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Reading Guide to Armstrong's Jerusalem

Reading Guide to Armstrong's Jerusalem

Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s

This reading guide lists important dates for each chapter of Armstrong’s book. It also provides some definations for some unfamiliar terms (if you would like to suggest additions to these terms, please email me the term and I will be happy to add it).

Finally, part of your journel assignment is to describe your responses to Armstrong’s arguments and ideas. To help you with this, I have provided some study questions. The ones with an asterick (*) you are required to address in your journal. The ones without astericks you may write about or you can write about something else.

Many of these questions ask you to reflect on your own religious tradition. If you have been raised without any religious tradition, you can answer these questions by describing what is important in your personal world- view.

Introduction History:

Terms/Names: / the Sacred Myth Scholars of religion, “myth” is not “false” (as in, “the idea that pigs can is a myth”). Notice how Armstrong defines the term here, because she will use this defination throughout the book. Symbol Like myth, scholars don’t see symbols as “only” symbols. Notice how Armstrong defines this term, too.

Questions: * Do you agree with Armstrong’s assertion that religion always employs mythic language when discussing the divine? What examples of this sort of language can you think of from your own tradition? What are some symbols that are important in your religious tradition? Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 1: History: 3200-2300 Ophel Hill had some settlement, demonstrated by pottery 1900 “Rushalimum” mentioned in Egyptian texts Archaeological evidence of city walls 1300s Settlement of / Canaanites in Jerusalem 1200s Hill country most abandoned. may have settled in Jerusalem. Sea peoples inhabited coastal plains. Hill country settled by “.” Terms/Names: , , , = Canaanite , = Mesopotamian deities Hurrians (= / Horites in ) - Aryans who settled in in XV BCE Jebus name of Jerusalem when conquered it; inhabited by Jebusites Ophel hill S of . Oldest part of inhabited Jerusalem. Coastal city (near border of modern and ) where Canaanite documents have been found.

Questions: What does KA mean by “sacred geography”? What determines what features of the world are “sacred”? Be sure you can describe the characters of and differences between El and Ba’al. “At this date, all cities were regarded as holy places” (p. 7). Why was this? How do people today regard cities differently? What accounts for these changes? * “The goal of the religious quest has always been an experience, not a message” (p. 9). Do you agree with this statement? Why or why not? Are there messages your tradition emphasizes? Are they effective if not rooted in a religious experience? Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 2: History: 1207 Egyptian text mention hapiru and defeat of “Israel” 1200? Traditional date of “conquest” but little archaeological data to support biblical account 1030(?)-1000 Reign of King 1000-960(?) Reign of King David 1000-900 Date for J (Yahwist) and E (Elohist) strands of the 630-550 Date for D (Deuteronomy) strand of the Torah (and the books of , Judges, 1 & 2 , 1 & 2 Kings) 600-500 Date for P (Priestly) strand of the Torah Terms/Names: Merneptah Pharoah who erected a (stone monument) commemorating his victory over hapiru and “Israel” hapiru Class of people in Canaanite society; seem to be outcasts who lived on fringes of society Torah First five books of the Bible (Gen, Exod, Lev, Num, Deut). Also called “Pentateuch” or “Five books of ” because Moses was traditionally regarded as the author of all five books. J Oldest source in Torah. Uses divine name (Yhwh = ), describes God with human characteristics (anthropomorphically). Probably written in (S kingdom). E Second source in Torah. Refers to God with the generic term “god” (=“el” or “”). God more remote, interacts with humans via dreams and visions. Probably written in Israel (N kingdom). D Third source in Torah. Emphasizes distinctive ideas of Deuteronomistic school: Yhwh to be worshipped only in ; emphasis on worshipping only Yhwh; reject Canaanite influences. Written in Judah, but with influence from refugees from Israel. P Newest source in Torah. Emphasizes issues important to (ritual purity, , etc.) and orderliness (genealogies, specific times and dates). God described as spirit or -- very remote and without physical manifestation. Belief that only one exists. No other deities exist (from Gk: mono = one, theos = god) Belief that although many exists only one deity should be worshipped (from Gk: hen = one, theos = god) Belief that many gods exist (from Gk: poly = many, theos = god) Ark of the : Container that Bible says held the tablets Moses brought down from Mt. Sinai with the 10 Commandments on them. (This is the Ark from Raiders of the Lost Ark.) bemot “” where Canaanites & Israelites people worshipped matzevot a stone or pillar up to mark a sacred location; a place where people worshipped theophany appearance or manifestion of the divine or a deity to a human

