army could justly resent the intrusion of an almost unknown Colonel from Virginia to replace a well-beloved leader. What if the army refused to accept Washington as its commander? John Adams foresaw that his nomination of Washington would most likely make him unpopular in his native province and would certainly necessitate a great deal of explaining, but the union of the colonies was worth any sacrifice. ,.. ------,21 At first he tried in private to win over his colleagues and friends to his way of thinking, but in vain. Then the bold strokeJ Walking in the state-house yard one morning before the hour of Congress, John revealed to his cousin, Sam Adams, his in­ tention of forcing Congress to take a definite stand about the adoption of the army at Cambridge. When John said that he in­ tended to make a motion that Congress adopt the army and appoint washington its commander, Sam did not reply.

Soon after Congress had assembled, John Adams arose and pre­ faced his speech by pointing out the danger of the army dissolv­ ing, the critical state of affairs in the colonies, and the un­ certainty in the minds of the people. Then he proposed that Con­ gress should adopt the army at Cambridge as the and appoint a general. Without naming Washington, John Adams de­ clared himself for "a gentleman from Virginia ••• whose skill and experience as an officer, whose independent fortune, great tal­ ents, and excellent universal character, would command the appro­ bation of all America, and unite the cordial exertions of all the Colonies better than any other person in the Union." Washington realized that he was being praised and, "from his usual modesty, darted into the library-r.oom."7

In the debate that followed Adams' motion, Edmund Pendle­ ton of Virginia and of Connecticut voiced the op­ position. Did not the army before Boston already have a general from Massachusetts with whom they were satisfied? Were they not 22 successfully holding General Gage's forces in Boston? Thomas Cushing of Massachusetts and others expressed their fears of dis content in the army if a stranger were to lead them. John Adams was surprised to find some of the Virginia delegates "very cool about the appointment of Washington.tt7 In reality, Pendleton op· posed not Washington but the adoption of the New England army by the Continental Congress, the first open act of rebellion in which all the colonies shared. Consequently, Adams' boast that Virginia was "indebted to Massachusetts for Washington," because "Massachusetts made him a general against the inclination of Vir· ginia," while ttvirginia never made him more than a colonel,u8 has little significance.

After the debate the subject was postponed. Meanwhile the dissenting members were privately persuaded to withdraw theiJ opposition. When on June 15th of nomi­ nated Washington, Congress unanimously elected him commander of all the continental forces. In later life John Adams claimed that this unanimity was only·apparent, for nearly one half of th1 members regretted the appointment. 9

John Adams always maintained that was called to command the continental forces because the Old Domin­ ion expected to lead in all colonial affairs.10 Although Adams respected "the modest and virtuous, the amiable, generous, and brave George Washington,tt his prime motive in proposing Washing­ ton as commander-in-chief was not a belief in the superior abil- 23 ities of the man, but a desire to cement and secure the union of the colonies.11 Washington himself realized that the choice was due to "the partiality of the Congress, joined to a political mo· tive.tt12 Another member of the Congress thought prudence de­ manded the choice of Washington to remove all fear ttlest an En- terprising eastern New England Genll. proving Successful, might with his Victorious Army give law to the Southern or Western Gen- ttl3 t ry.

In this unquestionably most important appointment in all American History, Adams' share of credit is not slight. He did not, any more than his confreres, fully appreciate the true wortl of Washington since that leader's ability to lead thousands of recruits against a well-disciplined army was yet to be proved. Yet Adams had the courage to set aside his own likes and preju- dices for the sake of the union, even though he foresaw the ex­ planations and apologies he would have to make to his fellow pa- triots in Massachusetts for substituting a stranger in place of General Ward. Some most intimate friends would question the wis· dom of hazarding the cause of liberty by an appointment which might cause grave discontent in the militia. All in all, Adams suffered almost as ubitter exprobations for creating Washington commander-in-chieftt as for defending Preston and his soldiers 14 after the .

The day after his election, Washington arose in Congress to accept the command. He thanked the assembly for the unsought ~--~------~24 honor and promised to serve without pay. John Adams was charmed with this conduct of tta gentleman of one of the first fortunes" sacrificing ease and risking ttall in the cause of his country." He admired the noble views and disinterestedness which prompted Washington to decline a ttshilling for pay.nl5 Ten years later, however, Adams jealously attributed Washington's well-deserved popularity to the fact that he had not accepted pay, an action which "never fails to turn the heads of the multitude.u16

When in the following year Howe evacuated Boston, John Adams moved that thanks be given by Congress to Washington and his men for their "spirited conduct in the siege and acquisition of Boston," and that a gold be struck in commemoration of

this event and presented to Washington. Congress appointed Adam~ chairman of the committee to prepare the letter of thanks and th device for the medal. This incident is chiefly interesting be­ cause the aged John Adams in his Autobiography complained about the omission of this letter of thanks from the Journals of Con- gress. A persecution complex induced Adams to suppose that the President or Secretary of Congress preferred to conceal the com­ pliment to Washington rather than make another one "to the mem­ ber who made the motion and the committee who prepared it.»l7 One can only pity the suspicious John Adams of later life.

During the Revolution Adams was not blind to the sterling qualities of Washington, even though his support of that leader was partly due to expediency. Adams tried to preserve the happy 25 medium between improper opposition to the commander-in-chief and u,ndue flattery. On one occasion in Congress when the proposal of referring the appointments of three major generals to the general officers of the army was under discussion, John Adams expressed his distress at seeing some members of Congress ttidolise" and superstitiously venerate Washington, a creature of their own hands. After acknowledging Washington's superiority in private life, Adams pointed out that Congress was his superior and ought to restrain the army.l8 In a letter to his wife Adams expressed more clearly his attitude toward excessive flattery of Washington. One reason for the Congress has appointed, he wrote,

11 ought to be that the glory of turning the tide of arms (at Sar­ atoga) is not immediately due to the Commander-in-chief nor to southern troops. If it had been, idolatry and adulation would have been unbounded; so excessive as to endanger our liberties, for what I know. Now, we can allow a certain citizen to be wise, virtuous, and good, without thinking him a diety or a savior."l9

Certainly John Adams was not a strong supporter of Wash­ ington. In his Autobiography, however·, he denied the calumnies circulated in the army that he ttwas an enemy of Washingtontl and ttin favor of an annual election of a General. u Ee. attributed these reports to Harrison, Hancock, and their friends, adversa­ ries of Samuel Adams, Hichard Henry Lee, and Governor Ward, with whom John Adams had always been closely associated.20 Adams' proposal of an annual election of officers to weed out the inef- 26 ficient obviously did not include Washington, whose ttcharacter 21 is JUS. tly very h.1g h • " Yet such a proposal could easily be mis. construed and would not make him popular with the army.

Washington's train of disasters, the defeat on Long Islanc the gradual abandonment of New York, New Jersey, and Philadelphi~ to the British troops, increased the grumblings and criticism of the members of Congress less favorable to him. In contrast, Gen eral Gates had won undeserved glory at Saratoga by the surrender of Burgoyne. Consequently, the tendency to set up Gates as a ri val to Washington gained momentum. Fortunately, John Adams left Congress for before the Conway Cabal matured. Thus, he was probably spared the dishonor of being an active anti-Washing tonian, although his sympathies lay with that group.

Hence, it is not at all surprising that on the eve of

Adams' departu~e for France, General Knox should have visited the new ambassador at his home in Braintree. Naturally, Knox deemed it highly important that representatives abroad support the commander-in-chief's character. Adams' reply was that he es teemed Washington as Uthe most important character at that time among us; for he was the centre of our Union.n He assured his visitor that he would support Washington's character ttat all times and in all places.n22

John Adams was jealous of Washington. Never could he ap- preciate the reason for Washington's preeminence. Perhaps a de- r ------~27 sire for more recognition prompted John Adams' lon.gings to be a soldier. Washington's appearance on the floor of Congress in 1775 in military garb caused some misgivings in the heart of John Adams. 23 A few days later when he accompanied General Wash­ ington and the other officers who were setting out for Massachu- . setts, he was somewhat crestfallen. After describing the scene to his wife, he continued, ''Such is the pride and pomp of war. I, poor creature, worn out with scribbling for my bread and my liberty, low in spirits and weak in health, must leave to others to wear the laurels which I have sown; others to eat the bread which I have earnedott24 Again in the following year when Colone, Dickinson led forth his battalion at the call of General Lee, John Adams once more confessed his ambition to be "engaged in thE more active, gay, and dangerous scenes." He could console him­ self, however, with the thought that he too was risking his life in the cause of liberty, for defeat would mean the gallows for the members of the Continental Congress. He was too old and pre­ maturely worn out with study to join the army. Besides, there was no need, he reasoned, to incite the men of Massachusetts to arms by donning a uniform as Dickinson and Patrick Henry had done to awaken the martial spirit in Pennsylvania and Virginia.2t

Sectional jealousy over military appointments in the new continental army only began with the choice of Washington. The selection of a staff was a disagreeable task, and one that could easily create great bitterness. The delegation of each province ~ ------2-8 ____ _, felt obliged to put forward their own militia officers and to in· sist on a proportional number of appointments. Exper:i.ence and real merit were of secondary importance. John Adams complained that nothing gave him more anxiety and torment than the ttscuffle 1 in appointing the General Officers.

One member suggested General Charles Lee for second place, because an officer of his experience and rank could hardly be ex- pected to serve in a lower place. John Adams, in turn, pointed out that Artemus Ward ought not to humiliate himself again by 26 serving under a stranger like Lee. As a palliation to Massa- chusetts and New England, Ward was appointed second in command. John and Samuel Adams regretted that they were unable to prevail upon their colleagues to cast Massachusetts' vote for Lee and Gates as third and fourth ranking officers respectively. Al­ though apprehensive of the attachment of the Massachusetts mili­ tia to their own officers, John Adams supported Lee and Gates be-

cause he believed their experience and ., abilities would be valu- able on the council of officers, and because Washington desired their assistance. 27

Like other delegates, John Adams desired to secure places for his friends. He deeply regretted that he could not obtain the appointment of his frequent correspondent, James Warren. 28 After mentioning his opportunity for proposing the advancement of two young acquaintances, John Adams remarked in a letter, "If they are neglected I shall be very mad, and kick and bounce like 29 fury. "29 On one occasion in Congress when Washington's request for engineers was under discussion, some members objected that the general already had several good engineers. Benjamin Harri­ son privately criticized these members as seeming to be ttexceed­ ing hearty in the Cause," yet wishing "to keep everything among themselves.»30 Since he goes on to praise the disinterestedness and generosity of Hancock, Harrison, no doubt, had the twoAdamses in mind. Yet they can be at least partially exonerated on the plea that they desired to avoid the intrusion of strangers into posts of trust in an army almost entirely from New England.

The question of advancement was the cause of many other quarrels in Congress. After spending the previous evening with General Arnold, John Adams wrote to his wife at four o'clock in the morning that he was wearied "with the wrangles between mili­ tary officers, high and low," who ttquarrel like cats and dogs.n Never did he see the passion for superiority so keen and furious as among military officers, who uwill go terrible lengths in their emulation, their envy, and revenge, U31 Adams did not high­ ly esteem "the delicate point of honor" so cherished by officers, which he termed "the honor of preferring a single step of pro­ motion to the service of the public.n32 As a consequence, he favored an annual election of general officers. He conceded to the different colonies the right to insist upon a number of of­ ficers proportionate to tbe troops raised. The rule of succes­ sion, he believed, could best be established among the officers ~------30______

of one colony. The power of promoting officers over their sen- iors for extraordinary merit, which should be used as seldom as possible, ought to be lodged not with the general, but with the ~ assembly to prevent the abuse of·favoritism as much as possible.

The number of foreign officers seeking places added to thE difficulties of Congress. At times they embarassed Congress, fol to refuse men who were esteemed highly in friendly foreign goverr- ments or who had served the American agents abroad would have been impolitic.34 Besides, American agents abroad had, without consulting Congress, injudiciously hired hundreds of foreign of- fleers to serve in the continental army. To install many of these strangers as officers, however, was bound to cause discon- tent in the ranks.

Different views about the pay of officers and men was a source of discord between New England and the other colonies. The more democratic New England colonies were accustomed to pay their privates well, almost as much as the officers. The south- ern colonies reimbursed their privates poorly and their officers handsomely. Equality, so highly prized in New England, was dis- ~ tasteful to southern gentlemen who desired to place the continen- tal generals far above their men. The Massachusetts delegation tried in vain to reduce the large pay granted to officers, con­ sidered so extravagant in that colony. John Adams explained to friends at home that the New England delegates could not Usud­ denly alter the temper, principles, opinions, or prejudices" of r------3~1 ' the other colonies. The whole society of the South was different. The few educated gentlemen of that section owned slaves; the com .. mon people were very ignorant and poor. Consequently, there ex- isted no concept of equality. Characteristically, Adams remarked that the of the southern colonies would have to be changed to unify the continent in all respects.35 Of course, he could not conceive of changing the constitutions of the New Eng- land colonies so as to harmmnize with the southern governments.

