Mystical Elements in Walt Whitman's Leaves of Grass: a Study of "Inscriptions" and "Children of Adam"

MYSTICAL ELEMENTS IN WALT WHITMAN'S LEAVES OF GRASS: A STUDY OF "INSCRIPTIONS" AND "CHILDREN OF ADAM"

ZUL SHAHARUDDIN BIN SETAPA@ MUSTAFA

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies)

Kulliyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences

International Islamic University Malaysia

OCTOBER 2012 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this thesis is to provide a study of mystical elements in Walt Whitman's (1819- 1892) Leaves of Grass (1855). The study will investigate the mystical elements specifically in two of his major poems, "Inscriptions" and "Children of Adam". Mysticism is essentially associated with the transcendentalist Walt Whitman. It is a deep understanding of, and an urge to seek, the absolute truth of the universe connected with divinity. It raises the spirit to a higher level of consciousness that goes beyond the norms. In this study, two poems from Whitman's Leaves of Grass will be examined to analyse the mystical elements he uses. The analysis will discover Whitman's reasons and aims of using them. By doing this. the significance of the elements used for American literature will be also be found. In addition, it will demonstrate the relevance of transcendentalism in Whitman's mysticism. As transcendentalism will be used as the theory to support arguments regarding the content of Leaves of Grass, this study will define it and explain how it influences Whitman's work. Concerning methodology, this study is conducted qualitatively. It depends on library materials such as books, journals and magazines in which Leaves of Grass is discussed with specific references to "Inscriptions" and "Children of Adam". Thus, the findings explain the meanings of Leaves o.f Grass and the importance of mystical elements as well as their relation with transcendentalism from the point of view of a twenty-first century researcher. It brings a new dimension to Whitman studies.

11 iii APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies),

IY!::,~,,~ Md Mahmudul Has an Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies),

~ oJ\f aw.i!:--~N~~"JC-.-- ~ ~i~~ij;~ H,~~h,i~,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

This thesis was submitted to the Department of English Lan age and Literature and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the d e of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies),

Zaharia Head, Department of English Language and Literature

This thesis was submitted to the Kulliyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge & Human Sciences and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies),

Mah di Abdul Majid Dean. Kulh;ah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge & Human Sciences

IV DECLARATION

I hereby declared that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. I also declared that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Zul Shaharuddin Bin Setapa @ Mustafa

>. 10 . .!l..0{1- Signature:.r? ...... ~···················· Date: ......

v INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OFFAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

MYSTICAL ELEMENTS IN WALT WHITMAN'S LEAVES OF GRASS: A STUDY OF "INSCRIPTIONS" AND CHILDREN OF ADAM"

I hereby affirm that The International Islamic University (IIUM) holds all rights in the copyright in this Work and henceforth any reproduction or use in any form or by means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent ofl!UM. No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by means, electronic, mechanicaL photocopying. recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Affirmed by Zul Shaharuddin Bin Setapa @ Mustafa

(] ······················~*······ Signatur~(l" ... Date

Vl ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly, I would like to express my gratitude to the Almighty Allah who has given me the strength to produce this academic writing.

Many thanks to my supervisor Dr Umar Abdurrahman and my examiner Dr Mahmudul Hassan who have guided me in writing. The guidance and comments have helped much in the process of completing this thesis.

Moreover, I would like to thank my family. My father, Setapa @ Mustafa Ibrahim and my mother, Sansider Mohamed. Thank you for the all the support. I also would like to thank my my eldest sister, Intan Suhaila, my elder brother, Ikhwan Rudaini and my youngest sister, Intan Shafini who have given the same support for me.

Last but not least, to everyone who have involved in the process of accomplishing this thesis either directly or indirectly. Thank you for making it as a successful project.

VII TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ...... ii Abstract in Arabic ...... iii Approval Page ...... iv Declaration Page ...... v Copyright Page ...... vi Acknowledgements ...... vii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... I Background of the Study ...... I Statement of Problem ...... 13 Scope of Study ...... 14 Objectives of Study ...... 15 Significance of Study ...... 15 Theoretical Framework ...... 16 Methodology ...... 22 Limitations of Study ...... 22 Organization of Chapters ...... 23

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 25

CHAPTER 3: WHITMAN"S MYSTICISM IN INSCRIPTIONS ...... 29

CHAPTER 4: DELVING DEEP INTO THE SELF: A STUDY OF "CHILDREN OF ADAM ...... 42

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 53

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 58

Vlll CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.1.1 Whitman's Background

Walt Whitman's (1819- 1892) experience in the country he lived, America, hugely influenced him and his works. During his childhood, Whitman suffered financial and psychological hardships. At the age of II, he stopped his formal education and became an apprentice in Brooklyn printing shops for five years, According to

Greenspan (2005), "'the poet's start was inauspicious" (l ), Things changed when he was 17 as he started teaching at several Long Island schools. Then in 1948 when he was 29 years old, he entered journalism and chose it as his career. In the meantime, he built houses, using skills he learned from his father. There is little information about how some events shaped his life and inspired him to produce Leaves of Grass in 1855.

