DOCSLIB.ORG

Why Were the Holy Roman Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Republic of Poland Weak in the Early Modern Period?

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Why Were the Holy Roman Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Republic of Poland Weak in the Early Modern Period? Chapter 5 Notes Why were the Holy Roman Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Republic of Poland weak in the early modern period? • In the mid-1600s, the Holy Roman Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Republic of Poland dominated Central and Eastern Europe. – Each of these states was huge and quite different from each other in terms of religion, longevity, and connection to Western Europe – All shared weakness of central authority, inefficiency of administration, and inability to compete with the modernizing states of France and Russia. • The situation in the East was in constant change – Ultimately, three great states emerged out of the ruins of the seventeenth-century states • The Austrian, Prussian, and Russian Empires. Why was the Holy Roman Empire so weak? • The Holy Roman Empire was devastated by the Reformation and the Treaty of Westphalia. • The empire strove for universality, not nationality, but favored Germanic culture. • The empire economically had a difficult time recuperating from the damages of the Thirty Years' War • Lacked most of the newly created economic attributes of Western Europe – No central bank; no colonies; no vibrant merchant class; no stock exchange; and no uniformity of laws, tariffs, tolls, coinage, or even the calendar. – Science was at a low point and only in music (e.g., Bach, etc.) did Germanic artistic creation excel. • Politically, the empire consisted of hundreds if not thousands of virtually sovereign states of a great variety of size and power. – Each wished to preserve what was generally known as "Germanic Liberties." – These states opposed Habsburg efforts at centralization • The position of emperor was an elective one. – The Habsburgs did not have the rights of hereditary rule – Although all Holy Roman Emperors were Habsburgs, each had to negotiate terms with nine electors • The Imperial Diet was similarly hampered. – Along with the "Germanic Liberties" came a lack of personal freedom and political rights in most states within the empire – Most states tended to absolutism but often generated enthusiastic support from the local populace • Some rulers within the empire sought to significantly increase their domains and their power – Often by carefully selecting marriage partners or peddling their positions as electors to the highest bidder – Successful dynasties were the Wittelsbachs of Bavaria, the Hohenzollerns of Prussia, and the Guelphs of Hannover • Current ruling dynasty (now called the House of Windsor) of England in 1714when the Stuart line died out. • Two of these states-Austria under the Habsburgs and Prussia under the Hohenzollerns-achieved prominent positions and effective governments by 1700. How did a strong Austrian Habsburg monarchy rise out of the Holy Roman Empire? • Austrian Habsburgs were the Holy Roman Emperors since the mid-fourteenth Century – Successfully made a transition in 1600s from the dying Holy Roman Empire to a strong Austrian kingdom. • The Austrian kingdom consisted of three parts connected only by common Habsburg ruler – Austria • Hereditary provinces of Habsburgs – Bohemia • Reincorporated into the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years' War – Hungary • Ottomans conquered Hungary in 1526 after a long struggle between the Austrians and the Turks • In the seventeenth century, Louis XIV incited the Turks to move against the Habsburgs • In 1683, the Turks besieged Vienna for the second time – The siege was lifted after two months, largely because of the efforts of the Polish king, Sobieski. • Prince Eugene of Savoy was an effective commander for the Habsburgs who modernized the army and drove the Turks out of Hungary • The Ottomans were pushed back to Romania and the Balkans • Habsburgs won Milan, Naples, and the former Spanish Netherlands fighting in the War of Spanish Succession • Prince Eugene captured Belgrade, Trieste, and Croatia, pushing back the Turks to borders that remained for the next 200 years. What were some defining characteristics of the Austrian Empire? • The Austrian Empire was international (or non- national) both in its population and in the government service – Germans, Croats, Italians, Hungarians, and Czechs • Several provinces had their own diet, with a good amount of autonomy; – No central diet or common laws for the empire as a whole • Common class interests connected the nobles of various origins – Dominated their mostly enserfed peasants • The two unifying elements were Catholicism (the Habsburgs persecuted Protestants) and the Habsburg Emperor who inherited the three crowns in one Person • Charles VI in 1713 issued a document called the Pragmatic Sanction – Ensure the permanent unity of Habsburg territory by preventing divided succession • Became even more important when he had no male heir • Daughter Maria Theresa, who ultimately recognized as the rightful Habsburg heir How did Prussia use its small size to its advantage in the seventeenth century? • Small states could play a major military role in the seventeenth century because most armies were small, and weapons were simple – Most battles were fought with fewer than 40,000 men, regardless of the size of the army as a whole – Well trained and disciplined armies of smaller states could defeat armies of larger states. • Such was the basis of the modern Prussian state • Sweden had a short-lived empire due to the brilliant leadership of three rulers who did well in the Thirty Years' War and went on to conquer parts of the Baltic – The Russians ultimately defeated the last of these three, Charles XII, in 1718 – Swedish holdings reduced to Finland • Swedes gave up imperial dreams. • Prussia was to become the dominant state in Northern Europe and to play a decisive role in world history – Original Prussia was a large flat plain (now in Poland) without natural frontiers • The ruler of nearby Brandenburg, an inland area originally on the eastern border of the Holy Roman Empire, was one of seven who elected the emperor – After 1415, it was always a Hohenzollern • Originally within the Polish kingdom, the duchy of Prussia was inherited in 1618 by the duchy of Brandenburg – At the Peace of Westphalia given to western Pomerania on the Baltic coast, plus some territories west of the Elbe River • Prussia therefore lacked territorial unity of its three major areas – Driving task of the Prussian rulers to create a physically unified state. The Hohenzollerns • Friedrich Wilhelm, later known as the Great Elector, came to the throne just as Brandenburg was suffering terrible destruction during the Thirty Years' War – Berlin's population had fallen to 6,000 – Committed to building a great army to force greater states to make diplomatic concessions to Prussia – Creating the Prussian pattern of having, but rarely using, its great army • Son Frederick used this principle, and the offer of just 8,000 soldiers to the Emperor to win the right to use the title "King" from the Holy Roman Emperor – 1701 during the War of Spanish Succession allowed him to become a German king while the other rulers within the empire were princes How did militarism infuse the Prussian state? • Prussia’s proportion between its investment in the military and its meager resources was unique – Here the army developed a life independent of that of the state – The army was the first all-Prussian institution. • The need to fund the army became a driving force in the economy – Personal income of the rulers was channeled for state purposes rather than to private pleasures – Monarchs themselves adopted a Spartan lifestyle – Developed a highly sophisticated bureaucracy both for tax collecting and for management of large-scale, state-owned productive enterprises • The labor force came from Holland or were exiled French Huguenots – All taxes, including excise and salt taxes, were used for the army – The percentage of government owned enterprises was highest in Europe – Military needs dominated the market. • The landed aristocrats, called the Junkers, were absorbed into military service – compensated for the loss of their traditional parliamentary bodies. • Junkers were granted unbridled authority over their serfs – Legislation prevented the sale of noble lands to non-nobles – Discouraged the growth of the bourgeoisie • opposite of the situation in France • Values of obedience, honor, and service created an all-Prussian identity – Encouraged the submissiveness to the state • King Frederick William I (1713-1740) was totally devoted to the army – Abhorred the arts so beloved by his son, Frederick the Great – Lived a highly frugal, spartan life – Always appeared in uniform – Had a particular and well-known love for tall soldiers – Was innovative in his creation of recruitment and training programs. • The army doubled in size – The city of Berlin reached a population of 100,000 during his reign. • Frederick the Great inherited the throne in 1740 – Same year Charles VI of Austria died – Frederick immediately went to war against Austria in order to wrest Silesia from the Habsburgs • The acquisition of Silesia doubled the population of Brandenburg • Brought