With the wage scale of the southern colonies adopted, New England had difficulty in enlisting privates. Towns endeavored to secure their quota by offering bounties of land and money and sometimes by promising additional pay. Such tactics were rightlj frowned upon by General Washington because of the imprudence of paying different wages to the soldiers. In Congress John Adams and his colleagues had to listen to odious reflections on the venal spirit of the New England men. He urged his friends to re- concile the people to the amount of pay determined by Congress, for he shuddered ttat the thought of proposing a bounty.u He had already suffered much in defending the views of New England aboui the proper proportion between the wages of officers and men. 35 In Massachusetts the time-honored custom had been to pay the troops by the lunar month; the Continental Congress had resolved to pay the soldiers by the calendar month. Again, Massachusetts had to submit for the sake of harmony. 36

In 1777, when the scene of the war was no longer in Mass- 32 r' achusetts, that colony was slow in sending its full quota to the continental army. The men of Massachusetts had already borne the brunt of the war for two years and were not anxious to march far from their native province. The constant reflections upon Massa- chusetts made in Congress at this time for having sent only one third of its quota greatly mortified John Adams. He feared too that if Ticonderoga fell, the loss would be imputed to New Eng­ land, who had not garrisoned that post properly. Very pointedly he requested "to be supported or recalled." The torment of not being able to answer or contradict the reflections cast upon Massachusetts on the floor of Congress was intolerable to a man like John Adams. 37 ~ ------3-3------,

NOTES TO CHAPTER II

1· Autobiography, in The Works of John Adams, II. p.405-6. 2. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, May 8, 1775, in Familiar Letters, p.34-5. Caesar Rodney to Thomas Rodney, May 11, 17'75, in Letters of Members of the Continental Congress, I. p.90. 3. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, May 27, 1775, in Familiar Letters, p.29. 4. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, June 17, 1775, Ibid., p.66. 5. Gerry to Massachusetts Delegates, June 4, 1775, in Letters o Members of the Continental Congress, I. p.l32, note. 6. J. Adams to Lloyd, Apr. 24, 1815, in The Works of John Adams, x. p.l63-4. - 7. Autobiography, Ibid., II. p.416-7. 8. J. Adams to Lloyd, Apr. 24, 1815, Ibid., X. p.l65.

9. J. Adams to Plumer, Mar. 28, 1813, ~., x. p.36. 10. Another instance of the Frankfort advice. Cf. J. Adams to Pickering, Aug. 6, 1822, Ibid., II. p.512-3, note. 11. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, June 17, 1775, in Familiar Let­ ters, p.65. 12. George Washington to John , June 20, 1775 in The Writings of George Washington, II. p.491. 13. Dyer to Trumbull, June 17, 1775, in Letters of Members of the Continental Congress, I. p.l28. The fear may have beendue in part to the acrimonious boundary dispute existing at this time between Pennsylvania and Connecticut. 14. J. Adams to Lloyd, Apr. 24, 1815, in The Works of John Adams, x. p.l65-6. 15. J. Adams to Gerry, June 18, 1775, Ibid., IX. p.358-9. 16. J. Adams to Jebb, Sept. 10, 1785, Ibid., IX. p.539-40. 17. Autobiography, Ibid., III. p.38-9. 18. Rush, Diary, Feb. 19, 1777, in Letters of Members -----of the Con- r------34----., tinental Congr~~' II. p.262-3. 19. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Oct. 26, 1777, in Familiar Let- ters, p.322-3. Parentheses mine. 20. Autobiography, in The Works _££_John Adams, III. p.35.

21. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Feb. 21, 1777, in Familia~ Let­ ters, p.248. 22. Autobiography, in --The Works -of John Adams_, III. p.93. 23. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Iiiay 29, 1775, in Familiar Letters, p.59. 24. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, June 23, 1775, Ibid., p.70.

25. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Feb. 1776, ~., p.l34. 26. Autobiography, in The Works of John Adams, II. p.418. 27. J. Adams to Gerry, June 18, 1775, in Letters of Members of the Continental Congress, I. p.l36. J. Adams-to-warren-,­ June 20, 1775, in Warren-Adams ~etters, I. p.61. 28. J. Adams to Warren, June 27, 1775_, Ibid., I. p.67. 29. J. Adams to Warren, Dec. 3, 1775, Ibid., p.l86.

30. Harrison to Washington, July 21, 1775, in Letters of Mem~-~rs .£! the Conti~ental Congress, I. p.l69-70.

31. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, lv!ay 22, 1777, in Pamiliar Let_~_~_rs, p.276-7.

32. J. Adams to Greene, March 1777, in Let~e~ of 1vlembers of the Continental Congress, II. p.300-l. 33. J. Adams to Greene, June 22, 1776, in The Works of John Adam~, IX. p.403-4. 34. J. Adams to V'farren, June 19, 1777, in Warren-..4\.dams Letters, I. p.333.

35. J. Adams to Hawley, nov. 25, 1775, in The Work~ of John Adams, IX. p.366-7. 36. General Court of Massachusetts to Delegates in Congress, Dec. 5, 1775, in the Arnerican Archives (Fourth Series), IV. p.l94. 37. J. Adams to Warren, apr. 29, 1777, in The Works of John Adams, IX. p.463-4. J. Adams to Abigail Adams,-ap~6, 177?; in Familiar Letters, p.264-5. r------,

CHAPTER III

TOWAHD INDEPENDENCE

In his later life John Adams took great pains to combat the belief that first thought of independence from Great Britain. Those who claimed the pamphlet, ",u first suggested to them the notion of independence, Adams consid­ ered to be men of little reflection and ignorant of the tenden­ cies of the times. American independence was not ua. novel idea, u

11 a. modern discovery," but was for a long time familiar to gentle­ men of reflection in all parts of the colonies. Independence as a possible, perhaps necessary, measure in case Great Britain should assume unconstitutional powers was an idea familiar, ac­ cording to Adams, even to Governor Winthrop and the early set­ tlers.1

At least, as early as 1755, Adams himself had expressed in writing the opinion that within another century the colonies would certainly be independent. For, by that time, he reasoned, they would be more populous than England and would control the seas because of their superior naval resources. Under these con­ ditions the nunited force of all Europen could not subdue the colonies but could prevent their independence only by setting one colony against another.2 Dur-ing the opening years of the when the British generals were unsuccessfully con­ ducting campaigns against the French, since he believed that the 36 r colonies, if united, could defend themselves with greater success without the assistance of England, Adams longed to be free from English domination. But the victories of British arms before the close of the war caused him to rejoice once more in the name of Great Britain and in subjection to the king. In brief, though no general desire of independence existed before the Revolution, the wiser men, in Adams' opinion, foresaw that the tendency of the British Parliament to enslave the colonists would bring on war and, consequently, independence. 3

In tracing the origin of the idea of independence in the minds of the colonists, Adams' purpose was merely to belittle the perhaps undue credit given at the time to Thomas Paine's "Common Sense.n Though this pamphlet undoubtedly served a worthy purpose ' in provoking among the colonists a lively discussion of indepen­ dence, that all-important topic in the winter and spring of 1776, its great popularity and influence was largely due to its oppor- tune publication. Contrary to the general opinion, Adams, some­ what envious of Paine's renown, doubted the importance of the pamphlet in converting the colonists to the doctrine of indepen­ dence. He approved of only that part of ttcommon Sense" which pre- sented the arguments in favor of independence. And even this part was only a Utolerable summary of the arguments which" he "had been repeating again and again in Congress for nine months."~

One can understand how a vain man would resent having his strenuous oratorical efforts of many months on the floor of Con- 37 gress overshadowed by a few pages of writine; that suddenly caught the popular fancy. But the green-eyed goddess certainly carried Adams to extremes when his memory attributed to Thomas Paine the preposterous boast that ttnobody in America ever thought, till he . revealed to them the mighty truth, that America would ever be in­ dependent. tt5 With no difficulty at all, Adams could refute the alleged claim of his opponent, for many colonists had discussed the possibility of independence long before Paine left England. But did Thomas Paine actually make such a ridiculous statement?

Already at the First Continental Congress in 1774, some colonists suspected the Massachusetts delef,ates of having inde­ pendence in view. The sons of liberty in Philadelphia, Dr. Rush, , and several others, warned the Bay Colony dele­ gat-;es against speakinc; of inde}Jendence even in private conversa­ tion. Since hopes of compelling Great Britain to relinquish her

t~annical policies were high, the very idea of independence was unpo-::mlar in Pennsylvania and in the colonies to the south. Any suggestion of independence frightened and startled the people of Philadelphia, as Jorm Adams soon discovered.6 Sizing up the sit­ uation, the Massachusetts dolec;ates carefully avoided the mere

sug~estion of independence. Since a friend had written to him announcing that I,lassachusetts was ttsetting up for inclependency,n

George 1i'lashin,'2'ton sou.cbt an interview vlith the 3oston gentlemen in order to learn the sentiments and designs of the leaders of the Bay Colony. Replyin::; to his friend, Washin,:::;ton emphatically 38 expressed his conviction that independence was "not desired by rI 7 any thinking man in all North Araerica. tt

That anything short of i~depcndence would have fully sat- isfied the radical Sam Adams is very doubtful. To probe into thE mind of John Adarns at this time is more difficult; yet he appar- ently had cast aside all hope of reconciliation. In the winter of 1774-5 under the pseudonym of ttNovanglus,n he wrote a series of newspaper articles in reply to the argwncnts proposed by a loyalist. In one of these articles he stressed the possibility of a medium between absolute independence and complete subjectio to the authority of Parliament. He claimed, moreover, that he did not know a sinele Whig in Massachusetts who wished for com- nlete indeuendence from the British crown.s But this vindica- ~ - tion of the '.ilfhig position written for the public consumption did not necessarily reveal his own hopes and fears. Though he did not long for independence, John Adams, no doubt, considered it as the only solution to the struggle with Parliament.

In 1775 after the first cl.ash of arms at Lexington, some delegates took no Pains to conceal their desire of independence. On this question parties quickly formed in Congress. In favor o independence John Adams, of Virginia, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, and of South Carolin were the leading speakers, with Samuel Adams in the background. of Pennsylvania and James Duane of New York led the opposition, supported by , Benjamin Harrison, John 39 Hancock, , and James Wilson.

In his writings· of this period John Adams gave most atten­ tion to his arch-opponent, John Dickinson. In 1774, before the question of independence arose, Adams had a very favorable opin­ ion of "The Farmer." He praised Dickinson for his modesty, in­ c;enuity, and ap;reeableness; he was pleased with the election of Dickinson to Congress for he thought the new delegate devoted to the American cause. 9

In 1775, however, John Adams found Dickinson to be the greatest obstacle to his plans to adopt the army in MassachusettE, to reco1mnend the institution of governments in all colonies, and to declare independence. Dickinson and the conservatives wanted to delay and to send another petition to the king. One day in Congress, Dickinson and his friends had supported their favorite measure with long speeches. John Adams arose and successfully replQed to their arguments. Then of continued the debate against the sending of a second petition to the king. During the latter's speech, John Adams,called out intc the state-house yard on business, left the assembly. According to the recollection of Adams, Dickinson darted out after him and anzrily demanded why this measure of reconciliation was opposed. Dickinson haughtily threatened that the other colonies would have nothing to do with New England unless they concurred in peaceful measures. Fortunately Adams was "in a very happy tern­ peru at the time. He coolly answered that he would not be .fright. 40 r' ened into approving meas1~es contrary to his judgment. Rather, he sug8ested that both of them ought to submit to the decision o1 Congress. These were the last words Adams and Dickinson ex­ changed in private conversation.10