However, his experience of working in printing shops is crucial in creating the urge and need to write. Newspaper editorship turned him into a mature man who put feelings and imagination in the form of writing. Greenspan points out that "he was so sensitive to tactile character of ink, press, and paper that it affected his poetic imagination" (14). Moreover, his career as a journalist provided him with an opportunity to encounter many types of people and that gave him an understanding of the people whom he describes in Leaves of Grass. What inspired him to be interested in literature was the encounter with other writers who helped to develop his theory on poetry, One ofthem is Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) who influenced his writing extensively, 1.1.2 Whitman's Mysticism

Mysticism deals with higher thinking inspired by divinity. It leads to a higher understanding of the universe beyond the norms. This understanding becomes a guide that influences actions. These actions aim at achieving glorious results.

As regards Whitman, Underhill (2004) mentions that "amongst modem men,

Walt Whitman possessed in a supreme degree the permanent sense of this glory. the light rare, untellable, lighting the very light" (192). It means that Whitman's mystical ideas come rrom an illumination he possessed which functioned as a guide of his actions. It is also more than what senses can perceive. Someone can only feel it in the company of a higher spirit that is able to translate the meanings of a particular idea into desirable outcomes by taking certain actions. The person will explore the idea to a very large extent, going beyond comprehensible arguments to understand complex matters. Once the person is able to explore it, there will be benefits for human development as it is based on the reality of the surrounding. In short, the illumination is a practical idea for life. Underhill (1993) argues:

The mystics show us this independent spiritual life, this rruition of the Absolute, enjoyed with a fullness to which others cannot attain. They are the heroic examples of the life of spirit; as the great artists, the great discoverers, are the heroic examples of the life of beauty and the life of truth. (34)

Whitman is one of the poets with these qualities.

In Leaves of Grass, Whitman shows that he is self-reliant. He generates his own ideas of individuals, the masses and the politics that can determine the progress of the country. He then expresses them in Leaves of Grass. The purpose is to show that he has achieved a deep realization about life, in which he has the power to perceive what others are not able to. By being a self-reliant, perceptive person and achiever, Whitman becomes someone who can look up to himself. This can be an urge

2 to be a visionary with the help of the divine self. Underhill (2004) argues that it is

"closely connected with the sense of the presence of God, power of perceiving the

Absolute, is the complementary mark of the illuminated consciousness: a vision of a new heaven and a new earth. or an added significance and reality in the phenomenal world" (254). After getting these influences, Whitman goes beyond the norms by having powerful ideas of God and his creations. He expands his views on reality beyond what he can see it by puning his spirit above what senses can experience.

There comes the idea of mysticism in Leaves of Grass. He starts with the idea of creating the new self, and at the same time he does not abandon the old one. The new self-creation will be an excellent one with the aim to play a big role in shaping human qualities. The self will have its own divinity. Bucke (2009) says that "for over twenty years he has been guided by this (seeming) supernatural illumination. He has yielded freely to it and obeyed its behests as being from God Himself' (233). This means expressions of knowledge in Leaves of Grass are a guide from God that a mystic like

Whitman can feel. As it is the nature of a knowledgeable man to spread the knowledge to others, Whitman puts efforts to tum Americans from what they are as a democratic nation to what his mystical ideas want them to be.

1.1.3 Mystical Ideas and American Literary Tradition

The mystical ideas in Leaves of Grass are related with the time when transcendentalism was quite influential in America. Prior to this, American literature was about forming a new life. Then, the theme in American literature was related to gaining liberty. It was followed by the theme about preserving values of the

American land.

3 The earliest literature in America is concerned with the experience oflife in a new place. It discusses the circumstances of people who came to explore and live in

America after Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) discovered the land in 1492. Even though the Spanish, French, English, Dutch, Swedes and Portuguese arrived with a mission of searching for gold, the interest of establishing stable settlements grew. As a result the writers like John Smith (1580-1631), William Bradford (1590-1657) and

William Byrd (1674-1744) shared a common feeling which was linked to a type of life that was yet to be explored. They expressed the eagerness to transform America into a better place to live their life.