Questions: How does KA explain the difference between the biblical account of the conquest and the data from the archaeologists? How did the Israelites worship Yhwh (their god) during the wilderness period? * The stories of the Patriarchs and Matriarchs (in Genesis) and the Conquest (in Joshua) can be understood as national myths -- stories that teach (or reveal) values or ideas important to the Israelite authors. What values does KA perceive in these stories? What are some American national myths? What do they say about American values? How many Americans do you think subscribe to these myths? Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 3: History: 1000-960(?) Reign of King David 990(?) Israelite conquest of Jebus -> City of David / Jerusalem 960-922 Reign of King Construction of Jerusalem Temple Terms/Names: Absalom David’s eldest son (at the time) who attempted a coup d’etat, to take over the throne from his father. Absalom died in the coup attempt. David’s eldest son when he was dying. Adonijah was killed on Solomon’s orders. (?) woman who had an affair with David, who killed her husband, Uriah, when she became pregnant. The child of the affair died. Solomon was her second son. Devir Temple: Holy of Holies (innermost chamber of the temple, see diagram, p. 49) Hekhal Temple: Hall inside temple (connected Ulam to the Devir, see diagram, p. 49) hesed Hebrew: loving kindness mishpat Hebrew: judgment Jebusite(?) who advised David shalom Hebrew: peace Israelite leader who led a second revolt against David’s rule Tyre Phoenician city on the coast of the Mediterranean. Craftsmen from Tyre built the Temple for Solomon. tzedek Hebrew: righteousness or justice Ulam Temple: Entrance to temple structure (see diagram, p. 49) Jebusite(?) who officiated at David’s new cultic site for Yhwh

Questions: How did David treat Jebus and its inhabitants after he captured the city? How did Israelite worship change after David moved the Ark into Jerusalem? How did it change after Solomon built the Temple? * Armstrong says of the Jerusalem Temple that “sanctity was inseparable from the pursuit of . . . ‘social justice.’” What does she mean by “social justice?” Do you agree that social justice must accompany sanctity? What is your tradition’s attitude towards social justice? How is it manifested or acted upon by your tradition? Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 4: City of Judah History: 922 of Solomon and division of kingdom in to N (Israel) and S (Judah) 862 Assyrian Empire expanded W and both Israel and became client states (paying tribute annually to the Assyrians) 800-750 Assyrian Empire weakened and Judah flourished, Jerusalem became much larger. 722 destroyed by Assyrians; Israel destroyed (10 “lost” tribes). Some refugees fled to Jerusalem, bringing religious ideas from the North. Jeru grew in size. 640-622 Reign of King 612 (capital of ) destroyed; Assyrian empire completely destroyed by Babylonians by 609 597 First Babylonian of Jerusalem and first deportation of Jerusalem elites to . 586 Second Babylonian siege. Destruction of Jerusalem Terms/Names: Hebrew: “ascent.” Term used to refer to pilgrimage to the Temple, when people had to go up (ascend) to the Temple mountain. Ancient cultic site in Israel. One of Israel’s two royal . Goyim Hebrew: “nations” = King of Judah. Famous for reforming the Jerusalem cult. Revolted against Assyria. Josiah King of Judah, son of Manasseh. Assyria on decline, so Josiah began to expand Judah’s boundaries. He also reformed the Jerusalem cult. “Best King ever (besides, perhaps, David” according to biblical authors. Manasseh King of Judah, son of Hezekiah. Loyal vassal of Assyria. Hated by biblical authors. Hebrew: “Booths.” Fall festival celebrated by living in little huts. Originally an agricultural festival (people may have lived in huts during harvest so that they didn’t have to go from their homes to their fields).

Questions: What sort of mythological language did the Judahites use to describe Yhwh? What were the goals of the Deuteronomic school? KA argues that “” is legitimate (p. 75). Do you find her argument persuasive? Why or why not? * What does KA mean by saying the Temple was a “fetish” (p. 64)? Does she think treated the Temple as a fetish? Did treat it as a “fetish”? What sorts of things do Americans fetishize? Is the flag an American fetish? Why or why not? Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 5: Exile and Return History: 586 Destruction of Jerusalem; second deportation of people from Jerusalem to Babylon 550 Cyrus (Persian, from modern Iran) conquered Medea (NE of ) 538 Cyrus defeated Babylonians Edict of Cyrus allowed exiled Judahites to return to Jerusalem 515 Jerusalem Temple rebuilt. ca. 450(?) sent to be governor of (=Judah) ca. 398(?) sent to Yehud to teach Torah to the inhabitants -- established Torah as “law of the land.” Terms/Names: Am ha-Aretz Hebrew: “People of the Land.” Term used for Judahites who did not go into exile. (i.e., the opposite of golah). Geshem Governor (?) or leader of , S and E of Jerusalem Golah Community of Judahites living in Babylon. The term was also used to refer to the exiles (and their descendants) who returned to Jerusalem. Holiness Code Leviticus 17-26, which is distinct from the rest of Lev by its frequent use of the word “holy” (as in, “I, Yhwh, am holy”). New religion developed during the exile; reform / re-interpretation of older Israelite religion. Kavod Hebrew: “Glory.” Word used to describe Yhwh by Mitzvot Hebrew: “Commandments” (singular = ); rules found in Torah Sanballat Governor of Samaria (area of Israel, N of Jerusalem) Tobiah Governor (?) of area E of the river, E of Jerusalem Yom Kippur Hebrew: “Day of Atonement” - festival when priest “put” the sins of the Israelites on a goat (the origin of the term “scapegoat”)