At this time Benjamin Hichborn, a young man of Boston whom Adams knew but slightly, was importunately begging him for the privilege of carrying some letters to friends in Boston. This mark of confidence wou+d restore the youth's reputation at home, for he had been unjustly suspected of being a Tory. To satisfy him, Adams wrote a few lines to his wife, Abigail, and to James Warren. Unfortunately, he acceded to the request just when he was irritated by the scene with Dickinson in the state-house yare and disappointed by the success of the second petition to the king. 11 To his close friend, James Warren, he freely confided the feelings of the moment. "A certain great Fortune and pidd­

ling Genius (Dickinson) 1 whose fame has been trumpeted so loud­ ly, has given a silly Cast to our whole Doings." He went on to express what he considered the proper objectives of Congress; to assume the legislative, , and judicial power of the con· tinent, to frame a constitution, to establish a navy, to open thE ports, and to seize the Tories as hostages for the victims in Boston. Only after these measures, which in practice amounted to independence, had been carried, was the time ripe for peace and reconciliation. The other letter to his wife was not so in­ criminating as this letter to James Warren.l2 41 The British captured Hichborn with the letters on his per­ son as he was crossing the ferry at .l3 Hoping that the wide publication of these intercepted letters would promote dissension among the members of the Continental Congress andwouu ruin Adams 1 reputation, the British authorities gave copies of the letters to the press. Adams maintained that he did not regret the publication of these letters because he had never concealed his desire for independence. Instead of producing the evil effects intended by the Tories, the letters helped to prepare the minds o:f the people for independence. At least John Adams thought so when he heard many colonists compliment these letters very highly.l4 Years later, he called the letters utlle first momument extant of the immortally glorious project of Independence.ttl5

Although he consoled himself.with the thought that these tell-tale letters brought the cause of independence before the eyes of the people, he re~lly suffered a great deal on accoru1t of

' his indiscretion. At their first meeting on the street after the publication of the intercepted letters, Dickinson haughtily snub- bed Adams, passing him without any sign of recognition. Adams had bowed and doffed rus hat, but from then on he was determined never again to recognize his fellow delegate in public.l6 Qua- kers and others showed their disapproval of ,the letters by scorn- ing Adams and avoiding him as a leper whenever he walked the streets of Philadelphia. Like the "burnt childu he had learnt his lesson and carefully avoided compromising himself again in 42 r his correspondence. No more would he criticize characters, for he had smarted "too severely for a few crude expressions written in a pet to a bosom friend, to venture on such boldness again. nlr: From now on his letters are mostly concerned with trifles since he feared the enemy would expose anything of consequence.

Thus, after hostilities had broken out at Lexington, Adam put aside all thought of peace and reconciliation. His whole care was to prepare for war, which he considered the most effica cious means of securing American rights and a lasting peace. Ye he realized many people had not abandoned all hope of reconcili­ ation, but wanted ttto hold the sword in one hand and the olive branch in the other.nl8

Congress showed indulgence to the few members who, still hoping for reconciliation, wanted to precede slowly. Respecting the ability and honesty of Dickinson, Congress finally allowed him to draw up the "Second Petition to the King" in words that conformed to his own ideas. Although most of the members were dissatisfied with this petition, they passed it without amend­ ment because of the delight the document gave Dickinson. After the passage of the petition, Dickinson expressed his joy by re­ marking that he disapproved of only one word in the whole paper, the term "congress.tt Gaining the floor immediately, Benjamin Harrison rejoined that he approved of only one word, the word "congress.ul9 In reality this petition was a worth-while experi ment which conclusively proved to many people in the middle col- 43 rr onies that a petition written in the most submissive tone would not be favorably received by George III. John Adams was set a­ gainst this petition to the king; yet he knew that it could not be avoided without discord and disunion. He hoped that Parlia- ment would be afraid of negotiation, for otherwise the colonies would have difficulty in avoiding being ttwheedled" out of their freedom. 20

After the recess during the month of August 1775, Congres reassembled. Thus far John Adams had been successful in securine the adoption of the army at Cambridge as the continental army; otherwise Dickinson's counsels had prevailed in the May-July ses sion. The followers of Dickinson marked time from September through October while they waited for a reply to the petition sent to the king. Meanwhile, John Adams and others kept insist- ing on the futility of conciliatory measures and urging the need of supporting the army to the utmost.

Already in June Congress had considered Massachusetts' re quest to assume the exercise of the powers of civil government. At the same time Adams urged Congress to recommend to the people

of every colony the callin~ of a convention to institute a new government. But a Congress anxious for reconciliation was wary of proposals that tended toward independence. Congress solved the question_by directing the people of Massachusetts to consid­ er the governor as absent as long as he refused to obey the char ter, and, accordingly, to allow the assembly to exercise the 44 functions of government. 21 A victory for Dickinson, Duane, and the conservatives, yet a precedent.

In November 1775, Congress considered New Hampshire's sim- ilar request for advice concerning the administration of justice. News had just arrived that George III had spurned Dickinson's ol- ive branch, the Second Petition to the King. Consequently, Con- gress was a trifle more bold, though still wary of a wide breach with the Mother Country. John Adams' counsels prevailed to some extent, for Congress directed the people of New Hampshire to es- tablish a temporary government which would promote peace and good order during "the present dispute between Great Britain and the 22 colonies." Adams himself thought the words ndispute" and "col- ony" instead of "wartt and 11 statett watered down the force of the resolution; yet he considered the resolution a triumph. The gov­ ernment was limited to ttthe present disputett in order to ease the minds of the delegates fearful of independence.23

During the winter of 1775-76, ucommon Sense" appeared. Although John Adams liked the arguments in favor of independence, he was disgusted with the part of the pamphlet which proposed a plan of government for the separate colonies. One evening after a long conversation with on the subject of forms of governments, Adams at the request of his listener wrote a letter containing his own views on government. When Richard Henry Lee saw this letter, he urged its publication as a pamphlet. Adams agreed on condition that it was published anonymously, for he 45 r feared his nama would excite "a continental clamor among the torias, that I was erecting a battering-ram to demolish the roy­ al government and render independence indispensable." In his Autobiography, Adams claimed that this work, entitled ",u influenced the constitutions of New York, Virgin· 24 ia, , and New Jersayo He confided to his wife,

however, that this pamphlet was a uhasty1 hurried thing, and of no great consequence," intended for the southern and middle col- onies. At least it would serve its purpose by setting people 25 thinking on the subject of government.

Not until May lOth did Adams' efforts of the Past year to secure the institution of government bear fruit, for on that day Congress finally recommended to the assemblies of the colonies "to adopt such governments as shall ••• best conduce to the hap- 26 piness and safety" of the people. John Ada~s 1 , and Richard Henry Lee were appointed a committee to prepare a preamble to this resolve. The other two members of the committee requested the chairman, John Adams, to draw up a short preamble. While little opposition was made to the resolution, the preamble was the cause of several days debate and was passed by Congress with difficulty. The delegates from Maryland withdrew from Con- gress for a time, that they might obtain instructions on how to "conduct themselves upon this alarming occasion.tt27 Duane of thE opposition called the preamble "a machine for the fabrication of independence.n28 Adams himself considered the preamble equiva- 46 1ent to absolute independence, savinc; only the formal declaratior: for all authority of tbe crown in the colonies was denied. He was greatly awed by the thought that he had been an instrmnent

u in touching some springs a::::J.d turning some small wheels 11 in the movement toward independence.29

Like the question of institutine; governments in the colo­ nies, the question of making alliances with foreign powers was closely linked with independence. In the fall of 1775 's proposal to send ambassadors to France with conditional instructions was "murdered. tt30 On that occasion Adams believed he made his greatest impression on Conc;ress. His eloquent speech stressed two important points. France, he forcefully reasoned, would naturally be willing to avence her hun1iliating defeat in

the Seven Years 1 ~~var and to protect her remainins dominions especially in the West Indies. Secondly, the Arnerican colonies, he urged, should carefully avoid European entanclements by making only treaties of commerce. These thoughts of Adams evoke.d great praise from many members of Congress, even from Duane and Dickin­ son.31 Although the question of alliances was frequently pro­ posed in the succeeding months, it was opposed and postponed during that session.32 Hot until independence had been declared,

did Congress appoint a committee to prepare the model of a treat~ with France. Then, John Adams was able to draw up a plan of a

treat~ which avoided entangling alliances and exclusive privi­ leges and to obtain its adoption by the Congress.33 In another move toward independence, John Adams continual-- ly urged privateering and the opening of the ports. But the con­ servatives skillfully postponed all considerations of these ques- tions because they believed them to be stepping stones toward in· dependence. Finally on March 23rd Congress permitted ­ ing and on April 6th opened the ports. Adams sarcastically w~ne< a friend not to call these measures ttindependency," for "Indepen- dency is a Hobgoblin of so frightful Mien, that it would throw a delicate Person into Fits to look it in the Face.n34

Until May 1776 Congress deliberately postponed all mea­ sures which openly implied independence. From Adams' viewpoint the conservative party headed by Dickinson was stalling for time in order to avoid discussion of the important subjects of indeper- dence, confederation, and foreign treaties. Trifling business was designedly employed to divert the attention of Congress from these matters of major importance. Adams called the letter of Lord Drummond sent through General Washington, which wa·s discusmc for several days in the committee of the whole, a "fine engine tc play cold water on the fire of independence." To object to the wholesale waste of only a further waste of time.35

Adams might impatiently complain about the delay in the matter of independence; yet Congress was not ready for action. In January 1776 Congress almost made a formal declaration of its \ opposition to independence. John Adams was absent at the time; Samuel Adams, greatly alarmed at the proposal, was able to have ":tO the matter postponed. 36 Later a debate concerning a declaration of independence brought to light the positive instructions of nearly half the colonies to their delegates forbiding them to a­ gree to independence without consulting their constituents.37 Even in April a majority of the members of Congress were at least timid about taking decisive steps toward the measures preparatorj to independence. Many were expecting commissioners from England empowered to treat with Congress and to grant their demands. Adams "laughed," "scolded,u and "grieved at" the story of com- missioners, and was sorry to hear that many of his friends had been "taken inn by it. He rightly conjectured that the so-callec commissioners were only empowered to receive submission.38

Ad~~s repeatedly complained that the colonies were con­ ducting but a half-hearted war because they were constantly thiru­ ing of reconciliation and not fully supporting the army. Perhapf he never fully realized that the people in the middle and south­ ern colonies, unaffected by the Boston Port Bill and far from thE scene of hostilities, had less reason than New England to declarE independence hastily. He should have ta??."en to l~,eB~t bi2 ovm con· parison of the colonies to "a large fleet sailing under convoytt in which the "fleetest sailers must wait for the dullest and slov- es t • n39 Even years later blame was put by him on Dickinson's Second Petition to the King for the loss of General Warren and Charleston. To Dickinson's unceasing efforts against independ- ence Adams attributed the loss of General Montgomery and Quebec, for many began to hope the expedition to Canada would fail lest 49 the colonies, buoyed up with success, would stop listening to plans for reconciliation. Immediately after the Declaration of Independence had been passed, however, be admitted the wisdom of tbe delay that destroyed all hope of reconciliation and afforded ample time for mature consideration.40

In the spring of 1776 while John Adams was busily urging independence, the opposition started a whispering campaign against him. Adams was accused of being an interested party in regard tc independence because he held an office under the new government of Massachusetts, the post of Chief Justice in the Superior Court of Judicature. Criticism was so cleverly spread abroad that the Maryland delegates, armed with instructions from the Maryland , made a resolution in Congress that no member should hold any office in the new government of the colonies. Suspect­ ing that this resolution was levelled at him, John Adams, equal to the occasion, arose and coolly seconded the motion with a slight amendment that no member should hold office under any gov­ ernment old or new. According to Adams, his proposal went t~l the assembly "like an electric shock," for nearly every member held some office either civil or military. Adams went on to pro­ pose a self-denying ordinance; that before Congress considered the question of independence, every member should take an oath never to accept any office or procure one for a relative. The whole discussion was quickly dropped, for a member aptly pointed out that Congress had no right to exclude members from voting. 50 very effectively Adams had defended himself against this personaJ attack. He himself felt that his acceptance of the post of Chiei Justice had been one of the most disinterested actions of his lirE for he was compelled to relinquish a far more profitable business at the bar. He claimed that his only motive for accepting the office was his fear that a refusal would have weakened the new constitution of Massachusetts, since offices under the new gov­ ernment were not popular.41

/ 51

NOTES TO CID~PTER III

1. J. Adams to Rush, May 21, 1807, in The Works of John Adams, IX. p.596-8. J. Adams to Rush, May-!, 1807, Ibid., IX. p.591-2. 2. J. Adams to Webb, Oct. 12, 1755, Ibid., I. p.23-4. This le te~ written before he reached the age of twent~ was disco~ and returned to Adams in 1807. 3. J. Adams to Otis, Feb. 9, 1821, Ibid., X. p.394-5. J. Adams to Rush, May 1, 1807, Ibid., IX.-p7591-2. 4. Autobiography, Ibid., II. p .• 507-9. 5. J. Adams to Rush, May 1, 1807, Ibid., IX. p.591. 6. J. Adams to Pickering, Aug. 6, 1822, Ibid., II. p.512, note. J. Adams to Palmer, Sept. 26, 1774, in-Letters of Members of the Continental Congress, I. p.48. 7. Washington to Capt. Mackenzie, Oct. 9, 1774, in The Writings of George Washington, II. p.442-4. 8. ttNova.nglus," in The Works of John Adams, IV. pp.52, 130-1.