It was followed by a type of literature that emphasized liberty starting from

1750 to 1800. The starting point was when a minuteman fired a market shot near the

British redcoats in Concord, Massachusetts as a sign of protest against the rule of

British government Colonies were dissatisfied with such unfair treatment of their people. They believed that the practice of laws and taxes of the Stamp Act, the

Quartering Act and the Townshend Acts was a burden for people but it gave advantages to the stability of the government As it was the period when many people thought of separation from the then government, writers started to write about the hope to be independent Writers like Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), Patrick Henry

(1736-1799) and Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) shared the same hope with common people and emphasized the Declaration oflndependence that could free them from the colonial power. As American literature was connected with the making of an independent nation, writing then was associated much with politics and in the form of an urge for liberty.

Once the American nation had gained independence, its literature changed agam. American literature turned into expressions of nationalism, stressing

4 Americanism. However, the writers then like Washington Irving ( 1783-1859),

William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878) and Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) still got the influence of Romanticism, a European literary movement in the late eighteenth century. It is a movement that was associated with personal experience and high emotions. Its main characteristics were love of nature. importance of the individual, attraction to the supernaturaL longing for charming unusual manner, strong idealism and nationalism. As a result. the influence of Romanticism in American writers had established a national identity of America. The identity had succeeded in developing

America to a large extent when more states joined the confederation, means of transportations and communications improved and agricultural economy turned into an industrialized one.

It was the next generation of literature which differed or was free from

Romanticism. Emerson had inspired this new American literature. He was connected with a literary movement called transcendentalism. This movement was about a belief that the ultimate truths of the universe could only be understood when someone was able to experience life beyond the help of senses. It emphasized that every individual had a right to reject any established dogma and could become superior in spirit.

Transcendentalism believed that anyone could know what was beyond reality through intuition. It was the power of writers' attitude that created this intuition. There was no concrete doctrine of transcendentalism but it placed importance on nature as a divine thing. Moreover, this intuition that transcendentalists believed could only be there to experience when people had allowed themselves to be individuals. The transcendentalists also emphasized democracy in which they asserted that all people could have this intuition and became powerful in governing the selves. This led to the height of moral enthusiasm and transcendentalists had become the agents of reform by

5 stressing the quality of individuals in connection with divine nature. Other writers known as transcendentalists are Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) and Nathaniel

Hawthorne (1804-1864). As it was a popular theory of fundamental truths beyond senses and emphasized a high intuition of the soul, it questioned the established cultural forms. Transcendentalists asked for a reform in combining spirit and material as well as ideas and actions. The main elements of it were individuals and divine nature. In other words, it was associated with individuals' capacity to be self-reliant using the power they got from their union with nature. They believed that God was in everything and every creation was in unity with God. This showed that mysticism played an important role in transcendentalists' belief.

Things changed to some extent in the time of Whitman. The American nation was in a crisis because of the incompatible way of life in the northern and southern areas. A different economic growth in the north had created dissatisfaction among the people in the south. The slave system which the south still practiced also created tension. These circumstances led to a secession of South Carolina from the Union. It was followed by six other states and four others finally had joined the newly-formed confederacy. Finally, a civil war began on 12 April 1861. This made the nation divide and hatred level was high. After the war ended, America became strong. The war resulted in a fast technological advancement. What caused the civil war, what impact it had and what change it brought in the end created a new form of literature for

America.

The transcendentalist, Whitman who was one of the poets of this period emerged with a different type of poetry of free verse. He believed that he should express the new American experience in a new way as two other poets Emily

Dickinson (1830-1886) and Mark Twain (1835-191 0) did. Whitman also enhanced the

6 transcendentalists' love of nature by recommending the love of humanity which was wider in scope. This love asked individuals to discover the self to the highest degree both physically and spiritually no matter who the person was. For him, there was divinity in the self In addition, he recommended that the self must consider other selves and reconcile their differences. Whitman's idea was to approve and celebrate the divine nature of the individual by observing the nature of other creations. The purpose was to create a relationship among all things and form a unity.

Thus, like Emerson, Whitman placed importance on mysticism. However, his mysticism is more towards the process of knowing the self and others. He believes that an individual must rely on this divine self. However, at the same time the self reliant individual has to be associated with others in order to have a unity among the nation and all aspects of the universe. Compared to Emerson·s type of mysticism,

Whitman's mysticism is a step forward in which the idea of high intuition and self reliance are developed to create a united nation that stands firm even in turbulence times. It is a reform of American transcendental literature.

Whitman's deep thinking with the inspiration of the divine is a force to comprehend the world better. In this case, Whitman specifically wanted to comprehend America as a whole in order to create a better perspective of it. He needed to see the progress of America and he realised that he had to be an agent of change. There came Leaves of Grass as a new means to express his ideas regarding his understanding of America with an expectation to be able to transform the country.

1.1.4 Element oflndividuality

Firstly, Whitman emphasizes individuality. He explains that greatness is in every individual, so, everyone should celebrate himself or herself The idea he discusses