Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 O:10.1080 DOI: oue1,Nme ,Dcme 07 p 165–186 pp. 2007, December 2, Number 19, Studies, Volume Cultural African of Journal SN16-85pit 4994 online 1469-9346 print; 1369-6815 ISSN colonial independence, that since à – exponentially as judgment grown just summary have seen Wright’s be cities to can Gwendolyn little African urbanism cities. disappointingly colonial ‘while is postcolonial marked there that in that apartheid fact clearly the the ignored to general, up In Lagos, chalked say. of be might case absence the that in to as subject else, either were or which part laws architecture quarters, entirely. one native preservation European – of restrictive other city featuring the dual heavily a and areas as planning governmental depicted urban is and quarantined city colonial of the work, composed of their those (1996), In including Nevanlinna policy. studies, urban Anja C case (1991), of Zeynep Wright number and Gwendolyn a and (1980), determin- cities, Abu-Lughod in colonial economy Janet of world pioneering archetype the shape King’s of an the importance Anthony ing as the city. emerged emphasized 1990) has metropolitan (1976, city’ the work ‘colonial from the The to different attention rule. of fundamentally colonial deal good of a aspects devoted have spatial historians years, twenty-five past the In cities postcolonial Abuja and to Colonial Nigeria. retreat in 1. policymaking government’s urban of Nigerian as failures The the frustrated very mark below. Lagos were a of shaped from Lagos abandonment forces, its city for and demographic of and elites And economic sort state. and new modern different officials to a housing response government of in its functions of from Lagosians, the for hopes independence perform style its to the Town ability both yet, New its demonstrate and Lagos, to British culture sought and in European government architecture Lagos particularly the modernist in there, tropical environment, buildings estates of urban prestige programme its its a for favouring manage By to capital. Nigeria’s how about choices ABSTRACT eshsbe adaotteft fclna iisatridpnec.I part, In independence. after cities colonial of fate the about said been has Less sr,JnCl,adOaUuufrterhl ihvrosapcso yresearch. my of aspects Osseo- various Dk with Osseo-Asare, help Abena their for Wright, Uduku Gwen Ola Lonsdale, and John Cole, thank Jon Asare, to like would I Dprmn fHsoy nvriyo aiona Berkeley) California, of University History, of (Department IMMERWAHR DANIEL 1960–1986 in Lagos, urbanism postcolonial and architecture of politics The / 13696810701760450 lk(97 aefrhrepoe h osqecso colonial of consequences the explored further have (1997) elik ¸ fe needne h ieingvrmn ae ubrof number a faced government Nigerian the independence, After / 07 / 020165-22 # 2007 ora fArcnClua Studies Cultural African of Journal à Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 166 oiso uoenrsdne o oenethuigetts h inhabitants The by-the-book estates. preferring housing time government same for the residences at European while offices of government buildings copies in of style downtown policymakers official the major that as favoured argue and idiom, they hybrid will Lagos: bold the for I a shanty- vision of modernism, Abuja, architectural tropical estates, shape bifurcated at a housing the capital had architecture, Nigerian Nigeria for independent officials new prestige visions the state of own and response, their examination towns, architectural In articulate an Lagos’s independence. to Through informal of after forced city. an development decades were and the the Lagosians shantytowns in driving and forms of motors urban growth the and unplanned were the – and economy urbanism and ture spaces. infor- mixed-use shantytowns, unregulated, – and to 1994). forms production, urban streetside attempted (Adisa other with markets, them- housing, for mal found 1982, housing advocating urban Lagosians and by illegal areas, in with million public participating concerned in selves European-style 4.07 sanitized, newly living to 1.14 maintain elite, and up or from Nigerian build and rose squatting the 1976 Lagos as newcomers in greater Thus, the of million of population 2.55 The to many work. 1963 of in migrants search million draw to in continued forces Lagos demographic into and economic the first- space, of of ization governments even the Lagos, to of compared environment when built ineffective countries. the and world relatively determining took in remained regulation government role it through the active if themselves clearance, more Both slum much for appropriate. and a fend construction longer up like to no actions labourers direct reasons, through foreigners local obvious for leaving for accommodation while was, building officials of government practice urban the and colonial for old Nigerian housing the The providing Second, for population. priority. of responsibility national mark assumed important the an gradually bear became not government did – that buildings power colonizing – actively a was buildings Lagos new for of governmental image construction in architectural The new change sought. recognize a significant also First, city. a must the we marked concerning city,’ 1960 policies ‘dual in a independence of Nigerian speak still that can we Although insufficient. is the of abides. legacy clearly the may but quite Lagos, segregation city modern-day Class dual in future. segregation the colonial Rem of replaced believes world architect have he classes commercialized well what renowned and for ruling contrast the polarized emblem an the the that the as be rest by Lagos is to upon the use seized extreme for recently for has over So (2001) left intended Koolhaas state. space space the uncontrolled secure the of and and purview controlled the the fall which of between markets, outside chaotic and entirely slums peripheral almost its with out upscale starkly and bears areas, contrast Lagos is government mansions of sanitized – examination hotels, downtown cursory evidence’ Lagos’s A in conclusion. 