9. Diary, Sept. 12, 1774, Ibid., II~p.379. Diary, Oct. 3, 1774, Ibid., II. p.392. -- 10. Autobiography, Ibid., II. p.409-10. 11. Autobiography, Ibid., II. p.410-12. 12. J. Adams to Warren, July 24, 1775, in Warren-Adams Letters, I. p.88-9. Parentheses mine. 13. Extract of letter from officer on board the Swan stationed at Rhode Island, in American Archives (Fourth Series), II. p.l717. 14. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Oct. 2, 1775, in Familiar Letters, p.l03. J. Adams to Warren, Oct. 2, 1775, in Warren-Adams Letters, I. p.l24. 15. J. Adams to Rickborn, Jan. 27, 1787, in The Works of John Adams, IX. p.552. 16. Diary, Sept. 16, 1775, Ibid., II. p.423.

17. J. Adams to Chase, , 17761 Ibid., IX. p.396. 52

18. J. Adams to Gill, June 10, 1775, in The Wo~ks of John Adams, IX. p.356-7. 19. Jefferson, Autobiography, in The Writings of Tl1omas Jefferson I. p.l7-8. ------

20. J. Adams to Warren, July 6, 1775, in Warren-Adams Letters, I. p.75.

21. Journals of the Continental Congress, (June 9, 1775) II.p.83~. 22. Ibid., (Nov. 3, 1775) III. p.319. 23. Autobiography, in The Works of John Adams, III. p.21-2. Cf. New Hampshire Delegates to Thornton, Nov. 3, 1775, in Letters of Memb~ of the Continental Congress, I. p.246. 24. J. Adams to Taylor, Apr. 9, 1814, in The Works of John Adams, X. p.94-5. Autobiography, Ibid., II:-p.507-8.-- cr:-Ameri­ ~ Archives (Fourth Series), IV. p.ll36, note. 25. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, May 27, 1776, in Familiar Letters, p.l76-7.

26. Journals of the Continental Congress, (May 10, 1776) IV. p.342~ 27. Braxton to Carter, May 17, 1776, in Letters of Members of the Continent.al Congress, I. p.454o -- - -- 28. Autobiography, in The Works of John Adams, III. p.45-6. Cf. Notes of Debates, Ibid., II.-p.~ 29. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, May 17, 1776, in Familiar Letters, p.l73-4. 30. J. Adams to Chase, July 9, 1776, in The Works of John Adams, IX. p.421. 31. J. Adams to Rush, Sept. 30, 1805, Ibid., I. p.200-l. Auto- biography, Ibid., II. p.504-6. ---- 32. Richard Smith, Diary, Feb. 16, 1776, in Letters of lviembers of the Continental Congress, I. p.350. Smith, Diary, Feb. 29-,- 1776, Ibid., I. p.369. 33. Autobiography, in The 'v'!orks of John Adams, II. p. 516-7. 34. J. Adams to Gates, l\larch 23, 1776, in Letters of Members of the ,Continental Congress, I. p.406. ------35. Autobiography, in The Works of John Adams, III. p.31,43. 53 36. Samuel Adan;s to J. Adams, Jan. 15, 1776, in The Works of' JoE:!: Adams, IX. p.372. Richard Smith, Diary, Jan. 9,-r7?6, in Letters of Members of the Continental Congress, I. p.304.

37. Richard Smith, Diary, Feb. 29, 1776, ~., I. P• 3.69. 38. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Apr. 15, 1776, in Familiar Letters p.l58. 39. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, June 17, 1775, Ibid., p.66. 40. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, July 3, 1776, Ibid., p.l92-3. Autobiogra9hy, in The Works ~f John Adams~. p.419. 41. J. Adams to Chase, June 17, 1776, Ibid., IX. p.397. Auto- biography, Ibid., III. p.26-8. CHAPTER IV

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

Already in the summer of 1775 the two Adamses and a few others were suggesting independence from Great Britain. But in­ dependence did not assume the character of a vital issue among the people of the colonies until the winter of 1775-76. At that time Paine's "Common Sense" appeared, and newspapers began to pub lish open vindications of the doctrine of independence. Fear and restraint were swept aside; s.peculations on the subject were com­ mon.l During the spring the former small party in favor of inde­ pendence rapidly increased, but the majority of the people still bung back, vainly hoping for reconciliation.2 When all hopes of commissioners from England empowered to treat with Congress and to make concessions faded out, the opposition to independence quickly lost ground. News of the treaties made by the English Parliament with Hesse and Brunswick to secure mercenaries for service in the colonies convinced the that the Mother Country was determined to subdue them. Of necessity the choice was between subjection and independence.

Slowly the colonies were falling in line on the question of independence. By the middle of May the four southern colonies had conferred ample powers upon their delegates in the Continental Congress to make a declaration of independence. The four New Eng land colonies had been waiting for such a declaration for some 55 time. The five middle colonies, however, still hung back. By this time John Adams was entirely confident that independence would be declared soon. Already he anticipated his joy and sat­ isfaction in seeing Congress pass the very resolutions he had been urging for almost a year; already he gloated over his satis­ faction in seeing Dickinson confess the wisdom of the measures Adams had been pressing during the past year.3

On June 8th, the committee of the whole considered Richard Henry Lee's motion that the colonies make a declaration of inde­ pendence. The entire delegat:ons from Virginia, , and New England supported this motion. Robert Livingston, James Wil­ son, John Dickinson, and Edward Rutledge (Uthe sensible part of the house, u according to Rutledge), argued against the wisdom of giving the enemy notice of one's intentions before taking any steps to execute them. Besides, they pointed out the folly of trying to form a union with foreign powers before the colonies had united with each other. These conservatives, therefore, pro­ fessed their willingness to discuss a plan of confederation for the colonies and to prepare a treaty to be sent to France. Inde­ pendence, however, must wait. 4 After sever.al days r debate, the reasoning of the conservatives prevailed, and the question of independence was postponed for three weeks. This delay was in­ tended to give an opportunity to the delegates of the hesitant colonies to consult their constituents on the question of inde­ pendence. Meanwhile, however, to prevent any loss of time if 56 congress should agree to Lee's resolution, Congress determined to appoint a committee to prepare a declaration of independence.5

~homas Jefferson was chosen chairman; John Adams, Benjamin Frank- lin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston rounded out the commit­ vee. Congress also appointed a committee of thirteen members, onE

~rom each colony, to prepare a plan of confederation. At the samE vime Dickinson, Franklin, John Adams, Harrison, and Robert Morris were constituted a committee Uto prepare a plan of treaties to be 6 proposed to foreign powers. tt

John Adams believed the natural order of procedure was tha each colony should first institute a government for itself, then

~he should confederate and declare their inde­

~endence and . Finally, the new confederation should

~ake treaties with foreign powers. Yet he feared Congress would rot be able to follow such a systematic and logical course, but

~ould be compelled to declare independence before all the colon­ ies had established their governments and before they had united in some form of confederation. For the past year he had upper-

~ost in his mind these four measures of instituting governments, of confederating, of declaring independence, and of making foreig alliances. Now that his hopes were almost realized, he was look­ ing forward to the time when he could sing his ttnunc dimittistt and return to his law practice. But at the moment he was in "the very midst of a revolution, the most complete, unexpected, and remarkable, of any in the history of nations." He realized the 57 importance of these measures which involved the ttlives and liber­ ties of millions yet unborn.u7

Of these measures only that of independence aroused much opposition. John Adams believed that but two plausible arguments had been urged against a declaration of independence. In the first place it was said that such a step would unite all the peo- ple of Great Britain against the colonies. Adams replied to this first argument that Great Britain was already as united as possi-

~le, and that a declaration would rather unite the friends of lib erty in Great Britain against the ministry. Secondly, it was ob­ jected that a declaration would put the colonies in the power of France and Spain, who would demand severe terms. Adams answered by repeating that he desired to make only commercial treaties, which foreign nations would never do until the colonies had de­ clared their independence. No longer, Adams thought, would the

~ar be half-hearted. The colonies wo~ld manufacture more salt- petre, sulphur, powder, and whatever else was needed. The contin ental army would fight with greater spirit; would swar~ the seas; traitorous speculations would be banned from the news­ papers; the governments of the colonies would act with new vigor.E In short, a declaration of independence would unite all in one aii and effort ..

With the prospect of independence so near, John Adams seemed to find the delay all the more unbearable. Paraphrasing the saying of Demosthenes that action was first, second, and thir 58 qualities of a , a colleague repeatedly remarked to Adams that the "first virtue of a politician is patience; the second is patience; and the third is patience." In writing at this time to a friend who had been elected for the first time to a public of- fice, Adams advised him to acquire all the patience of Job that he might endure the disappointments and provocations of public 9 life. Patiently Adams went on with the drudgery of a Congress, whose meetings were now longer than before because the great im­ portance of the measures under consideration demanded additional hours of discussion and debate.

By the middle of June, John Adams knew that the colonies of and Pennsylvania had given their delegates "full pow­ ers'• to vote on the question of independence. Then came the good news that New Jersey had chosen new delegates who woilld·ttvote plump" for independence on July 1st. The same day Adams warned Chase that his native must ttsoon join com­ pany" or be ttleft alone," for the other colonies would not post­ pone the question beyond the appointed day. 10 New York, too, still hesitated.

Why had been elected chairman of the com-

~ittee to prepare the draught of the Declaration of Independence? In later life Adams explained that this young man, only thirty­ three years old, had been chosen because of his "reputation of a masterly pen." In Congress Jefferson took little active part and rarely spoke in public. Though he was silent on the floor of Con~ 59 gress, Jefferson was "prompt, frank, explicit, and decisive" in committee work. For this reason Adams urged the election of Jef- ferson to this important committee. Besides Jefferson's talent for writing, another factor influenced the choice according to John Adams. A delegate from Virginia, so the Frankfort advice ran, was to lead in all important matters. Perhaps Adams was dis~ appointed because by only. one vote he had lost the honor of being . 11 c h a1rman.

As to what happened on this famous committee Jefferson and Adams have slightly different stories. Nearly thirty years after the event John Adams narrated some of the incidents which had taken place. He recalled how the committee met a few times to propose the articles to be mncluded in the Declaration of Indepen~ dence and then appointed Jefferson and himself a sub-committee to put these suggestions in form. When the sub-committee met, Adams declined to make the draught, giving Jefferson three reasons for his refusal. A delegate from Virginia, not one from Massachusett~ should take the lead; Adams was too suspected and unpopular be- cause of his constant insistance on independence; Jefferson could write much better than his fellow sub-committeeman. Yielding to this reasoning, Jefferson wrote the draught of the Declaration. After the sub-committee met and Adams read Jefferson's work he remembers objecting to calling George III a tyrant and recalls that he thought the clause about negro slavery would excite much opposition. He could not remember making any corrections in the 60 document. Then the larger considered the draught and reported it to Congress. Whether the committee had altered the original draught or not, Adams could not remember. After severe criticism and some changes, the Declaration was a­ dopted on July 4th.ll Thus John Adams recalled the incident nearly thirty years later.

In 1823, forty seven years after the event, Thomas Jeffer­ son contradicted some of the details of Adams' story. had requested the aged John Adams to write a few lines about the origin of the Declaration of Independence in order that he might incorporate these remarks in his Fourth of July Address. Adams complied with this request and wrote a long letter to Pick­ ering in which he elaborated the account he had written many year~ before in his Autobiography. Some of the quotations from this letter used by Pickering in his address reached Jefferson. The latter in a letter to denied that a sub-committee had been appointed. Rather the other four members of the commit­ tee had pressed Jefferson to make the draught of the Declaration and he agreed to do so. Before he reported his draught to the committee, Jefferson showed it to Adams and Franklin, first pri­ vately to one then to the other, asking for their opinions and corrections. Both Franklin and Adams made two or three slight verbal changes. After transcribing the document, Jefferson gave

it to the committ~e of five who reported it to Congress unaltered Thus Jefferson told the story which he supported by written notes 61 12 aken at that very time.