valuable resources and industries, so that Frederick could increase the army to 200,000 men • Prussia was a "remarkable creation" of these strong rulers. How was Russia different from Europe? • In some ways, Russia had not followed the path of European history. It had converted to Orthodoxy and fell under the influence of Constantinople, not Rome. – The Mongols had ruled it for some 250 years. The expulsion of the Mongols brought Muscovy into preeminence. – Russia's lack of warm-water ports limited its trade and cultural contact with the rest of Europe. • The Europeanization of Russia after 1600 was an important part of the expansion of European systems of political and economic organization and of the creation of the modern world. • Russia and Prussia had some similarities in that they lacked natural borders to their great plains and a strong native commercial class. – In both, an autocratic state emerged to support the army, imposing ideas and institutions borrowed from the West. – Yet Prussia was closer physically and culturally to Western Europe, while Russia at this point was more concerned with importing Western European technology and knowledge.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Ancient Times (A.D
    The Catholic Faith History of Catholicism A Brief History of Catholicism (Excerpts from Catholicism for Dummies) Ancient Times (A.D. 33-741) Non-Christian Rome (33-312) o The early Christians (mostly Jews who maintained their Jewish traditions) o Jerusalem’s religious establishment tolerated the early Christians as a fringe element of Judaism o Christianity splits into its own religion . Growing number of Gentile converts (outnumbered Jewish converts by the end of the first century) . Greek and Roman cultural influences were adapted into Christianity . Destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in A.D. 70 (resulted in the final and formal expulsion of the Christians from Judaism) o The Roman persecutions . The first period (A.D. 68-117) – Emperor Nero blamed Christians for the burning of Rome . The second period (A.D. 117-192) – Emperors were less tyrannical and despotic but the persecutions were still promoted . The third period (A.D. 193-313) – Persecutions were the most virulent, violent, and atrocious during this period Christian Rome (313-475) o A.D. 286 Roman Empire split between East and West . Constantinople – formerly the city of Byzantium and now present- day Istanbul . Rome – declined in power and prestige during the barbarian invasions (A.D. 378-570) while the papacy emerged as the stable center of a chaotic world o Roman Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in A.D. 313 which legalized Christianity – it was no longer a capital crime to be Christian o A.D. 380 Christianity became the official state religion – Paganism was outlawed o The Christian Patriarchs (Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, Rome, and Constantinople) .
    [Show full text]
  • Darius PETKŪNAS – the Sources of the 1545 Old Prussian Language
    THE SOURCES OF THE 1545 OLD PRUSSIAN LANGUAGE CATECHISMS Darius Petkūnas Abstract The Teutonic Order in Prussia recognised and acknowledged its responsibility to catechise both the German-speaking colonists and the native population. The Reformation made no radical changes to these requirements, but gave them serious attention. During the 1540s to the 1560s, several Catechisms for the non-German subjects of the Duke of Prussia were pre- pared and published in Königsberg, including three in the Old Prussian language. The editor 189 of the first and second Old Prussian-language Catechisms published bilingual books, with the German Catechism on the left-hand page, and the same text on the right-hand page in the Old Prussian language. Reinhold Trautmann established that the source of the Decalogue in these books was Luther’s 1531 Small Catechism. However, he had difficulties confirming the sources of the remaining four parts of the Catechism, since he found a number of words and phrases which could not be identified as coming from Luther’s Catechisms. The article elaborates on Trautmann’s thesis that the source of the German Decalogue is Luther’s 1531 Enchiridion. In addition, it argues that the sources of the remaining parts of the Catechism were German-lan- guage catechetical and liturgical texts that were circulating in Prussia at that time. KEY WORDS: Duchy of Prussia, catechisation, Old Prussian language, Martin Luther. ANOTACIJA Vokiečių ordinas Prūsijoje suvokė ir pripažino savo pareigą katechizuoti tiek vokiečiakalbius ko- lonistus, tiek ir vietinius gyventojus. Reformacija neturėjo esminės įtakos šiems reikalavimams atsirasti, bet sustiprino jiems teikiamą dėmesį.