225). that remain (2002: adaptation view and consensus neglect, the largely restrictions, use, land of patterns hs w rns–tegvrmn’ e epniiiisi atr farchitec- of matters in responsibilities new government’s the – trends two Those organ- the in activity of sphere its expanded government the as time same the At Lagos colonial resembles Lagos post-independence that however, say, to Simply ailImmerwahr Daniel Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 93 hnAeou dym,aNgra tdn tteAcietrlAssoci- Architectural the in at foothold student institutional Nigerian major a first ation Adeyemi, its Adedokun gained group when That 1953, London. in trained tects a ocre httetann fee ythe by offered training the that concerned was ftoevsosfrpsclna ao,hwvr eecntandb larger by constrained were however, Lagos, postcolonial traditions. for building indigenous visions of burgeoning aspects those infor- some a complex alive of and a keep maintain wages to to low and them economy of allowed mal that demands forms the built favouring to by responded workforce contrast, by Lagos, of Lagos postcolonial in urbanism and Architecture 1 business central Lagos’s style 1960s, image. the new its of in end The rebuilt the entirely glass. By almost Nigeria. been and new had government the district independent steel, of the face and concrete, the clients corporate as of both among replaced forms favour were won in quickly geometric columns architecture European-built classical rougher, of and form archi- with ornamentation, colonial only the the baroque to been Verandahs, contrast war der stark Lagos. the van in until Mies stood had it Ludwig that climates such, Corbusier, tecture As warmer Le Gropius. for Walter with adapted and associated Rohe, been Style World had International Second the modernism empha- An from the tropical Nigeria. particularly style, tropical after Africa, modern with West shortly British tically start in developed must building architects one idiom by Lagos, War architectural for hopes an elite’s modernism, Nigerian the understand To modernism Tropical visions. 2. those of failures from the capital of Nigerian emblem the an of as transfer Abuja the to consider Lagos will estates, it housing Finally, architecture, shantytowns. prestige differing around and how actions show and will policies article informed This visions forces. historical and demographic, economic, o h hleg fbidn nBiansoesa oois hr ul forms built where the colonies, 1954, In overseas unsuitable. were Britain’s climate European in temperate building a for of designed challenge the for a rhtcue awl r n aeDe etoe hwivgrtn thas it invigorating ‘how mentioned Drew Jane and Fry tropi- Maxwell on treatise architecture, foundational unchecked cal their for In abounded. opportunities still it, experimentation with architectural representation democratic independence brought Although the norms.’ ostensibly by cultural shared unencumbered or models, politics new democratic ‘explore of constraints could architects of ‘laboratory because ideal imagination West,’ an as the cultural his- served for Africa architectural the colonial to 225), in (2002: According Wright experimentation. large Gwendolyn for torian loomed space a already as Lagos. had architects to and European Africa particularly London forms. Africa, in new West learned to bold 1960s they early lessons and 1950s the a late and took the students students in British African moved of number of A handful Architecture. small Tropical of Department a lished h rnia oo eidti e do a ru fmsl rts archi- British mostly of group a was idiom new this behind motor principal The o rts rhtcs h hnet oki etArc en hnet r out try to chance a meant Africa West in work to chance the architects, British For rpclmdrimi etArc r anhL oxswr 20,2004b). (2003, work of Roux’s overviews best Le The Hannah lately. are interest Africa of West deal in great modernism a tropical received has modernism Tropical (AA) e pacneec ntesbeto rpclacietr.Adeyemi architecture. tropical of subject the on conference a up set , AA rprdsuet inadequately students prepared 1 AA estab- 167 All Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 pcsa pna osbe r n rw(94 3 atszdaotsupplanting about fantasized 63) Yoruba (1964: their Drew traditional make and inside the to Fry light possible. preferred fact little as very however, in open allowing modernists, as and rooms spaces Tropical dark climate, 58). small, hot 1969: build a to (Krapf-Askari not was is with ventilation heat dealing that to noting of adaptation worth is way It style. only new ventilation the the importantly, of Most obsession building. minor of a form became the in innovations some stimulated 168 2 differ- architectural of sign the the as at served Architecture that Tropical religion, climate of society, Department was Europe economy, The it in ence. Western – – between emphasized history distinctions have and thought might culture, many of they