Questions: What new mythic language about God and/or Jerusalem was developed or deployed to address the situation of living in Exile? How was the religion of the exiles different from that of their ancestors? What was the attitude of the golah towards the goyim? Why does Armstrong think this attitude arose? * Marriage and family were important to Ezra and Nehemiah. If you married outside your faith tradition (say to a Muslim or a Hindu), would your family’s reaction be similar to that of Ezra or Nehemiah. If not, why not? Is there something different today or in your family’s religious tradition? What would you have to do to evoke an “Ezra reaction” from your family? Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 6: in Judah History: 333 conquered 323 Dead of Alexander - beginning of 20 years of civil wars between diadochoi 300 Judaea part of Egyptian / Ptolemaic kingdom 200 Judaea part of Syrian / Seleucid kingdom 167-164 Maccabean revolt 151 Hasmonean Jonathan named High Priest and ethnarch (leader of the ethnos or people) Terms/Names: Akra Fortress built by Selecuids NW of Temple Antipater Idumaean adviser to Hyrcanus, one of the last of the Hasmonean rulers. Father of Diadochoi Alexander’s generals; four of them fought each other when Alexander died to divide up his empire Rejected non-Zadokite Hasmonean high-priests. Left Jerusalem and settled on NW coast of the Dead Sea at Qumran. Gerousia Gk: “Elders” (geriatric = old people). Council of elders who led the Hasmoneans Family of non-Zadokite priests who lead a guerrilla war against the Seleucids during the Maccabean revolt Hellenism Greek culture Hellenization Process of advocating or adopting Greek culture Oniads Priestly family who seemed to oppose Hellenization Largest sect of Judaism. Wanted people to observe Torah correctly and consistently. They came to oppose the Hasmoneans. polis Gk: “city” Ptolemaic Dynasty started by Ptolemy in Saducees Elite of Jerusalem. Supporters of Hasmoneans. Seleucid Dynasty started by Seleucus in Syria Tobaids Group of Jews were seemed to favor Hellenization Zadokites Family of Priests. Only members of this family were supposed to be High Priests

Questions: Were the inhabitents of Jerusalem fundamentally opposed to Hellenism? Were the Hasmoneans opposed to Hellenism? What elements from older mythologies did apocalypticism incorporate into its world-view and description of reality? * What does KA mean when she compares Western culture to Hellenism? (p. 105) Think of at least four examples that could support this argument from your experience. * Why was Antiochus’ attack on the Temple in Jerusalem so significant to the Jews? What did the Temple mean for Jews? Is there anything similar to the Temple for Americans? Do you think the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center functioned in a simlar way for Americans? Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 7: Destruction History: 63 Pompey conquered Syria and reorganized territory of Jerusalem. Antipater (and his sons) were given positions of authority. Hasmonean Hyrcanus made High Priest and ethnarch 40 Parthians invaded Syria. They put another Hasmonean in office Herod fled to Rome, where he was named King of Judah. He returned and with Roman support, began to conquer his kingdom. 37 Herod captured Jerusalem 19 Herod began to rebuilt Temple 4 BCE Herod’s death. 6 CE Romans assumed direct control of Judaea (and Samaria) 26 Pilate attempted to bring Roman standards into Jerusalem 30 visited Jerusalem, where he was arrested and executed. 40 (?) Call of Paul 48-56 Date of Paul’s epistles (Romans, 1 & 2 Cor, Gal, Phil, 1 Thess, Philem) 66 Beginning of Jewish Revolt against Rome 70 Destruction of Jerusalem and Temple Terms/Names: Agrippa I Grandson of Herod, made king of Judaea by Claudius Agrippa II Great-grandson of Herod, nominal leader of Jews during Great Revolt Antipas Son of Herod, ruler of Galilee and Peraea, from 4 BCE - 37 CE. Herod King of Judaea from 40-4 BCE. Son of Antipater. Hillel One of the most important Jewish teachers; more lenient in his interpretations than Shammai Jesus Jewish peasant from Galilee; famous as a prophet and healer; regarded by his followers as mitvoth Hebrew: “Commandments” (singular = mitzvah) Paul from Tarsus (in SE modern Turkey) who brought to the gentiles Pilate Roman procurator (=governor) of Judaea; corrupt, venial, and incompetent according to many historians Ptolemy Roman general who conquered Syria. : “Teacher” (title of honor used for Jewish sages) Shammai One of the most important Jewish ; more stringent / conservative than Hillel