This incident is not of very great importance. Yet surely ne can more easily credit Jefferson's positive statements based n written notes than Adams' memory. As Jefferson suggested, dams could have readily confused the private meetin&in which efferson showed him the draught of the Declaration, with a meet­ ing of the sub-committee. Such a slip of the memory after thirty ears would not be surprising.

Disappointing, indeed, it is to hear John Adams in his old age belittling the part Jefferson played in the Declaration of In dependence. Every idea in that document, according to John Adams, "had been hackneyed in Congressu during the previous years. The Declaration of Rights drawn up in 1774 contained the substance of what Jefferson wrote two years later. When Adams read the Meck­ lenburg Declaration of Independence for the first time in 1819, h immediately mailed a copy of it to Jefferson. Since he believed this paper had been written in 17751 Adams concluded that Jeffer­ son "must have seentt it before he penned his famous Declaration of Independence, "for he has copied the spirit, the sense, and th expressions of it verbatim.tt13 Thus, without reason, the disap­ pointed statesman secluded at Braintree in his later years vainly tried to discredit the work of a former friend whose fame had overshadowed his own.

To the morning of that long awaited day, July 1st, had beet 62 assigned "the greatest debate of all."14 In order to consider whether the colonies should declare themselves free and indeuen- "" dent states, Congress resolved itself into a committee of the whole. Adams did not expect Congress to spend much time debat- ing this resolution of independence, because the question had been frequently discussed before. John Dickinson, however, arose before his fellow delegates to voice the last formal protest in a long, well-prepared speech. \'Vith "great ingenuity and eloquence't }'e repeated all the familiar ar.;uments which had been advanced a- gainst a declaration of independence. No one arose to answer him

Durin.g the past year John Adams, Richard Henry Lee, Roger Sherman, and Christopher Gadsden had led the debate on the floor against the dilatory measures of the conservative party. Of these speakers only Adams and Sherman were present at this time. The absence of Lee in particular was a great loss. Consecp ently, the burden of the debate in favor of independence fell on Adams. On this occasion he had hoped that someone less obnoxious to the conservatives than himself would reply to Dickinson's arguments. Unprepared, he began his speech by expressing his desire for the '•talents and eloquence of the ancient orators of Greece and Rome, so that he might properly debate this important measure of inde- pendence. Then one by one, he answered the arguments advanced by Dickinson.

When he had finished, the committee of the whole prepared to vote on the question of independence. At that moment the new- 63 lY elected delegates from New Jersey entered the hall of Congress As soon as these members learned what important business was in progress, they urgently requested to hear the arguments before they voted on the question. Prevailed upon to speak, John Adams briefly summarized the reasons pro and con until the New Jersey 15 delegates confessed themselves satisfied. When the committee

of the \~ole put the resolution for independence to a vote, ten colonies approved the measure. Pennsylvania and South Carolina

opposed it; while the delegates from New York did not vote becaus~ they had not been empowered to do so by their assembly. Only that very morning before the debate began, had the Maryland dele- gates received instructions to concur with the other colonies in declaring independence.16

When the committee of the whole reported the resolution to the house, one colony requested that consideration of it be post­ poned until the next day. Thus, a great part of July 1st had been spent in the committee of the whole discussing independence. The long debate was a sheer waste of time, according to Adams, since the same ideas and reasons were repeated for the hundredth time within six months. 17

On the following day, however, ttthe greatest question was decided which ever was debated in America, and a greater, perhaps never was nor will be among men,n for Congress resolved that ttthese United Colonies are, and, of right, ought to be, Free and Independent States.n This important "resolution was passed with- 64 out one dissenting colony.nlB Again the delegates of New York did not vote. The assembly of that colony finally approved of the Declaration of Independence on July 9th.19 Since Dickinson and Morris purposely absented themselves from Congress on July 21 the vote of Pennsylvania was cast in favor of independence. Al- though a majority of the delegates in each of the colonies except

New York voted for the measure, John Adams was of the opinion tha~ many members were filled "with regret, ••• many doubts and much 2 0 1 ukewarmne s so tt

Now the delegates in Congress had decided at last that the thirteen colonies should be independent of England. They had al­ so to approve of some formal declaration to the world of the fact of separation and the worthy motives promoting such action. The committee appointed to prepare a declaration of independence had already reported Jefferson's draught to Congress. On July 21 3 1 and 4th the committee of the whole considered the document, mak­ ing all necessary changes. Finally on the 4th1 all the colonies except New York agreed to the Declarati;on of Independence. Not until the Declaration has been engrossed and an American seal had been prepared did the members of Congress subscribe their names to the document on August 2. Authenticated copies, however, were immediately printed and sent to the assemblies of the new states 21 and to the army. On July 8th the Declaration of Independence was read to the people of Philadelphia in the state-house yard. The crowd gave three cheers; soldiers paraded on the Common; bells 65 22 rang all day and most of the night. The arrival of the news brought similar rejoicing to the other towns in the colonies.

John Adams prophesied that July 2 would be "the most mem­ orable epoch in the history of America," and ••the great anniver­ sary festival" for succeeding generations. He believed that a grateful people would commemorate this uday of deliverance, by solemn acts of devotion to God Almighty." Americans, however, have followed out much better his second suggestion to celebrate the day 11 with pomp and parade, with shows, games. sports, guns, bells, bonfires, and illuminations, from one end of this contin­ 23 ent to the other, from this time forward forevermore.tt Custom alone has attributed independence to the 4th of July rather than to the 2nd; surely the approval of the document written by Jef- ferson was not more important than the resolution of Congress to make that declaration.

Recalling the political events of the past fifteen years which had caused the revolution, John Adams was surprised at its suddenness and greatness. Yet the revolution was only the begin­ ning. Time would tell whether America was acting with wisdom or folly. Money and lives would be spent in upholding the ideas of the Declaration of Independence; calamity and distress would try the young nation and remove the dross of errors and vices.24 For the moment, however, Adams could rejoice that one great irretrace­ able step had been taken, and that he had a large share in it.

On his return home, Richard Stockton, a delegate from New 66 Jersey, remarked that America was most indebted to John Adams for independence, for this ttAtlas of Amer·ican independencett sustained the debate and clearly pointed out the expediency and justice of the Declaration.25 In later years Thomas Jefferson spoke of Adams as the "ablest advocate and defendertt of the Declaration of

Independence and the "pillar of it r s (sic) support on the floor of Congress.tt26 Even after Adams had jealously remarked that Jefferson·' s work contained nothing but hackneyed ideas, the author of the Declaration admitted Adams had supported it ttwith zeal and ability, fighting fearlessly for every word." Believing others could judge the merits of the document better, Jefferson had quietly listened to the bitter criticisms of his work made during the debate. 27

Thomas Jefferson penned the famous docu~ent declaring American Independence to the world and to all time; John Adams defended the Declaration on the floor of Congress. To these two more than any other is due the Declaration of Independence. By the strangest and most appropriate coincidence of history, these two friends, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, died on the same day, July 4, 1826, fifty years to the day after the Continental Congress had approved of the Declaration of Independence. 67

NOTES TO CHAPTER IV

1. J. Adams to Warren, Feb. 14, 17761 in the American Archives (Fourth Series), IV. p.l139. Cf. letter to a friend, Feb. 18, 1776, Ibid., IV. p.1183-4. 2. Franklin to Quincy, Apr. 15, 1776, in Letters of Members of the Continental Congress, I. p.422. 3. J. Adams to Warren, May 20, 1776, in Warren-Adams Letters, I. p.249-51.

4. Rutledge to Jay, June 8 1 1776, in Letters of Members of the Continental Congress, I. p.476-7. -- --- 5. The Maryland Delegates to the Maryland Council of Safety, , 1776, Ibid., I. p.485. 6. Journals of the Continental Congress, (June 10, 1776) v. p.431 (,-r776T v. p.433.

7. J. Adams to Cushing, June 9, 17761 in The Works of John Adams IX. p.391. J. Adams to Henry, June 3;-1776, Ibid.;-IX. p.387, 8. J. Adams to Zabdiel Adams, June 21, 1776, Ibid., IX. p.400. J. Adams to Winthrop, June 23, 1776, Ibid., IX. p.409. 9. J. Adams to Angier, June 12, 1776, Ibid., IX. p.394. 10. J. Adams to Chase, June 14, 1776, Ibid., IX. p.398. The latter part of this letter was probabiy written on June 16, for the news about New Jersey could hardly have arrived sooner. Cf. Ibid., III. p.55, note. 11. Autobiography, Ibid., II. p.511-5. The time of the writing of the Autobiography can be fixed as 1805 because of a remark made by Adams, Ibid., III. p.39. J. Adams to Pickering, Aug.· 6, 1822, I'6I'd:", II. P• 513-4, note. 12. Jefferson to Madison, Aug. 30, 1823, in The Writings of Thomru Jefferson, x. p.267-8. Cf. Carl Becker;-The beclaratron ot· Independence, pp.l35-223. --- -- 13. J. Adams to Pickering, Aug. 6, 1822, in The Works of John Adams, II. p.514, note. J. Adams to Bentley, Julylo;-1819, Ibid., IX. p.381. 14. J. Adams to Bullock, July 1, 1776, Ibid., IX. p.414. 68

15. Autobiography, in The Works of John Adams, III. p.54-8. J. Adams to Iv'J:rs. Warren, Aug. 17, TB'L5'7, in Letters of Members o the Continental Congress, I. p.523-4, note. In this letter Adams mentioned the arrival of the New Jersey delegates as the occasion of his long speech; in his Autobiography he stated that the deleg~tes arrived after his speech. 16. Francis Lee to R. H. Lee, June 30, 1776 (and July 1), Ibid., I. p.519. 17. J. Adams to Chase, July 1, 1776, in The Works of John Adams, IX. p.415-6. 18. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, July 3, 1776, in Familiar Letters, p.l91. Journals of the Continental Congress, (July 2, 1776) v. p. 507. - -- 19. Ibid., (July 15, 1776) v. p.561. 20. J. Adams to Plumber, March 28, 1813, in The Works of John Adams, X. p.35-6. Cfo McKean to J. Adams, Jan. 1B'I4;-I'6'id., X. p.87-8. Jefferson to Gardner, Feb. 19, 1813, in The--­ Writings of Thomas Jefferson, IX. p.377-8. 21. Journals of the Continental Congress, (July 2, 1776) v. p.507 {July 3, T77nr-v. p.5o9, (July 4, 1776) v. p.510,16, (Aug. 2, 1776) v. p.626._ 22. J. Adams to Chase, July 9, 1776, in The Works of John Adams, IX. p.420-l. 23. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, July 3, 1776, in Familiar Letters, p.l93-4. 24. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, July 3, 1776, Ibid., p.l91-2. 25. Stockton (Jr.) to J. Adams, 1821, in The Works of John Adams, III. p.56, note. ------26. Jefferson to Gardner, Feb. 19, 1813, in The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, IX. p.377-8. 27. Jefferson to Madison, Aug. 30, 1823, Ibid., X. p.268. CHAPTER V

COlVilVIITTEE WORK

The Continental Congress was seldom idle. Thirty to sixty delegates had to carry out all the legislative and executive fw1ctions of a government during war time. This government, more over, was not a well-established, smooth-running government, but rather an assembly which had to create precedents and form a con- between thirteen jealous provincial governments. A continental army had to be raised, fed, clothed, and paid; a navy had to be built; officers had to be appointed; forts garrisoned; ports fortified; guns and ammunition obtained; Indians placated; treaties negotiated; peace proposals considered; petitions re- dressed; money obtained; military operations directed; and a hundred other minor business details attended to.