category the that operation a Africa Despite as West of and Lagos. climate of field in importance architects It their the climate. for overestimate that Nigeria’s to to hard again, notably be and most would adaptations, time architectural important insisted, in required but They Lagos, models. in not European the 1960 in also established were was some country, – become the to in on London. Europe go architects later Institute in top would Nigerian the who the modernism students of that Nigerian then, of by surprise, formed concrete no signs Architects, was reinforced of It the of modernism. tropical – slabs of ties streamlined markers faces intellectual Slim, unadorned when themselves. exhib- Even blatantly buildings with were Punjab. the later they Europe, the and mentioned, in in explicitly subject in ited not the Chandigarh were theorists, on architects on modernism writings principal him European modernist their to movement’s for in to work the explicit to Corbusier Drew, debt Le went and to its debt Fry is their Corbusier. made mentioned Le be to especially must “Architect’s that the thing called been implication the allowed.’ has have is ‘with anything area which explained, and 52) customs everything ‘This 1964: and that (Mark 18). habits architect for (1964: British reverence Paradise,”’one time’ a great their mental crippling too the outlasted by from free about shake to brought England in state working architects as us for been h oi hog hc l te oiswr approached. were topics other all – inter- which architecture cultural through Lagosian a topic of as aspect the written-about architecture most in the interested remained a climate were Although vention, Lagos forth. in so working and humidity, architects shade, few ventilation, of questions technical on tion Design and Housing Tropical Zones of Humid Drew’s Manual and and The Dry Fry the solutions. movement, in the architectural tecture of new West works on demanding theoretical focused climate principal suggests, novel two name a it as as principally taught, Africa or studied architects influential most h ako dpigaErpa rhtcua evet o n ui climate humid and hot a to oeuvre architectural European a adapting of task The n e,aciet okn nNgrawr o otn eeyt copy to merely content not were Nigeria in working architects yet, And first The architecture? of form a as modernism tropical about said be can What yaciet okn ntetoisi em ftepltc fcolonialism. of politics has made the (2004a) of architecture Roux terms modernist in Le of tropics Hannah the adjustments technical, in climatic working or the architects aesthetic of by just interpretation than an more offered as them Seeing ailImmerwahr Daniel 16)adOt ongbre’ two-volume Koenigsberger’s Otto and (1964) 17) ohfcsdagetda fatten- of deal great a focused both (1974), AA nLno,weeLagos’s where London, in 2 rpclArchi- Tropical Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 rhtcueadubns npsclna Lagos postcolonial in urbanism and Architecture aut,soefrtemjrt hnh rtse htatog u architecture mud although that protested of he dean when Kidd, majority W.J. the architecture only for it. Nigeria’s University, spoke opposed Bello faculty, Ahmadu number at Architecture greater of faculty a the and 1967b; approved, 1967a, curved members (Vaughan-Richards Architect audience toward computers poss- and made ideal of architects Builder innovation development an African Corbusian that the – geometric architecture by Olumuyiwa, mud ible the Yoruba Oluwole on from modeled forms with moulded away along move tropical of suggesting, should tenets important of unspoken by majority the the from modernism by broke attended Vaughan-Richards conference step builders, design of Lagosian out a large At verna- and colleagues. in by his interest himself strong with found a express Vaughan-Richards, by did Alan who raised architecture, architects questions few cular cultural the the of with One legacy. dealing colonial article it occasional adapting the or it only culture. developing featured or in surpris- traditions architects was indigenous Nigeria’s there of incorporate part idiom, to the national on the interest as Once little upon locale. ingly its seized to been accommodation had cultural modernism modernism’s architecture.’ tropical tropical for of designing extent (Grillo in the muralist specialising was now Lagosian or are young time few a one ‘a explained that at buildings,’ adding have 3), on artists 1968: Nigerian work such ‘Many done art. projects other trivial. contemporary prestige the exhibi- not of other principal patrons the was and among and Lagos hotels were tors Building gallery, in Independence art artists twenty-five-storey major the for as no little importance been had have its Lagos may pandering, Because work cheap handicraft and than art more Nigerian architectural of an carved from inclusion slight, Although the however mosaics, ‘African.’ standpoint, gesture, more of murals, look sort stan- buildings of some their the making made became form toward buildings projects corporate modernist the new into most art in and of dard, art often Inclusion handicraft statues. most or or doors, traditional buildings, wooden of in modern introduction the the do was into to one, substantial them less a allow perhaps not would taste public of Europe.’ considerations and restrictions cno rpclmdrim hyeetda nrosgil fcnrt n fly and concrete of grille enormous key an a erected Ibadan, at they In College walls. modernism, University of African tropical place West the of the in of icon supports library structural the overhanging few for large a design a and air’: their of nets ‘house mosquito a only with with glass of roof house famed Rohe’s der van Mies slto’t lmtcpolm.A n rts rhtc Mr 94 52) 1964: (Mark cliche architect the all British its with conditions,” as fly climatic one style let to “adaptation its have of As pretext for architects the much ‘Under problems. wrote: as Nigeria imitated in climatic working was West rough- work its to throughout Drew’s for architects and and ‘solution’ other Fry cool by course, to ability Of copied its Africa. subsequently for was effective, both air-conditioning appearance, so celebrated of grille, was hewn kind The design what used.’ ask The Americans being insects. ‘visiting is and that heat 30), (1962: from Fry building recalled the protect to gauze h agl oeitcicroaino oa r nopetg rjcs however, projects, prestige into art local of incorporation tokenistic largely The although Drew, and Fry by developed building African West of element Another 95,16b eRu 04) lhuhafew a Although 2004b). Roux Le 1965b; 1965a, ´ ,gmisadsyitctetet which treatments stylistic and gambits s, etArcnBidradArchitect and Builder African West West 169 Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 170 uoenrsdnilaeswr uruddb uligfe oe tlat440 century, least twentieth at the zones of building-free decades by two surrounded first the were for areas out country Nigeria residential laid entire Northern European of the were governor of colonial then which Lugard, principles and Lord the themselves, by Following economic established quarters. areas native segregation through of from of residential segregated policy, indirectly, and laissez-faire avenues European that only broad along to the colonialism exception was The by legislation. course, a touched direct was where than Lagos part rather Americas, of forces most environment the built or the growing the Australia a cities, for of planned in 1990: needs developed (Okoye cities the population century colonial meet settling twentieth to Unlike little the population. did in however, urban areas government, urban colonial The the 73). into workers of numbers post- a se not: Lagosian did Lagos. planners in British that them with New building contend economy. from to colonial British else different building something was had But Keynes planners projects. Milton in European-style was Towns into housing in the made and exclusively it housing reports investment for channeled considerable official blueprints The colonial estates. from Although residential itself of distance planning architecture. to government attempt prestige the real dwellings, no sensitive from made culturally for track need the different mentioned occasionally a on Africa. West ated operations, of base own handbook their in their located was in ignored largely housing Drew Climates and Humid of – Fry complexes say. subject that apartment to buildings and little the of estates conspicuously sorts housing had the modernists elsewhere – to tropical scattered Lagosians came buildings was non-elite few it Lagos to a when importance in to And modernism and city. tropical district the business Africa, throughout central of the face to the limited changing Despite about less. Nigeria much rhetoric expensive meant for Lagosians its housing of identity corporate majority and the symbolic for embassies, new but buildings, elites, a government local assert to independence importance to great after of clients Lagos were their in erected and buildings architects new allowed how and whether of estates Questions housing and clearance Slum 3. a culture. to or forward history looking local by with only engagement so real do no estab- could to with it be future, Nigeria, may modernist for architecture identity consensus of important business an general it’ the lish while the got that have expressed architects ‘we Nigerian proposal among declared, Olumuyiwa’s Kidd Style,’ and International practice. Vaughan-Richards current the from like in shift not a (quoted do large into too we it if – integrate actually ‘Even disastrous to be attempt would any buildings value, aesthetic functional its for appreciated be could lhuhNgrahdkonubnzto ogbfr ooils,housing colonialism, before long urbanization known had Nigeria Although oper- Lagos in provision housing and Planning accidental. not was omission The a ee ocr nNgrautlteidsra cnm uldlarge pulled economy industrial the until Nigeria in concern a never was ailImmerwahr Daniel etArcnBidradArchitect and Builder African West ftefwhuigpoet hyddmnin o igeone single a not mention, did they projects housing few the Of . rpclAcietr nDyand Dry in Architecture Tropical 97 7.Kd’ eeto of rejection Kidd’s 97). 