Questions: According to Armstrong, the Temple employed new symbolism. How does she describe it? How was the Jewish response to the perceived insults of Pilate and Florus against the Temple similar or different from the response to the attacks of Antiochus Ephiphanes in 167 BCE? * Is KA’s description of Jesus and the early Christian movement similar to your understanding of Jesus? In what ways is it similar and in what ways is it different? Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 8: History: 70 Destruction of Jerusalem and Temple 130 proposed building new city at Jerusalem; he prohibited circumcision (which he regarded as a barbaric custom) 130-133 Bar Kochba revolt (probably sparked by circumcision ban and/or plans for Jerusalem) 200 Publication of the 200 Some Jews allowed back to Jerusalem 400/500 Publication of the Terms/Names: Amorim Second generation of Jewish rabbis after destruction of the Temple (100-130 CE). Ark Cabinet in where Torah scrolls were stored. Bimah Place in synagogue where Torah was read aloud, usually a raised platform. Mishnah Collection of rabbinic interpretation of Torah that was promulgated around 200 CE Mt. Sion Armstrong’s term for what is now called Mt. Zion (Mt. Zion in the Bible refers to the Temple Mount, but moderns call the hill west of the Temple Mount “Zion.” Armstrong is distinguishing between these two locations.) Oral Law Rabbis supplemented the written Torah with the “Oral Torah,” their special teachings / interpretations of the Torah. Shekhinah Female “spirit” that accompanied God, according to Rabbinic thought. Talmud Elaboration / commentary on Mishnah. Published in Jerusalem around 400 CE; published in Babylon around 500 CE. Tannim First generation of Jewish rabbis after destruction of the Temple (70-100 CE) Yavneh Roman Prisoner-of-War camp on coast of Mediterranean sea, where Rabbi Yohannan ben Zakkai and his disciples fled (or were sent) to during siege and destruction of Jerusalem. Developed new way of being Jewish A rabbinic school or academy where Jews came to study Torah and Talmud Questions: After the destruction of the Temple, what replaced animal , according to the Rabbis? How did they re-imagine the Temple and Mt. Zion? * In this chapter, KA discusses the splitting off of from Judaism. It has long been noted that groups exhibit more animonsity towards neighbors or close relatives than towards more distant communities: civil wars are damaging in ways that foreign wars are not. How was this manifested in the split between Jews and ? Can you observe this in your faith community? For example, if you are a Protestant, what does your community say about Catholics? Does it regard them differently than, say, Buddhists? Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 9: The New Jerusalem History: 312 Constantine had vision before a fateful battle and converted to Christianity 313 Constantine made Christianity legal 325 Constantine called the council at Nicaea 335 Basilica of Anastasis dedicated 353 Imperial legislation forbidding enacted Terms/Names: Arius Christian theologian who taught Jesus was not divine in same way as God the Father and Jesus was subordinate to God the Father. Basilica A Roman structure, typically with three (or more) aisles. In the middle aisle, there was an apse (generally curved). Romans used them for court and other public meetings. Model for both and churches. Christian bishop of ; biographer of Constantine. Makarios Bishop of Jerusalem who found the “Tomb of Christ” religia licta A legal (state-recognized) religion

Questions: How did Christianity’s attitude towards the world shift with Constantine’s imperial patronage and building of church buildings? What new “mythology” does Armstrong say the Christians developed with the discovery of Christ’s tomb? How did the Anastasis and growth of the Christian community affect Jewish-Christian relations? * In Constantine’s empire, there was no separation between Church and State: he used the church to help organize the State. Do you think this was good for the church? Was it good for the state? The United States separates church and state, although the government subsidizes religious organizations.1 The Bush administration has suggested an office of “Faith Based Inititives,” for various social causes (drug re-hab programs, feeding and/or sheltering the homeless, etc.). Critics have seen this as lowering the barrier between church and state: for example, an addict might be required to listen to a sermon to participate in a drug-rehab program, rather than go to a government run (secular) rehab program. Based on the example of the , do you think lowering the barrier between church and state would benefit the United States? What positive effects could arise from such a policy? What might be the un-intended (or un-desirable) outcome of such a policy?

