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A Survey of Augmented Reality R Foundations and Trends• in Human-Computer Interaction Vol. 8, No. 2-3 (2014) 73–272 c 2015 M. Billinghurst, A. Clark, and G. Lee • DOI: 10.1561/1100000049 A Survey of Augmented Reality Mark Billinghurst, Adrian Clark, and Gun Lee The Human Interface Technology Laboratory New Zealand University of Canterbury Christchurch, New Zealand {mark.billinghurst, adrian.clark, gun.lee}@hitlabnz.org Contents 1 Introduction 74 2 Definition and Taxonomy 77 3 History 85 4 AR Tracking Technology 103 4.1 MagneticTracking...................... 104 4.2 VisionBasedTracking. 105 4.3 InertialTracking . 122 4.4 GPSTracking ........................ 122 4.5 HybridTracking ....................... 123 4.6 Summary........................... 125 5 AR Display Technology 126 5.1 Combining Real and Virtual View Images . 126 5.2 Eye-to-Worldspectrum . 139 5.3 OtherSensoryDisplays . 144 5.4 Summary........................... 146 6 AR Development Tools 147 6.1 Low Level software libraries and frameworks . 148 ii iii 6.2 Rapid Prototyping/Development Tools . 153 6.3 Plug-ins to Existing Developer Tools . 156 6.4 Stand Alone AR Authoring Tools . 158 6.5 Summary........................... 163 7 AR Input and Interaction Technologies 165 7.1 ARInformationBrowsers . 166 7.2 3DUserInterfacesinAR . 167 7.3 Tangible User Interface in AR . 169 7.4 NaturalUserInterfacesinAR. 172 7.5 MultimodalInteractioninAR . 174 7.6 OtherInteractionMethods . 176 7.7 Summary........................... 177 8 Design Guidelines and Interface Patterns 179 8.1 CaseStudy:levelHead. 183 8.2 UsingDesignPatterns. 184 8.3 DesigningforSpecialNeeds. 187 8.4 Summary........................... 188 9 Evaluation of AR Systems 189 9.1 TypesofUserStudies . 191 9.2 EvaluationMethods ..................... 203 9.3 Summary........................... 206 10 AR Applications Today 207 10.1 Education . 207 10.2Architecture ......................... 211 10.3 Marketing . 217 11 Research Directions 219 11.1Tracking ........................... 220 11.2Interaction.......................... 223 11.3Displays ........................... 229 11.4 SocialAcceptance . 231 11.5Summary........................... 235 iv 12 Conclusion 236 Acknowledgements 238 References 239 Abstract This survey summarizes almost 50 years of research and development in the field of Augmented Reality (AR). From early research in the 1960’s until widespread availability by the 2010’s there has been steady progress towards the goal of being able to seamlessly combine real and virtual worlds. We provide an overview of the common definitions of AR, and show how AR fits into taxonomies of other related technolo- gies. A history of important milestones in Augmented Reality is fol- lowed by sections on the key enabling technologies of tracking, display and input devices. We also review design guidelines and provide some examples of successful AR applications. Finally, we conclude with a summary of directions for future work and a review of some of the areas that are currently being researched. M. Billinghurst, A. Clark, and G. Lee. ASurveyofAugmentedReality. Foundations R and Trends• in Human-Computer Interaction, vol. 8, no. 2-3, pp. 73–272, 2014. DOI: 10.1561/1100000049. 1 Introduction In 1977 many moviegoers were amazed as a small robot projected a three-dimensional image of a woman in mid air. With the words "Help me Obiwan-Kenobi, you’re my only hope", a recording of Princess Leia delivered a message that would change Luke Skywalker’s life forever. In this Star Wars1 scene, special effects were used to create the magi- cal impression that three-dimensional virtual content was appearing as part of the real world. The movie forecast a future where people could interact with computers as easily as interacting with the real world around them, with digital and physical objects existing in the same space. Thirty years later, in the 2008 US presidential campaign, a ver- sion of technology was shown for real. During the CNN election cov- erage reporter Wolf Blitzer turned to an empty studio and suddenly a life sized three-dimensional virtual image of reporter Jessica Yellin appeared beamed in live from Chicago2. Just like Princess Leia, she appeared to be part of the real world, but this time it was real and not through movie special effects. Wolf was able to talk to her as easily 1http://www.starwars.com 2http://edition.cnn.com/2008/TECH/11/06/hologram.yellin/ 74 75 as if there was there face to face, even though she was thousands of miles away. It had taken only thirty years for the Star Wars fantasy to become reality. The CNN experience is an example of technology known as Aug- mented Reality (AR), which aims to create the illusion that virtual images are seamlessly blended with the real world. AR is one of the most recent developments in human computer interaction technology. Ever since the creation of the first interactive computers there has been a drive to create intuitive interfaces. Beginning in the 1960’s, computer input has changed from punch cards, to