    [Show full text]
  • A Short History of Poland and Lithuania
    A Short History of Poland and Lithuania Chapter 1. The Origin of the Polish Nation.................................3 Chapter 2. The Piast Dynasty...................................................4 Chapter 3. Lithuania until the Union with Poland.........................7 Chapter 4. The Personal Union of Poland and Lithuania under the Jagiellon Dynasty. ..................................................8 Chapter 5. The Full Union of Poland and Lithuania. ................... 11 Chapter 6. The Decline of Poland-Lithuania.............................. 13 Chapter 7. The Partitions of Poland-Lithuania : The Napoleonic Interlude............................................................. 16 Chapter 8. Divided Poland-Lithuania in the 19th Century. .......... 18 Chapter 9. The Early 20th Century : The First World War and The Revival of Poland and Lithuania. ............................. 21 Chapter 10. Independent Poland and Lithuania between the bTwo World Wars.......................................................... 25 Chapter 11. The Second World War. ......................................... 28 Appendix. Some Population Statistics..................................... 33 Map 1: Early Times ......................................................... 35 Map 2: Poland Lithuania in the 15th Century........................ 36 Map 3: The Partitions of Poland-Lithuania ........................... 38 Map 4: Modern North-east Europe ..................................... 40 1 Foreword. Poland and Lithuania have been linked together in this history because
    [Show full text]
  • Storia Militare Moderna a Cura Di VIRGILIO ILARI
    NUOVA RIVISTA INTERDISCIPLINARE DELLA SOCIETÀ ITALIANA DI STORIA MILITARE Fascicolo 7. Giugno 2021 Storia Militare Moderna a cura di VIRGILIO ILARI Società Italiana di Storia Militare Direttore scientifico Virgilio Ilari Vicedirettore scientifico Giovanni Brizzi Direttore responsabile Gregory Claude Alegi Redazione Viviana Castelli Consiglio Scientifico. Presidente: Massimo De Leonardis. Membri stranieri: Christopher Bassford, Floribert Baudet, Stathis Birthacas, Jeremy Martin Black, Loretana de Libero, Magdalena de Pazzis Pi Corrales, Gregory Hanlon, John Hattendorf, Yann Le Bohec, Aleksei Nikolaevič Lobin, Prof. Armando Marques Guedes, Prof. Dennis Showalter (†). Membri italiani: Livio Antonielli, Marco Bettalli, Antonello Folco Biagini, Aldino Bondesan, Franco Cardini, Piero Cimbolli Spagnesi, Piero del Negro, Giuseppe De Vergottini, Carlo Galli, Roberta Ivaldi, Nicola Labanca, Luigi Loreto, Gian Enrico Rusconi, Carla Sodini, Donato Tamblé, Comitato consultivo sulle scienze militari e gli studi di strategia, intelligence e geopolitica: Lucio Caracciolo, Flavio Carbone, Basilio Di Martino, Antulio Joseph Echevarria II, Carlo Jean, Gianfranco Linzi, Edward N. Luttwak, Matteo Paesano, Ferdinando Sanfelice di Monteforte. Consulenti di aree scientifiche interdisciplinari: Donato Tamblé (Archival Sciences), Piero Cimbolli Spagnesi (Architecture and Engineering), Immacolata Eramo (Philology of Military Treatises), Simonetta Conti (Historical Geo-Cartography), Lucio Caracciolo (Geopolitics), Jeremy Martin Black (Global Military History), Elisabetta Fiocchi Malaspina (History of International Law of War), Gianfranco Linzi (Intelligence), Elena Franchi (Memory Studies and Anthropology of Conflicts), Virgilio Ilari (Military Bibliography), Luigi Loreto (Military Historiography), Basilio Di Martino (Military Technology and Air Studies), John Brewster Hattendorf (Naval History and Maritime Studies), Elina Gugliuzzo (Public History), Vincenzo Lavenia (War and Religion), Angela Teja (War and Sport), Stefano Pisu (War Cinema), Giuseppe Della Torre (War Economics).