------1 The government subsidizes a wide variety of non-profit corporations and organizations, including churchs (and eductional institutions) by not having them pay taxes on their property (even if they own huge amounts of land or especially valuable parcels of property) or businesses (even if they run multi-million dollar networks). Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 10: Christian Holy City History: 361 Julian became emperor 362 Explosion under Temple Mount stopped rebuilding of Jewish Temple 379 Theodosius became emperor; banned pagan sacrifices and closed sanctuaries and temples. 431 Council of Ephesus condemned Nestorianism 610 Persians invaded. Besieged Jerusalem for three weeks before the city fell. 622 Byzantines attacked Persians and eventually sued for peace. Terms/Names: Julian Emperor who tried to restore in Empire Logos Gk: “Word” (Jesus was the logos of God, according to the Gospel of Jn) Monophysite Doctrine that Jesus had only one nature; Logos had been born and died. This idea offended orthodox b/c it denied Jesus’ humanity. Nestorianism Doctrine that Jesus had two natures: human and divine. Reject the title of “Theotokos” (= “God bearer”) for Mary -- she bore only human Jesus, not a divinity. Sabas Monastic leader; established E of Jerusalem Theodosius Fervent Christian Emperor. Issued law codes that discriminated strongly against Jews and pagans. Questions: After Julian, how did the Christians try to create “facts” (p. 198) in Jerusalem? How successful does Armstrong say they were? How did the Christians regard the Jews? What was their attitude towards Jews and Judaism? How did Christians “appropriate” ? * What sorts of issues divided the Christians from one another during the period from 300 to 600? What happened to people espousing “forbidden” doctrines, such as Nestorianism or Monophysitism? How significant are these issues to you? When you think of issues that divide people today (Democrats from Republicans, Protestants from Catholics, Liberals from Conservatives), do you think they are more or less significant than divisions in antiquity? Why? Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 11: Bayt al-Maqdis History: 610 received first revelation from 622 Hijrah - beginning of (year 1) 632 Muhammad’s death 638 Caliph Umar conquered Jerusalem 688 built by Abd al- Terms/Names: : “the God” (Same God as worshipped by Christians and Jews; Jews and Christians in Arabic speaking lands refer to God as “Allah.”) Caliph Leader of the Islamic ummah (many have claimed this title, but they are not recognized by all ). In Islamic law, dhimmis were protected religious minorities, such as Jews and Christians Pilgrimage to that every Muslim is supposed to undertake once in their lifetime if they can hijrah Flight from Mecca to by Muhammad and his followers Religion of those following Muhammad Ka’bah Shrine were Arab tribes worshipped before Muhammad; Muslims believe it was build by and Mecca Ancient caravan city in Arabia; religious city, site of Ka’bah Medina Common name for Yathrib -- city where Muhammad fled after leaving Mecca in 622. Site of Muhammad’s tomb. Multi-purpose building for Muslims (religious site, school, etc.) Muslim An individual who practices Islam Qur’an Collection of revelations from God via Gabriel to Muhammad Holy month for Muslims, with fasting during daylight hours, penitentiae, etc. Shi’a (Shiite) Minority branch of Islam. Believes that Muslims should be led by descendant of Muhammad. Today, found mostly in Iran and Iraq, with smaller populations in other Middle-Eastern countries and immigrant communities in Europe and North America. Sunni Majority branch of Islam. Believes that Muslims should be led by majority decisions. Today found throughout world. Sura Individual “books” of Qur’an ‘Umar Caliph (leader) of the Muslims after Muhammad ummah Community (often used to refer to all Muslims, as a group or en masse) Umayyad First dynasty of Muslim rulers not closely related to Muhammad. Ruled from 661-750 Questions: How did Christians and Jews respond to becoming dhimmis? How did the demographic situation change in Jerusalem? How is Armstrong’s description of rites in Ka’bah similar to those in the ancient Jerusalem Temple, Christian churches, or Jewish synagogues? Why was Jerusalem important to Muslims? How does Armstrong describe Umar’s conquest of the city? * How does Armstrong’s description of Muhammad and Islam differ from descriptions you have heard previously, perhaps from television or your reading of the NYT? What is the range of American opinions about Islam? Are they justified? Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 12: Al-Quds History: 768-814 Charlemagne, King of the Franks 700-800s Hadith literature collected and systematized Early 800s Holy Fire controversy 800s Islamic empire fragmented with local rulers / governors seizing power and control 996-1021 al-Hakim leader of Egypt (and Jerusalem). 1073 Seljuks captured Jerusalem Terms/Names: Abbasid Islamic dynasty that succeeded Umayyad dynasty, 750-1258; capital in Baghdad Armenia State/territory E of Asia Minor, between Black and Caspian seas. First country to adopt Christianity as state religion (310 CE). Fatimid Islamic dynasty that ruled N Africa from 910 to 1171; sometimes ruled Palestine and Jerusalem Hadith Story about Muhammad’s life and activity (model for later Muslims) Arabic term for the Temple Mount; location of Dome of the Rock and al Aska mosque Karaites Jews who rejected Talmud and Rabbinic interpretation / Oral Law Night Journey Muhammad’s trip to Jerusalem on a winged horse, Burqa, and tour of heaven and Seljuks Turkish (Turkomen) people from central Asia; established empire that stretched from Iran to Mediterranean, including Palestine and parts of Asia Minor. Sufi Islamic mystic Questions: How did al-Hakim affect the various religious communities in Jerusalem? What were some of the lasting effects of his rule? Why does Armstrong think the Western () Christians were interested in Jerusalem? How was this interest manifested? * Armstrong argues that different religious communities engaged in a competition to build in Jerusalem. What were some examples of this competition? Do you think modern religious communities engage in similar activities? Where do new synagogues / / churches built in your hometown? Where do people want to build them? Why? Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 13: Crusade History: 1054 Date of great schism between Orthodox and Latin (Eastern and Western) branches of Christianity. and Patriarch (Bishop of Constantople) excommunicated each other. 1071 Byzantine Emperor asked Pope for help fighting Islamic Turks who had conquered Asia Minor. 1096 (60,000 soldiers and many peasants) set out 1099 Crusader army arrived outside Jerusalem and on July 15 breached the city walls 1100 Godfrey died. Succeeded by Baldwin 1100 Baldwin re-admitted Eastern Christians to Jerusalem 1131 Zangi, Turkish commander of , began to impose peace on warring Islamic factions; united Muslims 1149 Holy Sepulcher church rebuilt 1170 “Tomb of David” discovered 1187 4 July: 2 October: Jerusalem recaptured Terms/Names: Baldwin Brother of Godfrey, second Franks People who settled in N France and Central Germany Godfrey First Latin King of Jerusalem Hattim Site in Galilee where ad-Din defeated Crusader armies Holy Sepulchre Western name for the Anastasis church (which contained the Tomb of Christ) Pogrom Russian: to demolish. Used to refer to massive, organized attack on a particular religious or ethic group. Originally used to refer to attacks on Jews; now, used for attacks on other minority groups. Salah ad-Din =Saladin, leader of Muslims who recaptured Jerusalem from Crusaders