1967: might eof be per Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 elrdt h os fRpeettvsta eta ao a hmlaigto 1962:vii). ‘humiliating (Marris pride’ was national Adua, Lagos of Yar central foreigners sense Alhaji that a which Lagos, Representatives with through of person of Minister mirror any beings’ House the human the the Nigeria,’ less to ‘is of much declared Lagos appraisal goats, that initial and their sheep Noting make house 8–9). to of poverty-stricken fit and 1959: slums not large (James the by are occupied Lagos years lean-to-shelters in the ‘For families of embarrassment. however, some the that go, an said reported cities truly like notorious,’ capital of been an look city As have which to capital Africa. Lagos from the beginning in be source was nation to cash soon independent Lagos a was populous just but most coffers, longer its the no fill was could Lagos government extractive change. to began space priority. a never infrastructure of was development sake the own trade; port its and for industry facilitate to and risk from oe rmdsaeo r,t uoensae hs h nysgicn building significant only the Thus, space. European to fire, or disease from pose, mos- disease-bearing 166). a 1983: distance (Home the fly than could greater quito being ostensibly that wide, yards int notra fpau n12 httegvrmn salse planning a ( established Board government the Development between that Executive fires 1924 reac- Lagos in major in only The plague was forty it of authority, but as outbreak swampland, some an many of widen- to reclamation the as the tion to and led streets of hygiene few in a site interest understandable of British ing the an 117). 1968: been (Mabogunje – 1892 and had roofs 1859 Lagos thatched as notably inflam- most concern, dangerously materials, forbidding those construction were mable houses native to pertaining regulations odpiaiyi ag n rhbtvl xesv acl Mri 92 85; 1962: (Marris parcels – and acre expensive per prohibitively expensive 168). and more 1991: – was Peil land large cleared in the primarily as sold returning, up ended few very eto ao’ eta uiesDsrc ln h aia ra tet and Street, Broad displaced. Marina, were Lagosians the thousand twenty sanitizing along The roughly to all, District In addition develop- Street. Business the In Azikiwe Central for Nnamdi Island. literally, Lagos’s way, Lagos the of on paved scheme ment land independence clearance slum of the the into acres Lagos, years central seventy three clear extending to and 1955 period, in begun programme, ance o h ettit er,tog,the though, years, thirty next the For osn saefrnrho h anadnmdSrlr,atrteYoruba throughout the investment government after continued of Surulere, site named the atten- was some mainland it of worthy because is the both estate Surulere tion, on The rewarded.’ is north ‘patience meaning phrase far estate housing Lagos postcolonial in urbanism and Architecture ot a enbiteriri h etr,o h rts adnCt oe.It model. City Garden British the on century, the Ogba in earlier the built Scheme, been had Dolphin South the including sub- of – Village. number a Festac schemes for and pattern Scheme, housing the set public it because sequent and independence after decades the twswt hs ocrsi idta the that mind in concerns these with was It urban toward attitude government’s the independence, to up leading years the In h ooilgvrmn’ oeitrs nntv pc a h heti might it threat the was space native in interest sole government’s colonial The nodrt os h tmoaiy ipae aoin,the Lagosians, displaced ‘temporarily’ the house to order In uueewsbit steErpa eieta ra fEueMtaadYaba and Ebute-Metta of areas residential European the as built, was Surulere LEDB ttdisitnint eltecerdln akt t omrrsdns but residents, former its to back land cleared the sell to intention its stated LEDB etArcnReview African West LEDB evdol opoetEuropeans protect to only served ntae asv lmclear- slum massive a initiated LEDB ,luce n1928. in launched ), adi a been has it ‘and , LEDB e pa up set 171 Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 nttt fAciet.Bte rdnil satoia oens ol adybe hardly could modernist tropical a as credentials Better Architects. of Institute se,adythswr o the for work his yet and asked, isi arng ftoia oens o t rsiebidns vnmore Even buildings. prestige the for its Architect for Senior modernism the enthu- tropical government’s puzzling, the of of face patronage the in especially siastic puzzling, first better at seems slightly 152). housing 1993: were up Amdii buildings in the (quoted that prototypes than British housing their practice low-cost than in ventilated that more practice Policy little cultural Housing meant climate, ditions’ National variations, estates. 1980 housing ‘Nigerian government-built the reflect The subsequent should in prohibited. streets all command was wide in the activity lined found commercial Even residents) be any could poorer which Detached pattern (for the in States. from same flats areas United – of residential the least zoned blocks of at in plan, and suburbs its automobile garages in the with – or homes different Britain of much clangour of look the not Towns from did New removed it enclave such, spacious As and life. quiet, urban clean, a be to meant was goigta do nieywe tcm ohuigi h eonto htte nfact in they that recognition a the is had housing to came it while when architecture entirely prestige idiom for that idiom ignoring architectural new a create to government the and Board Development not Executive garages, and (Lagos kitchens concrete 19). signaling reinforced 1963: here ‘modern’ of word slabs the cantilevered – taste’ modern with or 91 8.At 48). film 1961: its Board of cinema shows special Senghor), a hourly Leopold constructed 1960, for and in Macmillan Exhibition Independence Harold Lagos’s during (including and, notables visiting for estates i otiuin oteBadshuigdsgsmatltl oeta that the than in more be, little would meant up designs put housing houses Board’s new the the to contributions His intre eehue a,a a visiting as which was, in task estate housed the the were to but dignitaries themselves legacy, cultural dedicated precolonial planners forgotten festival a reclaiming money, of oil by funded and Lagos rhtcuepoie h meu o h onaino h eateto Tropical of Department the tropical of the on foundation at the London