    [Show full text]
  • 1781 - 1941 a Walk in the Shadow of Our History by Alfred Opp, Vancouver, British Columbia Edited by Connie Dahlke, Walla Walla, Washington
    1781 - 1941 A Walk in the Shadow of Our History By Alfred Opp, Vancouver, British Columbia Edited by Connie Dahlke, Walla Walla, Washington For centuries, Europe was a hornet's nest - one poke at it and everyone got stung. Our ancestors were in the thick of it. They were the ones who suffered through the constant upheavals that tore Europe apart. While the history books tell the broad story, they can't begin to tell the individual stories of all those who lived through those tough times. And often-times, the people at the local level had no clue as to the reasons for the turmoil nor how to get away from it. People in the 18th century were duped just as we were in 1940 when we were promised a place in the Fatherland to call home. My ancestor Konrad Link went with his parents from South Germany to East Prussia”Poland in 1781. Poland as a nation had been squeezed out of existence by Austria, Russia and Prussia. The area to which the Link family migrated was then considered part of their homeland - Germany. At that time, most of northern Germany was called Prussia. The river Weichsel “Vitsula” divided the newly enlarged region of Prussia into West Prussia and East Prussia. The Prussian Kaiser followed the plan of bringing new settlers into the territory to create a culture and society that would be more productive and successful. The plan worked well for some time. Then Napoleon began marching against his neighbors with the goal of controlling all of Europe.
    [Show full text]
  • The Legacy of the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages in the West The
    The Legacy of the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages in the West The Roman Empire reigned from 27 BCE to 476 CE throughout the Mediterranean world, including parts of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. The fall of the Roman Empire in the West in 476 CE marked the end of the period of classical antiquity and ushered in a new era in world history. Three civilizations emerged as successors to the Romans in the Mediterranean world: the Byzantine Empire (in many ways a continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire), and the civilizations of Islam and Western Europe. These three civilizations would become rivals and adversaries over the course of the succeeding centuries. They developed distinct religious, cultural, social, political, and linguistic characteristics that shaped the path each civilization would take throughout the course of the Middle Ages and beyond. The Middle Ages in European history refers to the period spanning the fifth through the fifteenth century. The fall of the Western Roman Empire typically represents the beginning of the Middle Ages. Scholars divide the Middle Ages into three eras: the Early Middle Ages (400–1000), the High Middle Ages (1000–1300), and the Late Middle Ages (1300–1500). The Renaissance and the Age of Discovery traditionally mark the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the early modern period in European history. The legacy of the Roman Empire, and the division of its territory into three separate civilizations, impacted the course of world history and continues to influence the development of each region to this day.
    [Show full text]
  • Front Matter
    Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-14770-6 — Turin and the British in the Age of the Grand Tour Edited by Paola Bianchi , Karin E. Wolfe Frontmatter More Information i Turin and the British in the Age of the Grand Tour h e Duchy of Savoy i rst claimed royal status in the seventeenth century, but only in 1713 was Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy (1666– 1732), crowned King of Sicily. h e events of the Peace of Utrecht (1713) sanc- tioned the decades- long project the Duchy had pursued through the con- voluted maze of political relationships between foreign powers. Of these, the British Kingdom was one of their most assiduous advocates, because of complementary dynastic, political, cultural and commercial interests. A notable stream of British diplomats and visitors to the Sabaudian capital engaged in an extraordinary and reciprocal exchange with the Turinese during this fertile period. h e l ow of travellers, a number of whom were British emissaries and envoys posted to the court, coincided, in part, with the itineraries of the international Grand Tour which transformed the capital into a gateway to Italy, resulting in a conl agration of cultural cosmopolitanism in early modern Europe. PAOLA BIANCHI teaches Early Modern History at the Universit à della Valle d’Aosta. She has researched and written on the journeys of various English travellers who came to Italy in the eighteenth century to be pre- sented at the Savoy court and to be part of Piedmont society. Her pub- lications include Onore e mestiere. Le riforme militari nel Piemonte del Settecento (2002); Cuneo in et à moderna.