Questions: How did the crusades change Western Christianity’s attitudes towards Muslims? How did it affect Western Christianity’s attitude towards Eastern Christians? How did the crusader’s control of Jerusalem change the city? What did they do with the religious sites in the city and its vicinity? How did it affect people from the various religious groups who lived there? What were some of the long-term effects of the crusades according to Armstrong? * Immedately after 9/11, President Bush announced a “crusade” against terrorists (Christian Science Monitor, 19 Sept 2001). This language sparked concern around the world and was amost immedately dropped. What caused the concern? Why did Bush change his rhetoric? What do you think about the nomenclature of the “Billy Graham Crusade” or the “Campus Crusade for Christ?” Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 14: Jihad History: 1194 Saladin died and his empire dissolved 1218 Crusaders attacked Egypt 1229 al-Kamal gave Frederick II Jerusalem for ten years 1258 Mongols sacked Baghdad 1260 defeated Mongols in Galilee 1291 Franks pushed off coastal plain -- last stand for crusaders 1351-53 Bubonic plague struck Jerusalem 1453 Ottoman Turks conquered 1515 Ottomans conquered Egypt 1516 Ottoman Selim entered Jerusalem Terms/Names: ein sof Hebrew: “without end” - Kabbalistic term for the incomprehensibility of God jihad Term means “battle,” primarily the internal battle between individual’s inclination to do evil and the goal of doing good. It also means a defensive battle against an external aggressor. (The latter meaning is more familiar from Western media reports.) madrasah Islamic academy or school Mamluks Arabic: “owned”. Refers to slave soldiers employed by Muslim rulers. Mostly Turkomen soldiers. Eventually rose to positions of power and authority. Mongols Nomadic warriors from Central Asia. Led by Genghis Khan led, they established an empire from Korea to Hungary. sefiroth emanations sent forth from ein sof that eventually resulted in the creation of the material world