Architecture for in impetus conference the whose provided student architecture Nigerian the Adeyemi, Adeokun sae a yn en nosqeta.TeGre iymdlue o colonial for used model City Garden The the inconsequential. means highlighted no by modernist, was estates not Apter if also provide. to modern see ability its estates, 121; and stability 1981: Government nation’s Awotona in 49–50). (quoted 2005: standards’ towns’ new European 172 ned h oenetwsi owyahmdo t uoensyehousing European-style Nigeria. its new of The the ashamed display. way of on them stability no put eagerly in and but was estates, power government the the in suggest see Indeed, could would one the that on nations houses while, modern past, developed colonial same the the featuring from rebellion estates governmental a other, suggest would Island Lagos on ings h ako rhtcua dpaint lmt n utr yaciet putting architects by culture and climate to adaptation architectural of lack The h e oudrtnigteseigycnrdcoydsrso h lt Nigerians elite the of desires contradictory seemingly the understanding to key The h ieingvrmn’ eiint os t iier nEuropean-styled in citizenry its house to decision government’s Nigerian The dual ailImmerwahr Daniel iinfrLgsspsclna mg.O h n ad rmnn build- prominent hand, one the On image. postcolonial Lagos’s for vision AA dym a looeo h he oneso h Nigerian the of founders three the of one also was Adeyemi . FESTAC h hnigCity Changing The 7,a miiu a-fia xoiinhl in held exposition Pan-African ambitious an ’77, LEDB UN oen tm fhstann samodernist. a as training his of stamp no bore eotpti,‘eindadbito typical on built and ‘designed it, put report LEDB LEDB LEDB nte16swsnn te than other none was 1960s the in LgsEeuieDevelopment Executive (Lagos swrs srcl nkeeping in ‘strictly words, ’s odce rqettuso its of tours frequent conducted ... n oilcon- social and Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 n esr nahgei,qitsbr Fsmn19) nmn as htmodel that ways, many In 1999). a (Fishman in self-improvement suburb toil in quiet daily spent hygienic, whom holidays a for and in worker evenings leisure mobile by and upwardly punctuated an be subject: would of factory designed type explicitly certain was Towns a New for British for and Areas Reservation Government elrda neto ostu t w issadrn hmot u so 1981 of as but out, the them Simultaneously, Administration rent 169). and 1981: Housing kiosks (Awotona Federal materialize own to its the yet up Village, had set these to Festac intention In an to (Awotona declared enforced 168–169). unable easily more 159, were were vehicular needed) 1981: and rules greatly kiosks of very these erection (often the workshops While against repair prohibitions food, estates. of selling the the prevent forbidding within regulations featured transactions all Estate commercial Surulere and Estate, Ogba Village, Festac 97) (1962: Marris Peter 1962: climates. in Surulere in inhospitable scene the estates describes governmental involved 112). were 1985: found women (Fapohunda Lagosian activities related of other Lagos 70% and 1963, central trading In month in petty opportu- children. in employment interviewed the and important women Marris of provide for Peter enterprises repeated end nities was informal whom the trade,’ extend Finally, traders no 73). at to credit, informal (1962: ‘no pay likely maxim, the The to by more purchase. of customers often distinctive were time the allowing Another they at than thus customers. that rather customers, is their to enterprises of credit informal distance of walking enterprises precious characteristic most within save that found could located 90) bus) (1985: the for Fapohunda were onboard Indeed, bargain while to 86–89). even ability 1991: (or (Peil the bus time commutes, a means long for the waiting with nor while those time the goods For neither informal centres. have of shopping Lagosians accessibility necessity many a visit easy a – to keep The crucial down, to line. been poverty pay prices also where the has not drove below selling need environment, or competition one near heavy living that low-capital people and meant for overheads a home low private in a The The or shop. employment sidewalk Lagosian city. the a provided the within from in functions selling has important employment of It of number the half a economy. that fulfilled about has estimated comprised study sector 5) 1976 Lagos informal (1985: a of Fapohunda In J. sector locations. Olanrewaju informal geographic UN, fixed the in by shops taking commissioned interactions established economic of informal of outside prevalence place high the cities been of has economies London metropolitan the like from residents. apart their countries) developing of in consequently, needs economies and, the Lagosians, for low-income provide of to lives failed the themselves for estates fit the poor a was lifestyle rhtcueadubns npsclna Lagos postcolonial in urbanism and Architecture a e ryo iaetsadpoiin nhrprh u hr sn uteof wear bustle homes neat no their is penny- and a late, there self-containment. buy woman return quiet to but and pause a of porch, early may air schoolgirl leave there, her a an residents and while on The a toffee. Here provisions in of once and down. worth only by: and cigarettes pulled passes wide of one slats no are tray traffic, window streets a the The set Lagos. shut, has central doors with the contrasts empty, estate the about Everything hiiga hyddo osattafi n ihpplto est,ptytraders petty density, population high and traffic constant on did they as Thriving urban many indeed (and economy Lagosian the setting distinction important An LEDB 173 and Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 ewe itn om n eros dneeAooa(91 7–7)fudin found division European the 170–171) (1981: a Awotona in upon Adenrele day, bedrooms, built living and were the rooms units sitting those of between housing of Festac’s order expectations. whereas and the part regulations example, government never For the ill-fitting was ignored on simply protest residents adaptation organized many Although and themselves. resistance little estates of (1991: is planners.’ acts Peil not there politicians, everyday As although by attention. done critiques, much is Lagos paid these in officials publicizing ‘planning government noted, of any 190) task the that the evidence up took 1978) 174 aoia et nNgra ra tde.FloigMri,shlr uhas policies. housing such government’s Records later and the and scholars Notes of Fapohunda, Lagos criticisms Marris, Olanrewaju incisive Aribiah, developed Following Oberu Agbola studies. Peil, Tunde Margaret urban project, Aina, Akin rehousing Nigerian Tade Surulere in City the African too, texts of an Scholars, study in canonical 91). Change critical 1994: accusing Social Marris’s Agbola each and Peter issue, Family 5–13; fight. partisan 1974: the a (Aribiah up as it took clearance supporting slum of up other took the Group, Action the and the example, and colo- for Cities of 1960, tinge Garden In a slums. government detect or between also areas distances can industrial one the but were in Lagos, distances strategies in these apartheid land part of nialist In lack of Apapa. the area of or northern result Island the the Lagos simply the to on commute by were far developed boom a schemes mainland, oil estates the housing the the main during of The Administration most Housing residents. between Federal the distance of large workplaces the the simply and was estates housing of ation the in particularly vendors. and, as consumers women, that as was of estates both case the hurt, on doubly production were and trading residents petty low-income predict- of The prohibition estates. that housing of the result through service able one to formal complexes a shopping with of economy development informal the the replace to attempted successors its eigopruiy oho h w ao oiia ate nLgs the Lagos, in parties political 29). major 1968: Nigeria two of the Republic of (Federal both dwellers opportunity, slum Seeing angry by demolished car rnprainaddasgicn e xes ofml ugt nexpense an – of cost budgets the family that to on found expense residents commutes new first long significant the of a Surulere, effects added In of the transportation plain. Republic motivations, were (Federal the the residents Apapa’ and Whatever estate area of residential 93). areas density 1968: density low Nigeria the medium between and “buffer” warehouse a industrial be to ‘was that Apapa pt fanti- of spate break-up 112). the 1962: precipitated (Marris from Surulere meetings 1968: of residents family case Mabogunje traditional many the of prevented number in 102–105; a also and 1962: of often, commuting families (Marris with their meet problem seeing same not The could 203). simply many that eet emvd itboeotdrn n ftefis ceue demolitions, scheduled first the the of of Chairman one the during Abayomi, out Kofo broke 1956. riot in A moved. be to were ehp oeipratta h tnstrw n ok ulse eethe were published books and thrown stones the than important more Perhaps nte eso ewe h ietl flwicm eiet n h organiz- the and residents low-income of lifestyle the between tension Another h initial The ailImmerwahr Daniel LEDB LEDB ilne n eotdhvn tnstrw thmadhis and him at thrown stones having reported and violence, lmeautosmtwt ec eitnefo hs who those from resistance fierce with met evacuations slum fuddi 97 and 1967) in (founded 16) a eoeoeo h few the of one become has (1962), LEDB fia ra Studies Urban African LEDB nte16s ealdalong a recalled 1960s, the in rpsda‘re et in Belt’ ‘Green a proposed fuddin (founded NCNC Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 usd fteflt.Aooaas on ayrsdnsi gaett cooking estate Ogba in corridors residents in many sleeping found also members Corpor- Awotona family Development flats. Property found the State frequently of Lagos he outside the estate, slept In member Ogba family room. one ation’s sitting least at the that visited in he regularly units one-bedroom the of 90% over esoas okn-ls aoin eeaanlf u nterer.Various ears. their on the out pro- that and left government officials the again of by needs were declarations the Lagosians meeting indus- But estates working-class to 41). they private – 1974: fessionals, (Aribiah advance and These members in government staff years flats. senior five both paid of housing with rent housing with the similar time for a embassies construct at and flats traders, tries to of blocks began petty – out Nigeria rented as in self-employed firms struction are the 42) occupations.’ poor, of other sections (1974: such equally those and Aribiah out mechanics, though wayside leaving Oberu while who, population. ‘employees industry to population, sometimes cater the would and schemes of governments housing of low-income portions to that tended worry certain the Lagosians, govern- expressed only low-income the targeted that in explicitly seems and bring it they also prosperous general, although more Marris In estates, significantly Lagosian. 