    [Show full text]
  • A Tale of Two Republics
    A Tale of Two Republics: Why Liberalism Succeeded in America but Faltered in Brazil Matthew Braz Honors 490: Senior Honors Seminar Professor Blais May 1, 2019 Braz1 The history of human civilization in the Western Hemisphere begins in when hunter gathers first stepped foot onto North America, and continued their march south to the tip of Patagonia. In a land diverse in geography and people, these human tribes would form new societies vying for resources to become the dominant power. And of all societies to flourish, the Mesoamerican civilizations including the Olmec and later the Aztec would rise as the most powerful empire in North America. South of Panama, the Inca would establish an empire in the Andes Mountains as the dominant power of South America. Yet the powerful Aztecs warriors and the high Incan forts would not withstand the guns nor devastating germs of European colonizers who would replace these native empires as the dominant power. Now it was the empires of Europe who were the true superpowers of the Western Hemisphere, establishing political, cultural, and economic control both continents. European colonialism would reshape the Western Hemisphere into a new world born from the ashes of Native People. Their former lands were fenced for European colonizers, of men and women who sought wealth that this new world provided. That wealth needed extraction, and so millions of enslaved people were chained and shipped from Africa towards the horrors of chattel slavery. The combination of these different people and cultures reshaped the Western Hemisphere, and the result of this clash of cultures is still evident today 527 years after Columbus arrived in Hispaniola.
    [Show full text]
  • Building an Unwanted Nation: the Anglo-American Partnership and Austrian Proponents of a Separate Nationhood, 1918-1934
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Carolina Digital Repository BUILDING AN UNWANTED NATION: THE ANGLO-AMERICAN PARTNERSHIP AND AUSTRIAN PROPONENTS OF A SEPARATE NATIONHOOD, 1918-1934 Kevin Mason A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of PhD in the Department of History. Chapel Hill 2007 Approved by: Advisor: Dr. Christopher Browning Reader: Dr. Konrad Jarausch Reader: Dr. Lloyd Kramer Reader: Dr. Michael Hunt Reader: Dr. Terence McIntosh ©2007 Kevin Mason ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT Kevin Mason: Building an Unwanted Nation: The Anglo-American Partnership and Austrian Proponents of a Separate Nationhood, 1918-1934 (Under the direction of Dr. Christopher Browning) This project focuses on American and British economic, diplomatic, and cultural ties with Austria, and particularly with internal proponents of Austrian independence. Primarily through loans to build up the economy and diplomatic pressure, the United States and Great Britain helped to maintain an independent Austrian state and prevent an Anschluss or union with Germany from 1918 to 1934. In addition, this study examines the minority of Austrians who opposed an Anschluss . The three main groups of Austrians that supported independence were the Christian Social Party, monarchists, and some industries and industrialists. These Austrian nationalists cooperated with the Americans and British in sustaining an unwilling Austrian nation. Ultimately, the global depression weakened American and British capacity to practice dollar and pound diplomacy, and the popular appeal of Hitler combined with Nazi Germany’s aggression led to the realization of the Anschluss .
    [Show full text]
  • Brazil-Turkey Fundação Alexandre De Gusmão Fundação Two Emerging Powers Intensify Emerging Powers Two
    coleção Internacionais Relações Relações coleção coleção Internacionais 811 Ekrem Eddy Güzeldere is a political Eddy Güzeldere Ekrem Ekrem Eddy Güzeldere The bilateral relations of Brazil and Turkey scientist from Munich with a specialization Within the theoretic frame of role theory, this book represents a first attempt at are a little researched subject. Therefore, this in international relations. He holds a PhD describing the bilateral relations of Brazil and Turkey since the 1850s until 2017 book offers a first attempt at analyzing both (2017) from the University of Hamburg. with an emphasis on contemporary relations. Both states are treated as emerging the political, economic, cultural and academic From 2005 to October 2015 he worked in powers, which intensify their relations, because of two main motivations: to raise bilateral relations, especially since they have Istanbul for the German political foundation their status in international affairs and for economic reasons. In the period of 2003 been intensifying in the 2000s. However, there Heinrich Böll, an international ESI think until 2011, Brazil and Turkey succeeded in intensifying their relations in many is also a historic chapter about the relations in tank, as a journalist and political analyst fields, with 2010 being the year of most intensive politico-diplomatic relations, the 19th century, which in its depth, using both for international media and consultancies. because of both a major diplomatic initiative, the Tehran Declaration, and an Turkish and Portuguese-language sources, Before moving to Istanbul, he worked in ambitious Strategic Partnership. The economic relations reached a high in 2011 represents a first endeavor in English.