Questions: Armstrong describes a new goal or objective for pilgrims in this chapter. What was it and why did it arise? Western Christians continued to seek to influence Jerusalem. How did they do so? What does Armstrong think of these attempts? Why? How did they mythologize the city? Armstrong argues that Saladin sought to “Islamicize” Jerusalem by creating new “facts.” What does she mean by this? How did his attempt resemble earlier attempts to “Hellenize” and “Christianize” Jerusalem? * Saladin’s “Islamicization” was in response to the threat from the Crusaders. We are currently in a “war against terrorism,” in response to the threat from al-Qaeda. What examples can you think of our government, media, or citizens engaging in “Americanizing” in response to terrorist threats? Are these responses similar to those of Saladin? Do you think national identity becomes more sharply defined (and defended) once its nation is under attack? Is this a positive or negative reaction? Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 15: Ottoman City History: 1517 Suleiman rebuilt Jerusalem’s walls (first time since around 1229) 1550 Population of Jerusalem around 14,000 1600 Beginning of European Enlightenment 1665 Shabbetai Zevi proclaimed himself to be Messiah 1666 Shabbetai converted to Islam in Istanbul ca. 1700 Ottoman empire growing weaker and weaker (continued until WWI, though!) 1732 France recognized as protector of Latin Christians in Ottoman Empire 1757 Orthodox Christians stormed Holy Sepulchre and Sultan issued firman making them chief custodians of the church 1774 Russia recognized as protector of Orthodox Christians in Ottoman Empire 1798 Napoleon sailed to Egypt 1799 Napoleon sent expedition to Palestine but it was repulsed Terms/Names: David Reuveni: Jew who claimed to be the Messiah firman Royal decree issued by Ottoman rulers Pasha The Ottoman’s title for governor Shabbabetai Zevi: Jewish Kabbalist who declared himself to be Messiah Stations of the Cross: Western Christian devotion, focusing of the suffering of Jesus in his final days; eventually, 14 stations were identified Suleiman the Magnificent: Leader of Ottoman Turks from around 1520-1566. The western wall of the Haram as-Sharif, Herod’s Temple Mount platform

Questions: Armstrong argues that Jerusalem was important in Jewish mythic-world view but most Jews settled in Galilee. Thus, the actual, physical city of Jerusalem was not important. Why did this change during the reign of Suleiman? Why does Armstrong think rival claims to religious sites was so disturbing to the residents of Jerusalem? Kaballah is Jewish mysticism, described by Armstrong in chapters 14 and 15. Why did it develop? How was it similar to earlier types of Jewish mysticism? How was it similar to Sufism? How was it similar to Christian devotional practices? * Armstrong argues that the “scientific revolution . . . would eventually transform the world” (p. 340) and change the way Westerners understood the world. If our views have been revolutionized by science, why do you think there is such controversy over the topic of evolution? Why do 80% of the Japanese and 60-80% of Europeans accept evolution, but less than 50% of Americans?2

------2 http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/2005/2005-11.html#figures, see figure #1. Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 16: Revival History: 1800 Jerusalem population: 4,000 Muslims, 2,750 Christians, 2,000 Jews 1808 Fire in Holy Sepulchre 1819 Holy Sepulchre repairs began 1831-40 Muhammad Ali, Egyptian reformer, controlled Jerusalem 1842 First Protestant Bishop named in Jerusalem 1850 Jerusalem population: 53K M, 36K C, 6K J 1852 Archaeologist Robinson visited city 1881 British conquered Egypt 1882 First Zionist colonies established in Palestine, prompted by pogroms in Russia 1909 Tel Aviv founded on Mediterranean coast NW of Jerusalem 1911 First Zionist kibbutz founded in Galilee 1914 WWI began. Ottomans sided with Germany. 1915-17 Armenian genocide; prompted migration of Armenians into Jerusalem 1917 British General George Allenby conquered Jerusalem Terms/Names: Ashkanazi Jews from Europe, generally Central and/or Eastern Europe (including Poland, the Baltic states, and Russia) Dreyfus affair: Alfred Dreyfus was Jew, who was a French soldier. He was convicted of treason, but evidence was falsified. Military officials covered up the falsification, because he was a Jew and they needed a scape-goat. Hasidim Ultra-Orthodox Jews; originally from E Europe and Russia. Started by Baal Tov, who argued that, in addition to observing Talmud, Jews need to have immediate religious experience (similar to that experienced through mysticism) Hebrew term for Enlightenment, which resulted in emancipation of European Jews in late 18th and 19th centuries kibbutz Hebrew term for a collective or communal farm Mitnagdim Orthodox Jews opposed to Hasidim, who feared it had messianic tendencies. Sephardim Sepharid is Spain, so this term originally applied to Jews from Spain, but since Jews expelled from Spain settled all around Mediterranean Sea, the term is used for Jews who lived almost anywhere outside N Europe. Jewish nationalist movement popularized by Theodor Herzl, which argued for the creation of a Jewish homeland.