teletype, then mouse and key- board, and beyond. One overarching goal is to make the computer interface invisible and make interacting with the computer as natural as interacting with real world objects, removing the separation between the digital and physical. Augmented Reality is one of the first technolo- gies that makes this possible. Star Wars and CNN showed how the technology could enhance communication and information presentation, but like many enabling technologies, AR can be used in a wide variety of application domains. Researchers have developed prototypes in medicine, entertainment, ed- ucation and engineering, among others. For example, doctors can use AR to show medical data inside the patient body [Navab et al., 2007, Kutter et al., 2008], game players can fight virtual monsters in the real world [Piekarski and Thomas, 2002a], architects can see unfin- ished building [Thomas et al., 1999], and students can assemble virtual molecules in the real world [Fjeld and Voegtli, 2002]. Figure 1.1 shows a range of applications. The potential of AR has just begun to be tapped and there is more opportunity than ever before to create compelling AR experiences. The software and hardware is becoming readily available as are tools that allow even non-programmers to build AR applications. However there are also important research goals that must be addressed before the full potential of AR is realized. The goal of this survey is to provide an ideal starting point for those who want an overview of the technology and to undertake research and development in the field. This survey compliments the earlier surveys of 76 Introduction (a) ARQuake outdoor AR game (b) AR architecture by Re+Public [Piekarski and Thomas, 2002a] http://www.republiclab.com (c) AR in medicine [Kutter et al., 2008] Figure 1.1: Typical AR applications. Azuma [1997], Azuma et al. [2001], Van Krevelen and Poelman [2010] and Carmigniani et al. [2011] and the research survey of Zhou et al. [2008]. In the next section we provide a more formal definition of AR and related taxonomies, then a history of the AR development over the last 50 years. The rest of this survey gives an overview of key AR technologies such as Tracking, Display and Input Devices. We continue with sections on Development Tools, Interaction Design methods and Evaluation Techniques. Finally, we conclude with promising directions for AR research and future work. 2 Definition and Taxonomy In one of the most commonly accepted definitions, researcher Ron Azuma says that Augmented Reality is technology that has three key requirements [Azuma, 1997]: 1) It combines real and virtual content 2) It is interactive in real time 3) It is registered in 3D The CNN virtual presenter satisfies these requirements. The virtual image of Jessica Yellin appears in a live camera view of the studio, she is interactive and responds to Wolf Blitzer in real time, and finally, her image appears to be fixed or registered in place in the real world. These three characteristics also define the technical requirements of an AR system, namely that it has to have a display that can combine real and virtual images, a computer system that can generate interac- tive graphics the responds to user input in real time, and a tracking system that can find the position of the users viewpoint and enable the virtual image to appear fixed in the real world. In the later sections of this survey we explore each of these technology areas in more depth. It 77 78 Definition and Taxonomy Figure 2.1: Rekimoto’s comparison of HCI styles (R = real world, C = computer). [Rekimoto and Nagao, 1995] should be noted that Azuma’s definition doesn’t place any limitations on the type of technology used, nor is it specific to visual information, and some AR systems provide an audio or haptic experience. In the larger context, Augmented Reality is the latest effort by scientists and engineers to make computer interfaces invisible and en- hance user interaction with the real world. Rekimoto distinguishes be- tween traditional desktop computer interfaces and those that attempt to make the computer interface invisible [Rekimoto and Nagao, 1995]. As Figure 2.1(a) shows, with a traditional desktop computer and desk- top WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointer) [Costabile and Matera, 1999] based graphical user interface (GUI) there is a distinct separa- tion between what the on-screen digital domain and the real world. One approach to overcome this is through the approach of Ubiquitous Computing [Weiser, 1993] (Figure 2.1(c)) where computing and sensing technology is seamlessly embedded in the real world. An alternative approach is through Virtual Reality (VR) [Burdea and Coiffet, 2003] (Figure 2.1(b)) when the user wears a head mounted display and their view of the real world is completely replaced by 79 Figure 2.2: Typical Virtual Reality system with an immersive head mounted dis- play, data glove, and tracking sensors. [Lee et al., 2002] computer-generated graphics (Figure 2.2).
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