    [Show full text]
  • How History Matters for Student Performance. Lessons from the Partitions of Poland Ú Job Market Paper Latest Version: HERE
    How History Matters for Student Performance. Lessons from the Partitions of Poland ú Job Market Paper Latest Version: HERE. Pawe≥Bukowski † This paper examines the effect on current student performance of the 19th century Partitions of Poland among Austria, Prussia and Russia. Despite the modern similarities of the three regions, using a regression discontinuity design I show that student test scores are 0.6 standard deviation higher on the Austrian side of the former Austrian-Russian border. This magnitude is comparable to the black vs. white test score gap in the US. On the other hand, I do not find evidence for differences on the Prussian-Russian border. Using a theoretical model and indirect evidence I argue that the Partitions have persisted through their impact on social norms toward local schools. Nevertheless, the persistent effect of Austria is puzzling given the histori- cal similarities of the Austrian and Prussian educational systems. I argue that the differential legacy of Austria and Prussia originates from the Aus- trian Empire’s policy to promote Polish identity in schools and the Prussian Empire’s efforts to Germanize the Poles through education. JEL Classification: N30, I20, O15, J24 úI thank Sascha O. Becker, Volha Charnysh, Gregory Clark, Tomas Cvrcek, John S. Earle, Irena Grosfeld, Hedvig Horvát, Gábor Kézdi, Jacek Kochanowicz, Attila Lindner, Christina Romer, Ruth M. Schüler, Tamás Vonyó, Jacob Weisdorf, Agnieszka WysokiÒska, Noam Yuchtman, the partici- pants of seminars at Central European University, University of California at Berkeley, University of California at Davis, Warsaw School of Economics, Ifo Center for the Economics of Education and FRESH workshops in Warsaw and Canterbury, WEast workshop in Belgrade, European Historical Economics Society Summer School in Berlin for their comments and suggestions.
    [Show full text]
  • Britain, Austria, and the “Burden of War” in the Western Mediterranean, 1703–1708
    international journal of military history and historiography 39 (2019) 7-33 IJMH brill.com/ijmh Britain, Austria, and the “Burden of War” in the Western Mediterranean, 1703–1708 Caleb Karges* Concordia University Irvine, California [email protected] Abstract The Austrian and British alliance in the Western Mediterranean from 1703 to 1708 is used as a case study in the problem of getting allies to cooperate at the strategic and operational levels of war. Differing grand strategies can lead to disagreements about strategic priorities and the value of possible operations. However, poor personal rela- tions can do more to wreck an alliance than differing opinions over strategy. While good personal relations can keep an alliance operating smoothly, it is often military necessity (and the threat of grand strategic failure) that forces important compro- mises. In the case of the Western Mediterranean, it was the urgent situation created by the Allied defeat at Almanza that forced the British and Austrians to create a work- able solution. Keywords War of the Spanish Succession – Coalition Warfare – Austria – Great Britain – Mediter- ranean – Spain – Strategy * Caleb Karges obtained his MLitt and PhD in Modern History from the University of St An- drews, United Kingdom in 2010 and 2015, respectively. His PhD thesis on the Anglo-Austrian alliance during the War of the Spanish Succession received the International Commission of Military History’s “André Corvisier Prize” in 2017. He is currently an Assistant Professor of History at Concordia University Irvine in Irvine, California, usa. © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2019 | doi:10.1163/24683302-03901002Downloaded from Brill.com09/28/2021 04:24:08PM via free access <UN> 8 Karges 1 Introduction1 There were few wars in European history before 1789 as large as the War of the Spanish Succession.
    [Show full text]