Ordinarily, the session of Congress began at nine or ten in the morning. J..<'rom that time until four or five in the after­ noon the delegates deliberated and debated the business of the day. When important questions were being discussed, Congress occasionally sat ru1til six or even seven o'clock.l In the latter part of 1777 Congress adopted the order of holding two sessions a day, one at ten in tr.Le morning, the other at four in the after­ noon. Besides the regular daily session or sessions, the dele- gates were frequently engaged in committee work before and after the hours of Congress. j 70 rI Naturally the members complained about the long hours. In i 1775 John Adams excused himself for not corresponding oftener on the plea that he was busy in committee from seven to ten o'clock

in the morning, engaged in Congress from ten to four, and occu~d again with committee work in the evening from six to ten. Not Adams alone, but all the members spent their mornings and eveningf in committee, because there was more business than men to handle . t 2 l • Again in the latter part of 17761 after the particularly onerous task of being chairman of the had fallen up­ on his shoulders, he complained that from four in the morning un­ till ten at night he had "not a single moment" to call his own. That he had not contracted comsumption or some other bodily ill because of such a busy, sedentary life was "little less than a miracle. •• 3 Silas Deane of Connecticut was weary of his share of committee work and wished that he might be appointed less fre-

quently. To attend Congress every day was hard enough, he thought~ but to sacrifice all his spare time on committees was too much. His constitution would not endure "Eleven hours at a sitting"; from six in the morning until five in the evening he had but "one dish of coffee." Deane's usual order of the day, however, was to spend from eight until ten o'clock in committee, ten until four in Congress, then five until nine again in committee.4 A full an~ busy day, indeed, was the lot of the members of the Continental Congress. No wonder Adams remarked that in the "exhausting, de­ bilitating climate" of Philadelphia in summer the lives of the 5 delegates were "more exposed than they would be in camp." ., J. i More to be pitied was the member who had no colleagues in rt Congress. begged the assembly of New Hampshire t< appoint other delegates to assist him. Every morning and evening he attended committees; yet New Hampshire was often unrepresented on important committees. The responsibility, moreover, was too great for one man. Subjected to such a routine, Bartlett longed for more bodily and less mental exercise. 6 , the solE delegate from North Carolina for almost three months, occasionall, did not eat nor drink from six in the morning until six in the evening.7 , who relieved Hewes, confessed himself wearied to death with the meetings of Congress and committees. H was obliged, however, constantly to attend the sessions of Con- gress, because without a member from North Carolina present, Con-

gress would lack the ~rum of colonies necessary for conducting business, for at that time four colonies had no representatives in Philadelphia.8

In his Autobiography, John Adams remarked that he "unques­ tionably did more business than any other member" of Congress.9 Was this an idle boast? Perhaps not, for during the space of two years, 1776 and 1777, he attended Congress for a total of seven­ teen months; while, at the same time, the other delegates -often returned to their native provinces for long visits. Many of them had been relieved of the onerous task of attending Congress after a year or two of service. Early in 1777, Adams could count five

colleagues who had been members of Congress in 17741 Sam Adams, Jlichard Henr-v Lee. Sherman. Chase, and Paca. 10 During four years 72 in Congress, Adams served on ninety committees and was chairman of twenty-five of them. Yet to substantiate Adams' claim of hav­ ing done more work than anyone else would be impossible.

Adams himself could not understand how he found time to write as many letters as he did at this time. At every opportun­ ity he wrote several pages to his wife; business compelled him to correspond with many officers in the army, with friends in Massa­ chusetts, and with delegates who had returned home for a time. On one occasion when he sent two bundles of letters to Braintree for safe keeping, he remarked to his wife that his "private corres­ pondence alone is business enough for a lazy man.ttll The number of extant letters prove this statement no exaggeration.

Of all the committees in Congress, perhaps none had so much work to do as the board of war and ordnance. In reality, this board had executive functions equivalent to the duties of a minister of war assisted by his many secretaries and clerks. And such an office has an increasing amount of business to handle during war time. In 1776, moreover, there was little precedent to build upon, and thirteen jealous governments to satisfy. In creating this board of war and ordnance, Congress outlined its many duties. The board was to obtain and keep a register of a11·

the officers of the army, ~ record the location and condition of all the troops, to procure all the artillery, arms, ammunition, and warlike stores necessary for the army, to hire magazines for the storage of ammunition not in use, to forward all despatches 73

and money from Con~ress to the armies by providing suitable es­ corts for their safe conveyance, to superintend the raising, fit­ ting out, and despatching of all land forces, to care for all prisoners of war, to preserve all original letters and papers re­ ceived, and finally to keep an accurate account of all the busi­ ness contracted. To assist the war board in carrying out all these duties, Congress appointed a secretary and several clerks.l In paging through the Journals of the next year and a half, one cannot help noticing the constancy with which Congress referred all sorts of details to the war board.

As chairman of this standing committee, Congress selected John Adams. He acquiesced, although he felt himself unqualified for the post. The amount of work, he feared, was more than his health. could safely bear; the type of work was not suited to his taste; his education and experience had not fitted him to dis­ charge such an important trust. Yet, since he could not honor­ ably decline this arduous task he determined to make industry supply his deficiency, for his lack of experience and ability he felt was a great barrier. Confessing his ignorance of matters of war, he begged his friends in the army for advice and assistance.

Besides his constant attendance at the sessions of Congres , Adams had to be present at the two daily meetings of the board of war and ordnance, one ln the morning and one in the evening. The chairman, of course, "must never be absent," but the other mem­ bers of the board, according to Adams, attended meetings as they 74 r pleased. The chairman, moreover, had to explain and justify the reports of the board on the floor of Congress. For a year and a half, he endured the routine and drudgery of this work, far more work, he thought, than lawyers performed who earned a ten thou­ sand a year salary.14 Perhaps the most thankless task of the war board was to maintain the authority of Congress in.the many disputes between that body and the officers of the army. To keep the generals satisfied was extremely difficult, and as a com- sequence, the chairman's private correspondence with officers of the army increased considerably. All in all, he found it necess­ ary to spend the greater part of his time in the tedious details of the board of war and ordnance.

To lighten the burden imposed on the members of this board and to conduct the business more efficiently, Congress acted upon the suggestion to hand over the actual administration of military matters to capable men who were not members of Congress. In De- cember 1776, Congress appointed a committee on departments which was instructed to prepare a plan for the establishment of execu- tive boards composed of non-members. Much delay ensued. Not un- till October 1777 did Congress finally re,solve to appoint three non-members to take charge of military matters under the direct 15 supervision of the members of Congress. These men with mili- tary experience had hardly been chosen to carry out the extensive and important business of the war board, when the statesman from Braintree left the Continental Congress to spend many years a- 75 broad in the diplomatic service.

The establishment of an American navy was a project dear

to the heart of Jo~~ Adams. His share in laying the foundation

of the navy was an honor that he made ttit a point to boast of up­ on all occasions.u No other man, he believed, had done more thar he in furthering this necessary measure; he struggled ttagainst the wind and tide" and at last was successful.16 Although he hac little experience with ships, he spent his life near Boston, the

leading sea-port of America at that timeo Often he conducted la~ suits that involved cargoes and ships; often he listened to the daring Yankee seamen. As a representative of Massachusetts to the Congress, almost perforce he had to be interested in things nautical. Naturally, he was confident that the daring and enter­

prising Yankee seamen could readily distress the enemy's shippin~ and relieve the wants of the colonies by trading with the West Indies and .

Captain John Manly asked permission of General Washington to cruise for British transports and merchant ships which fre­ quently sailed unarmed to Quebec. Washington referred the mat­ ter to Congress. On October 5, 1775, Congress appointed John Langdon, Silas Deane, and John Adams a committee to prepare a plan for intercepting two vessels loaded with arms and powder whicrl were reported to be on their way to Canada. The very same day this committee made its report. An animated debate followed. The opposition, led by the eloquent Edward Rutledge, represented the measure as a ttmad projecttt for America would not be able to cope with the Mistress of the Seas. Besides such privateering would corrupt the character and morals of American seamen. By a small majority, however, Congress ordered Washington to use the armed vessels of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island at continental risk and pay in order to capture· these two transports and any others laden with military supplies. 17 Within a short time several valuable prizes were taken and much needed arms and ammunition was obtained.

Already on October 3, the delegates of Rhode Island laid before Congress a recommendation for the building of a fleet at continental expense. Ten days later Congress decided to fit out two armed vessels for the interception of British transports and

appointed a committee of th~ee to carry out this measure. By October 30, this committee had prepared an estimate of the cost of these two vessels. Congress then enlarged the committee by appointing four new members including John Adams and ordered two more armed vessels to be "fitted out with all expedition.nl8 This naval committee, as it was called, immediately rented a roo and agreed to meet every evening at six o 1 clock. Adams later re- marked that the meetings of this committee were the most pleasant hours of labor that he spent in Congress. Richard Henry Lee and

Christopher Gadsden were sensible and cheerful men, ~d the aged

Stephen Hopkins was e~perienced in naval affairs and a good en-· tertainer after the work of the evening was finished. The con- 77 eleven o'clock.19 With all his interest in the new navy, John

Adams lacked knowledge of maritime affairs even in his own provinc~.

Conse~.ently, he continually sought information about the number of seamen available for service, about men qualified to act as officers, and about ships suitable for the continental service.20 Business and pleasure mixed well, for the naval committee soon purchased, fitted out, and officered four vessels, the Alfred~ thE Columbus, the Cabot, and the . 21 These ships, fitted out to capture British transports, were the beginning of the Amer ican navy.

In December 1775, Congress, acting on Rhode Island's sug­ gestion to build an American fleet, finally resolved to construct thirteen warshipso John Adams believed that an American fleet would be able to destroy small fleets of the British navy, or at least force England to the additional expense of using convoys. Yet, when the recommendation was first made in Congress in Octobe , there was much opposition. Many members, considering the great cost of ship construction, objected that an American fleet would protect only the trade of New England and not that of southern colonies, for Virginia and Maryland had few ships of their own. They pointed out that a strong British fleet posted at the en­ trance of Delaware or Chesapeake Bay could easily. obstruct the . i . 22 trade o f P ennsy1 vani a or V~re n1a. But, after two months, the opposition decreased, and Congress provided for the construction of a fleet by appointing a committee of thirteen members, one ~m 78 each colony.23 This new comiEitteo, 1..1sually called the marine comr­ mittee, absorbed the functions of the naval committee early in

1776.

Although John Adams .was no longer actively engaged on a committee concerned with naval affairs, he never lost his keen interest in the navy. Often he was dissatisfied with the way the marine committee conducted its business. If the board of war had not occupied his mornings and evenings, he would have, he told James Warren, put the marine department into respectable order.

All that was needed was a reliable person to assemble the co~nit­ tee twice each day and to direct their attention to business. He recalled that the naval committee on which he had served had per­ formed its functions with vigor and dispatch and had not caused complaints as its successor did.24 In 1777 Adams' motion that a nava~l board be established at Boston was approved by Congress. He wrote to James Warren, one of the members of this board, that he almost envied him the honor of being ttso capitally concerned in laying the foundations of a great navy.U25

Adams was most delighted by the opportunity to serve on the naval board; but he was most reluctant to be a member of the committee sent to confer with Lord :tiowe. Early in September 1776

Co~gress received a message from Lord Howe, commander-in-chief of the at Hew York, that he desired a short conver­ sation with some members of Congress in their private capacities. For several days Congress debated whether notice should be taken r 79 of the message. Members who desired to comply with Howe's wish argued that a delay of military operations most helpful to Amer- ica might result from the meeting. Such a meeting, they argued, would throw the odium of the war's continuance on Howe and hence silence the Tories. The liberal party, who had just succeeded in securing a declaration of independence two months previously, could not believe that Howe offered anything but complete sub- mission to Parliament as terms of peace. From the beginning, John Adams was decidedly against the proposed meeting, for he cor­

sidered it a decoy to lure Congress into an embarrassing situatio~.

Congress, however, resolved that since it was improper to appoint members to confer with Howe in a private capacity, a com-

mittee should visit him to learn w~t powers he had to treat of peace and what proposals he could make. and John Adams were unanimously elected to this committee; Edward Rutledge was chosen as the third member. When Adams asked to be excused, Congress deferred the consideration of his request until the next day. Meanwhile, opponents of the measure urged him to accept in order that the meeting might result in as little evil as possible. Because of the "pressing solicitation of the firm­ est men in Congress" and the"unanimous vote,tt he finally accepted the trust. The proponents of the meeting had agreed to vote for him in order to induce reluctant members to support the measure.~ 6

On Staten Island the three commissioners conferred with Lord Howe for several hours. Assuring the Americans of his great 80 desire for peace, Howe informed them that he was empowered to confer with private gentlemen on the question of restoring peace, but not with a committee of Congress. Since they desired to heru his proposals, the Americans told Howe to consider the commissiol­ ers in whatever light he wished, so long as they might consider themselves as members of an assembly representing free and inde­ pendent states. Thereupon, Howe proposed that the colonies sub­ mit with the assurance of George III's good dispositions to re­ dress American grievances and revise offensive acts of Parlia­ ment. The Americans replied that since all the colonies had after long deliberation declared their independence, Congress lacked the power of reducing them again to the state of depen­ dence.