Questions: One theme Armstrong describes in this chapter is growing sectarianism: divisions within one religion which (often) lead to fights and disputes. How was sectarianism expressed in each religion? Did it have similar effects in each religion? How was the goal of 19th century archaeologists different than earlier pilgrims or tourists? How did it reflect Enlightenment ideas? Why was it important for Europeans to control Jerusalem? What ideas and events does Armstrong see as the catalysts for Zionism? Why did some Jews oppose it? Why does Armstrong think Ben Gurion (and other Zionists) were unable to “see” Palestinian Arabs? * According to Armstrong, the West saw itself engaged in a “peaceful crusade” in the 19th century (p. 360). Do you think the Bush administration’s invasion of Iraq -- initially undertaken to prevent acquisition or development Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem of WMD and currently justified as an attempt to spread democracy in the Near East -- more closely resembles the 11th or 19th century crusade model? Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 17: Israel History: 1917 Balfour declaration 1920 Palestine given to Britain to govern under “British Mandate” -- Jerusalem with capital 1933 Hitler came to power in Germany 1936 Arab worker strike 1937 Peel plan announced: partition of Palestine 1939 WWII began 1945 WWII ended 1947 UN announced partition plan 1947 Israel declared its existence 1948 UN truce put into effect 1949 Armistice plan signed between Israel and Jordan 1967 War between Israel and Arab states Terms/Names: avodah Hebrew: “work” Balfour declaration: British document stating objective of creating Jewish homeland Irgun Underground Zionist army that fought against British during mandate period waqf Islamic religious endowment. In KA’s book, the waqf was responsible for taking care of the Haram as- Sharif Jewish community in Palestine

Questions: How does Armstrong explain the Zionist’s victory over the far more numerous from 1917 to 1967? (Hint: What was the Arabs’ response to the Peel plan, the UN partition plan, etc.?) How did anti-Semitism and “help” the Zionist cause? How did Zionists create new mythology to attach themselves to Palestine? How was it similar to older mythologies? How did Jerusalem fare during its 20 years of divided administration? What were the goals of the Jordanians and for the city? * Although the Ben Gurion saw Palestine as “without inhabitants” (p. 369) and Golda Meir said “The Palestinians do not exist” (p. 395), Armstrong (sensibly) argues that they were wrong. How was (or is) the Israeli inability (or unwillingness) to see and acknowledge the Palestinians similar to or different from the European-American ideas about Native Americans in the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries? How have American attitudes changed more recently? Can you think of other “facts” that we insist on denying to protect our national identity? Rel 289 A. Porter Reading Guide for Armstrong’s Jerusalem Chapter 18: Zion? History: 1967 War between Israel and Arabs 1973 Yom Kippur war 1979 Camp David Peace agreement 1987 First Intifadah started 1988 PLO recognized Israel’s right to exist 1993 Oslo peace plan signed

Terms/Names: Fatah The largest faction of the PLO; generally nationalist and centerist. Led by Yassir Arafat until his death in 2004. Gaza Strip Egyptian territory around city of Gaza, at SW extremity of Israel Kenesset The Israeli parliament Labor Israeli political party; generally left-wing (anti-settlement, more socialist) Likud Israeli political party; generally right-wing (pro-settlement) PLO Palestine Liberation Organization. Umbrella organization for various Palestinian parties advocating Palestinian state and/or destruction of Israel Rabbi Meir Kahane - extreme right-wing rabbi, advocated expulsion of Arabs from Israel Shofar Ram’s horn. Traditionally blown by Jews on Rosh ha-Shanah (New Year’s day) Sinai Egyptian territory captured by Israel in 1967 war; traded for peace in 1978 Camp David accords Territory claimed by Jordan, W of the , captured by Israel in the 1967 war

Questions: Armstrong compares the changing Jewish attitude towards Jerusalem after the 1967 war the changing Christian attitude toward the city after Constantine. Do you think this comparison is valid or not? Is the Israeli “passion” for archaeology different than the archaeology practiced by European explorers in the 19th century? Armstrong says the Israelis created new “facts” in Jerusalem after they captured it. What were these “facts”? How was this fact creating process similar to or different from Saladin’s “fact” creation after he captured the city from the crusaders? Armstrong says that in monotheistic religions, “it is idolatry to see a shrine or a city as the ultimate goal of religion.” Do you agree? If so, how would you explain the fascination Jerusalem has held (and continues to hold) for the three monotheistic faiths? * A theme that runs throughout this book is that governments want expand and control larger and larger territories, especially those that are of mythic significance to their leaders/people. Do you think this is true of the United States? Why or why not?

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