After the meeting, the committee reported to Congress the scope of Howe's authority. He could grant pardons upon submis­ sion to all except the few designated leaders of the American cause and could confer with private persons about grievances, acts of Parliament, and instructions to colonial governors which had excited the colonies to rebellion. If the colonies submit­ ted, Parliament might or might not at its pleasure correct the wrongs the Americans complained of. Few in the colonies were willing to hazard everything on the reported good dispositions of George III and Parliament. John Adams had remarked to Lord Howe that the Americans after enduring sacrifices and hard strug gles in the cause of freedom, would not readily submit to a gov- 81 ernment which, because or this revolution, would naturally dis­ trust them. Consequently, Adams was confident that this inter­ view with Lord Howe would not harm the cause of American indepen dence. 27 In later years he was to learn that his name had been on the list of those whom Lord Howe had been instructed not to pardon even if the colonies submitted to Great Britain,28

To consider all the ninety committees of which Adams was a member would serve no purpose, but two interesting incidents are worthy or mention. Late one evening in 1775 the news of the battle at Charleston reached Philadelphia. Informed of the dire need of powder in Massachusetts, John Hancock, Samuel Adams, and John Adams walked the streets at one o'clock in the morning in search of the members of the Philadelphia Committee or Safety. At length they found some of them, who full of sympathy for "their brave Brethren" in Massachusetts assured Hancock and the two Adamses that a supply of powder would be on its way before dawn. 29

One of the American commissioners in Paris had suggested that Congress send American curiosities across the Atlantic as presents to the Parisian ladies. A little token of friendship and little attentions shown to the ladies might help to win the sympathy and support of France. Unwilling to leave any stone un turned, the members of Congress pondered on the qiestion and thought or ttmooses, wood-ducks, flying squirrels, -winged blackbirds, cranberries, and rattlesnakesu among other things, r 82 To his wife John Adams remarked, ttrs not this a pretty employment for great statesmen as we think ourselves to be?u Yet believing this seemingly frivolous matter might be of some consequence, he

requested his wife to suggest what ~he thought Parisian ladies might like.30 83

NOTES TO CHAPTER V

1. Whipple to Langdon, June 10, 1776, in Letters of Members of the Continental Congress, I. p.479. 2. J. Adams to Mrs. Warren, Nov. 25, 1775, in The Works of John Adams, IX. p.369. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Dec. 3-,-1775, in Familiar Letters, p.l27. 3. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Oct. 1, 1776, Ibid., p.228.

4. Deane to IVws. Deane, June 3, 1775, in Letters of Members of the Continental Congress, I. p.ll2. Deane to~s. Deane-,­ June 18, 1775, Ibid., I. p.l33. Deane to Mrs. Deane, Oct. 17, 1775, Ibid.;-!: p.232. Deane to ~ws. Deane, June 16, 1775, Ibid:;-p.l26. 5. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, July 30, 1775, in Familiar Letters p.90.

6. Bartlett to the New Hampshire Committee of Safety, Jan. 201 1776, in Letters of Members of the Continental Congress, I. p.321.

7. Hewes to Johnston, 1 1776, Ibid., II. p.4. 8. Hooper to Hewes, Nov. 8, 1776, Ibid., II. p.l46. 9. Autobiography, in The Works of John Adams, II. p.510. 10. J. Adams to Warren, Feb. 17, 1777, in Warren-Adams Letters, I. p.293. 11. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Dec. 3, 1775, in Familiar Letters, p.l27. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Aug. 12, 1776, Ibid., p.208. 12. Journals of the Continental Congress, (June 12, 1776) v. p.434-5.

13. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, June 26, 1776, in Familiar Letter~ p.l89. J. Adams to Ward, July 10, 1776, in The Works of John Adams, IX. p.442. J. Adams to Greene, June 22, 1"1""!6, Ibid., IX. p.404-5. 14. Autobiography, Ibid., III. p.6.

15. Journals of the Continental Con~ress, (Dec. 26, 1776) VI. p.1o41, TOc~l7, 1777) IX. p. 18-2o. 84 16. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, July 17, 1777, in Familiar Let­ ters, p.282. J~ Adams to Abigail Adams, Apr. 28, 177~ Ibid., p.l66. 17. J. Adams to Langdon, Jan. 24, 1813, in The Works of John Adams, X. p.27. Autobiography, Ibid.,-rii. p.7-E: ~ur­ nals of the Continental Congress,-ruct. 5, 1775) III. ·p.277-8 18. Ibid., (Oct. 13, 1775) III. p.293, (Oct. 30, 1775) III. p.311 2. 19. Autobiography, in The Works of John Adams, III. pp.9,11-2. 20. J. Adams to Gerry, Nov. 5, 1775, Ibid., IX. p.363. 21. Journals of' the Continental Congress, (Dec. 22, 1775) III. p.443. -- 22. J. Adams to Warren, Oct. 19, 1775, in Warren-Adams Letters, I. p.l45. 23. Journals of the Continental Congress, (Dec. 13, 1775) III. p.425-6, -rnec. 14, 1775) III. p.428. Cf. note by Burnett, in Letters of Members of the Continental Congress, I. p.217. 24. J. Adams to Warren, Apr. 6, 1777, in Warren-Adams Letters, I. p.311. J. Adams to Warren, Aug. 21, 1776, Ibid., I.p.271 . - 25. J. Adams to Warren, May 6, 1777, in The Works of John Adams, IX. p.464-5. 26. J. Adams to Warren, Sept. 8, 1776, Ibid., IX. p.440-l. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Sept. 6, 17~in Familiar Letters, p.223-4. Journals of the Continental Congress, (Sept. 6, 1776) v. p.738. -- 27. Ibid., (Sept. 17, 1776) V. p.765-6. J. Adams to Abigail Aaams, Sept. 14, 1776, in Familiar Letters, p.226-7. J. Adam to Samuel Adams, Sept. 17, 1776, in The Works of John Adams, IX. p.443-6. -- --- 28. Autobiography, Ibid., III. p.80. 29. J. Adams to Warren, June 27, 1775, in Warren-Adams Letters, I. p.66. 30. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, May 10, 1777, in Familiar Letters, p.272. CHAPTER VI

THE CHARACTER OF JOHN ADAMS

In his Diary John Ada..'Us adiili tted1 "Vanity ••• is my cardi· nal vice and cardinal folly." He professed, too, his resolve to "conquer my natural pride and self-conceittt and to acquire nmeek· ness and humility." Again, he censured himself for his "puffy, vain, conceited conversation.u No accomplishmen:bs or virtues, he wrote, sufficiently attone "for vanity and a haughty overbearing temper in conversation.u Rather, the nobler and more virtuous if a man, the more derision, contempt, and ridicule falls to his . 1 vanity.

Thus, at twenty years of age, in 1756, John Adams was con­ scious of his predominant fault, and it was probably due to this consciousness that he succeeded in checking its growth for a time. Certainly during the period of the Revolution, vanity did not mar his character to any great extent. At that time he.was achievin[ real greatness and was too busy to follow his natural tendency tc self-flattery.

He did not, however, entirely conquer his vanity, for la­ ter in his public career, this petty vice asserted itself more noticeably. After his years of public service had suddenly been cut short by the breakup in the which sent Adam~: back to Braintree a broken and disappointed man, he could dream 86 about the great services he had rendered the young nation at the time of the Revolution. He boasted of his important part in the appointment of Washington and in the laying of the foundation of the American navy; he claimed a great share in the furthering of the cause of independence and in defending the Declaration of In­ dependence on the floor of Congress; he asserted that he had "un­ questionably" done more work on committees than any other . Truly John Adams deserved well of the American peo­ ple, but his praise would have sounded far better on another's lips.

Very likely Adams would hot have been so generally accused of vanity had he kept his innermost thoughts to himself. Natur­ ally, his Diary and intimate letters were not intended for the eyes of the world. For his Autobiography there was less excuse. In 1805, when he was nearly seventy years old, Adams began to com· pile his memoirs as a justification of his past conduct which had been so severely criticized under stress of political conflict. This work he never finished, because, as he remarked, he could not endure "so dull an employment." In his own eyes he appeared "so much like a small boy" that with all his vanity he could not bear the sight of the picture he was drawing of himself. 2

Perhaps John Adams' attitude toward his own vanity is well

illustrated by his advice to . He urged Dr. Rush to communicate to his close friends all the compliments he had re­ ceived from Europe and not to fear the charge of vanity, because 87 every virtuous and honest man must combat the enemy, Envy. All men, Adams claimed, have an "equal degree" of vanity, but "Honest men do not always disguise it." When tta man pique(s) himself up- on his modesty, you may depend upon it, he is as vain a fellow as lives.tt At the same time, however, Adams reminded Dr. Rush that there is a quality called modesty, and every man ought to avoid disgusting others by "any ostentatious displaytt of self-love.3 Since Adams was far more opposed by intriguing men than Benjamin Rush, this advice was in a sense a self-justification.

Closely akin to John Adams' vanity was his jealousy. He might pride himself on his great share in promoting the cause of independence on the floor of Congress in 1775-6, but oftentimes he apparently failed to appreciate the importance of maintaining independence by force of arms. Of course, he realized that the mere words of a declaration would not frighten Great Britain into allowing the colonies to escape from her dominion without a strug~ gle. He knew that the Declaration of Independence was only the 4 beginning of what would prove to be a long and bloody conflict. But unfortunately Adams did not properly balance Washington's services on the battlefield and in with his own on the floor of Congress. Of what value would the passage of the Declaration of Independence have been had not Washington vindica­ ted in battle what that document merely asserted? Yet, Adams never could understand why the American people constantly gave Washington a preeminence above all others. He did not realize 88 that Washington was absolutely essential to the cause of American freedomJ while he himself was relatively unimportant. Without John Adams the colonies would have eventually declared indepen­ dence. Of this there is little doubt. Without Washington one might readily doubt whether the colonies would have successfully maintained the Revolution against England. But vain John Adams was never content to take a place in the background, however pro­ minent it might be, even though the foreground of the scene was dominated by the solitary figure of the great, noble, disinter­ ested character, George Washington.

As an old man, John Adams observed with some disappoint­ ment that "eloquence in public assemblies is not the surest road to fame.~ Consider George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson. All of these men were reserved and silent in public. Yet how highly they were respected and honored. John Adams had spent hours on the floor of Congress leading the de­ bate, but he had fallen into disfavor. A public speaker, by jus­ tifying his own measures and answering the arguments of his oppon ents, unavoidably creates for himself many enemies.5

A man, more than usually jealous and vain, comes to feel that he is not being adequately appreciated. Suspicions about hi~ fellowmen arise in his mind. He feels that they are not giving him due consideration, even deliberately slighting him and trying to oppose his every venture. By some such psychological process, John Adams' vanity and jealousy effected a persecution complex 89 with all its undesirable defense mechanism. Especially his break with began a sad chapter in Adams' life wherein the feel ing of being persecuted was accentuated. Looking back to the tim( of the Revolution, Adams believed that even then men had deliber- ately opposed him. True, the policies he advocated led the Qua­ kers and proprietary gentlemen in Pennsylvania to dislike him, bu John Adams believed that they continued to persecute him even af­ ter he had retired to private life. The defense of Captain Pres- ton and the British soldiers, indited on account of the unfortun­ ate Boston Massacre, was later brought up to show Adams' sympathy for England. At the age of seventy he was still complaining abou the imputation of sinister motives given to his actions. The old man of sixty-five lamented the praise of Federalists and Republi­ cans for the "disinterested patriotismu of Washington and Frank­ 6 lin, while they thought him uthe meanest villain in the world." In his Autobiography, Adams expressed his suspicions that the let· ter of thanks written to Washington for securing the evacuation o General Howe from Boston had been designedly omitted from the Journals to avoid paying a compliment to the man who made that mo tion and to the committee that had composed the letter.7 Does no1 such suspicion indicate a persecution complex?

This same narrowness of view found expression in Adams' bi· gotry which is unfortunately attested by too many examples in his writings. One Sunday afternoon in Philadelphia, he attended the "Romish chapel," "mother church, or rather ••• grandmother church.' 90 With nthe poor wretches fingering their beads, chanting Latin not a word of which they understand,tt he had little s-ympathy. He could not understand "their crossing themselves perpetually ••• their bowings and kneelings and genuflections before the altar." The richness of the vestments and altar pieces, the lighted can­ dles, the sweet and exquisite chanting, the bells, the gold and silver, the large painting of the crucified Savior above the al­ tar were all so calculated to llcharm and bewitch the simple and ignorant" that Adams wondered how the Reformation had succeeded.8

But not in religion alone did Adams fail to grasp a con- cept broader than his own small introverted mind. Even on his first journey southward, he found much· to censure and little to praise in New York and Philadelphia. In his eyes these two towns were much inferior to Boston. Prejudice discovered that the opu- lence and splendor of these towns had been bought at a high price for the Bostonians excelled their neighbors to the south in good 9 manners, breeding, tastes, morals, religion, and education. By spending his early life entirely in the vicinity of Boston, John Adams had acquired a provincialism which he never completely out­ grew. At another time, Adams eulogized Massachusetts gentlemen, "In solid abilities and real virtues they vastly excel, in gener­ al, any people upon the continent." He admitted that they lacked art, address, knowledge of the world, llthe exterior and superfi­ cial accomplishments of gentlemen." He criticized New England people as "awkward and bashful, yet ••• pert, ostentatious, and 91 vain; a mixture which excites ridicule and gives disgust." This was a rather accurate self-portrait by John Adams who, inexperi­ enced in the world, wa.s surely vain and pert. These deficiencies Adams prescribed had to be remedied by intercourse with the world for. (mirabile dictul) nNew England must produce the heroes, the statesmen, the philosophersu of America for some time.10 In an­ other letter to his wife, after openly confessing his "local at­ tachment, .. his ttoverweening prejudice in favor of New England, which ••• sometimes leads me to expose myself to just ridicule,tt he continued by enumerating reasons why the colonies of New Eng- land excel every other colony in America. Besides the customs and institutions peculiar to New England, Adams gave as a reason for the Yankee excellence, their purer English blood.lO Such a reason only brings his prejudice to light.

From all thus far observed about John Adams' character, on~ might conclude that he was not a very 8 ociable statesman. He him~ self remarked that he was not interested in ••Balls, assemblies, concerts, cards, horses, dogs." He was not happy in a crowd but preferred to be engaged in business. His only pleasures were in­ timate unreserved conversation with a few bosom friends and the perusal of books, so that while in Philadelphia, he was perforce something of a recluse, and his entertainment was confined to cor~ respondence with his friends far away in Massachusetts.11

Serious though his faults may seem at a superficial glance, nevertheless, beneath those faults was a sterling patriotic devo- 92 tion which his most ardent detractors must admire. No love of the public stage induced him to endure the onerous post of dele­ gate in Philadelphia. He felt that he was wanting in the neces­ sary ttfortune, leisure, health," and ugeniusu for public life; yet, while the ship of state was being buffe,ted by heavy storms, he helped man the pumps, and tried to fill the dangerous posts few would accept. When the ship of state was enjoying a peace- ful calm and men were anxious to plot her serene cou~se, he pre­ ferred to disembark and care for his private concerns.l2

Already in December 17751 he hoped that he would not be renominated, for he did not wish to serve another term ttat least until other gentlemen had taken their turns." 13 A few men, he felt, were not obliged to sacrifice themselves, their families, the pleasures and profits of life, while others enjoyed themselve~ and accumulated wealth. By July 1776 he was weary of the "inces· sant round of thinking and speaking on the greatest subjects.ul4 He begged the General Court appoint nine members in all, so that only three or five would be obliged to attend Congress at one time. He wished to resign because of failing health and great fatigue due to the incessant work at the Congress. His private affairs, moreover, were not in the best condition. After all, he reasoned1 there was no further need for him to sacrifice him­ self for the common good. That part of the Congress' business for which he was qualified was nearly completed; to conduct the military and commercial affairs that remained, others in Massa- 'd;) chusetts were far better qualified.15 He complained that the ordeal in Philadelphia was more trying because John Treat Paine and Samuel Adams, the other delegates from Massachusetts at this time, were seriously ill. Adams himself needed rest badly, he thought; and he threatened to return home for a six months rest even if he left Massachusetts unrepresented. Already he had strained his constitution beyond the bounds of prudence and safe- ty. To sit day after day in Congress was too much of a strain for any man. He desired a permanent release from duty, but he would willingly serve in the future provided he were granted a respite every three or six months or at least be allowed to bring his wife and four children with him to Philadelphia.16

Repeatedly in letters to his wife, John Adams expressed his fears for his health. Constant attendance at Congress and committees with practically no bodily exercise was sufficient, he believed, to wear down a man more robust than he. Perhaps he ex­ aggerated the danger to his health; perhaps his fears were exces- sive. Yet, as long as any strength remained, he intended to dis­ charge his duties in Congress, believing that his tthealth and life ought to be hazarded in the cause" of his country.l7

John Adams constantly longed to exchange the smoke and noise of Philadelphia, public contentions, and the intrigues of politics for the domestic felicity of his farm in Massachusetts. In spring he found his stay doubly wearisome. He longed to wan- der through his own meadows, to ramble over his own hills, and tc 94 sit in solitude by the side of his brook. He began to suspect that he had "not much of the grand in my composition." He was no at all charmed by the pomp and pride of war and uthe sound of drums and fifes." Even dominion of the world seemed as nothing 18 in comparison with "the delights of a garden." But he generous. ly sacrificed such private interests and pleasures for the happi- ness and good of others. Surely his patriotism and his sense of duty outshine any petty vanity this self-sacrificing statesman may have felt.

Domestic worries and troubles accentuated Adams' unhappy days at Philadelphia. Bad news frequently came from Braintree. In 1775, Abigail Adams wrote that the epidemic had spread from tru camp at Charleston through the neighboring villages. At one time her children and nearly her whole household had been sick. Death 19 visited her friends, servants, and relatives, even her mother.

Such days were anxious ones for a husband four hund~ed miles dis- tant, unable to assist his loved ones. Moreover, Abigail lived in constant dread that General Gage would attack the seacoast towns and drive the inhabitants to the hills. Even though she was not driven from her home, she was distressed by the roar of cannon that caused her house to shake and the windows to rattle. One nie;ht she could not rest, for her ttheart beat pacett with the 20 continued firing of cannon. Naturally John Adams suffered when he read such news and confessed that the sound of cannon seemed 21 more terrible at four hundred miles distance than at Braintree. ;:!U

Other distressing news from home reached Philadelphia; for weeks Abigail was worried about rumors that her husband had been poi­ soned, and that all communication between New England and Phila­ delphia had been cut off.

The best indication that John Adams served his country witl an unselfish patriotic heart is the poor recompense he received for his dangerous service as a delegate. The colony of Massachu­ setts paid his expenses and little more. He claimed that all the rewards for his four years' service in Congress were insufficient to pay wages to one laboring man on his farm. Indeed, by 1777, after four years at Philadelphia, Adams' financial condition was in a sorry plight. Adding to his embarassment, the Continental paper money was depreciating in value; prices were more than doub le what they had been before the war. Indeed, the Adams family was living on John's moderate acquisitions in the past, the fruit of years of saving. Meanwhile, Adams could not without some re­ gret notice that his fellow lawyers in Boston were making for­ tunes. Chiefly because of the prizes brought into the port of Boston, the law profession was more lucrative than ever before. Even young men, who a few years previously had served as clerks in John Adams' office, were now growing rich. To persevere in public life under such inequality required sound philosophical principles and a strong sense of patriotic duty.22

Adams felt most the hardships and sacrifices he was bring­ ing upon his family. Too long had he neglected the education and 96 interests of his children. He feared they would grow up in real want, which, coupled to pride, would make a very unhappy combin­ ation. Yet, if his children reproached him for having neglected them, he was determined to tell them that he had labored to secur a free constitution. If they did not prefer liberty to an ample fortune, he would disown them. 23 Such sacrifice and devotion to one's country can hardly be construed as anything but virtue. When his country's interests were at stake, John Adams had little thought for himself.

To John Adams' wife, Abigail, rightly belongs a large share of the credit due her husband's generous response to duty. In his Autobiocraphy John Adams mentions that the Quakers had in- · timidated John Dickinson's wife and mother, who, fearful lest Dickinson would be hanged and his estate confiscated if he sup- ported independence, remonstrated with him. How could he risk leaving his wife a poor widow and his children orphans and beg­ gars? John Adams added that he truly pitied Dickinson, for he

knew that such remonstrances from Abigail would have also unmanne~ him or at least have made him the most miserable man alive.24 Abigail, however, was willing to sacrifice ltall domestic pleasures and enjoyments" to Uthe great and important dutytt her husband owed their country.25 Her sacrifice was to endure the painful separation from her husband and to labor doubly hard in the man­ agement of the farm and in the care of the children. Unquestion­ ably this moral support gave Abigail a perfect right to rejoice 97 that her husband had "the honor of being a principle actor in lay ing a foundation" for the future greatness of the country.26 A wife like Abigail was a blessing indeed to a statesman like John Adams.

In an estimate of the character of John Adams, a few weak­ nesses seem to overshadow the magnanimity of the man, only becaus shortcomings always stand out far more prominently in a great man Certainly few will begrudge this statesman the pleasant luxury of indulgence in a bit of self-praise when they view the man in his entirety, unselfishly sacrificing all the personal pleasures of fortune, profession, and family life to serve the common good. To see John Adams thus is to understand and appreciate his fer- vent apostrophe: Posterity! you will never know how much it cost the present generation to preserve your freedom! I hope you will make a good use of it. If you do not, I shall repent it in heaven that I ever took half the pains to preserve it.27 98

NOTES TO CHAPTER VI

1. Diary, Feb. 16, 1756, in The Works of John Adams, II. p.5. Diary, May 3, 1756, Ibid.;-!I. p.l6-.- -nlary, July 25, 1756, Ibid., II. p.25. 2. J. Adams to Rush, APt• 12, 1809, Ibid., IX. p.616. 3. J. Adams to Rush, May 21, 1807, Ibid., IX. p.598. 4. J. Adams to Chase, July 1, 1776, Ibid., IX. p.416. 5. Autobiography, Ibid., II. p.5ll. 6. J. Adams to Rush, Aug. 28, 1811, Ibid., IX. p.635. 7. Autobiography, Ibid., III. p.39. 8. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Oct. 9, 1774, in Familiar Letters p.46-7. Diary, Oct. 9, 1774, in The Works of Johri Adams, II. p.395. -- - --

9. Diary, Aug. 23, 1774, Ibid., II. p.353. Diary, Oct. 9, 1774 Ibid., II. p.395. 10. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Aug. 3, 1776, in Familiar Letters, p.207. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Oct. 29, 1775, Ibid., p.l20.

11. J. Adams to ~~s. Warren, Nov. 25, 1775, in The Works of John Adams, IX. p.368-9. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Aug.-rs-,--- 1776, in Familiar Letters, p.215. 12. J. Adams to Warren, March 15, 1775, in The Works of John Adams, IX. p.355. 13. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Dec. 3, 1775, in Familiar Letters, p.l27. 14. J. Adams to Lowell, June 12, 1776, in The Works of John Adamf IX. p.393.

15. Jo Adams to the Deputy Secretary of Massachusetts, July 251 1776, Ibid., IX. p.426-7. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, July 11, 17~in Familiar Letters, p.l99-200. 16. J. Adams to Warren, July 27, 1776, in The Works of John Adams, IX. p.427-8. 99 17. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, June 10, 1775, in Familiar Let­ ters, p. 61. J. Adams to Abigail .Adams, May 27, 1776, Ibid. p:-1'77. J. Adams to Hichborn, May 29, 1776, in The WorkS of John Adams, IX. p.380. --- 18. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Apr. 28, 1776, in Familiar Let­ ters, p.l65. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, Mar. 16, 177rr;­ Ibid., p.250-l. 19. Abigail Adams to J. Adams, Sept. 8 (10), 1775, Ibid., p.94-6 Abigail Adams to J. Adams, Sept. 16, 1775, Ibid:;-p.97-8. Abigail Adams to J. Adams, Oct. 1, 1775, Ibid:; p.l02. Abi gail Adams to J. Adams, Oct. 9, 1775, Ibid., p.l05-7.

20. Abigail Adams to J. Adams, March 2-10, 1776, Ibid., p.l37~40 21. J. Adams to Abigail Adams, March 17, 1776, Ibid., p.l45. 22. J. Adams to Lovell, Dec. 24, 1777, in The Works of John Adams, IX. p.471. Autobiography, Ibid., III. p:S9:--- 23. J. Adams to Tudor, June 24, 1776, Ibid., IX. p.4ll-2. J. Adams to Abigail Ad~ms, Apr. 15, 1~ in Familiar Letters, p.l59. 24. Autobiography, in The Works of John Adams, II. p.408. 25. Abigail Adams to J. Adams, May 7, 1776, in Familiar Letters, p.l68. 26. Abigail Adams to J. Adams, July 14, 1776, Ibid., p.20l.

27. J. Adams to Abigail Adams. Apr. 26, 1777, Ibid., p.265. 100

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Congress", written by William A. Dehler, S.J., has been accepted by the Graduate School with reference to form, and by the readers whose names appear below, with reference to oontent.

It is, therefore, aooepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of

Arts.

Edward P. Lilly, Ph.D. November 13, 1938

Rev. C. H. Metzger, S.J., Ph.D. January 5, 1939