100). ment was typical few, (1962: Surulere the commercial were family’ of than Lagos resident domineering and Western-oriented in typical a ties Government the from family that of he escaping close Muslim, noted whose employees rebel craftsmen,’ predominantly Region young the Eastern independent and the a the all drawing from and ‘From above men was traders firms, attracted Lagosians. estate of ‘it the of community noted, years, kinds middle-aged first altogether. certain Surulere’s Yoruba, excluded in only themselves even found keeping that, simply noted more estates, Marris housing the residents. within estate con- and a authorities of basis estate the between formed relationship disobedience up antagonistic of forms put tinuous forbid- minor rules frequently Such the estates generally, structures. of enforcement these housing More constant ding in despite 159). structures, women (1981: and that tents management trading reports illegal the 42) by (1996: court- forbidden the Adegite in all E.O. clothes activities washing and – corridors, in yard food cooked selling courtyard, the in ead u nyvr eby ept ieyakolde edfrmore for need acknowledged widely a Despite new The that feebly. interests. meet very imperial to only just rose not infrastructure but populace, and demand, housing entire government-provided the state, the of represent for supply to scope new now a meant was governance which postcolonial to colonial from shift The indiscipline and Slums 4. the would pay dwellers fingers. slum could its sub- very through who polite those sand, into that Lagosians fine them found turn like those often and slip, dwellers more only slum government housing house the to urbanites, of attempts its policy committed In price. a further market self-financing to be agencies should the Corporation, Development Property Lagos postcolonial in urbanism and Architecture oigtesl-eeto mn eiet fgvrmn sae,piaecon- private estates, government of residents among self-selection the Noting lifestyle their for fighting themselves found residents poorer many Although LEDB n t ucso,teLgsState Lagos the successor, its and 175 Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 176 Mbgne16:19 kneoi n aga-ihrs17:6) The 62). well 1976: as Vaughan-Richards Brazil Lagos from and in imported many Akinsemoyin colors and 119; bright kitchens, 1968: and and facing frills bathrooms (Mabogunje with ornamental external corridor nineteenth and included the central side also of a half either featured latter on bungalows the rooms These in 1988). Lagos in (Hallen the Catholic was Portuguese century and it the Muslim model, by by any Brazil resettled had from ex-slaves have Nigeria to to apartments, said resemble brought be they bungalows and did can Brazilian-style matter, they houses lacking that If for compounds. government Nor, and mud models. Unlike precolonial colonial British together by themselves. imitate not piecemeal tenants Crowded did built they or often estates. constructions, owners ramshackle government the were of they amenities, those modern from 130). 1993: different Awotona like 92; areas those 1990: Slum with (Aina Lagos.’ Lagos populated in of overwhelmingly than outside were “home-town” born village or Olaleye-Iponri village rather ‘would their and they in Idi-Araba 166), house for (1981: a both Awotona slums, to in in according invest large because, employment and and find burst. by money to settled bubble well of come migrants lack oil as had transient the Lagos These Ghanaians as 49). to in 1997: migrants after (Agbola exacer- of drawing soon 1970s three-quarters them jobs, about the destroy of 1978, of to By number market only oil a Nigerians, volatile creating out-of-state The as by Nigeria’s, had. as problem be such to the economy jobs bated low-capital good labour-intensive, few into a were Nigerians in there rural its yet, pushing structured And did, sector Nigeria cities. agricultural the countries, its Nigeria’s than African agriculture. faster than to many grew rather migrants industry population so of out-of-state favour Like of in plans jobs. influx development constant economic of the search by in caused part Lagos large in along were areas orities towns lacking. slum other were for in amenities but these found levels), even satisfactory be fringe, near might suburban For anywhere the than 78). at water 1977: not pipe-borne still (Ayeni provision (although and Mushin better by in electricity, for 27.6, toilets, compensated to partially of was per Eko, overcrowding persons Isale such of slums, in number major many average 14.8, five the of from that study found ranged a Ayeni In house slums. M.A.O. the 1977, are 67–85). in 1978: and one slums Sule were in Lagos Olu course, (see entirely of city areas, living or an crowded households town most boasted Nigerian of The city other 76.4% the any than with 1972–73, crowded room, more of per room, As persons Lagos. overcrowd- in 4.4 onward, life of 1950s of average the feature From salient problem. the housing became the ing of size sheer the simply 340). 1985: Zee Vander unplanned and in (Jawando living Lagosians quickly of actually a proportion short; areas the fell that planning hundred meant urban one Even population least 145). urbanizing at the 1991: were still (Peil there was government, houses it the owned by construction, privately owned government house of every spate for a that after case 1979, in Lagos, in housing h osso nlne eieta omnte ol o aebe more been have not could communities residential unplanned of houses The auth- planning Lagos for problem a such posed that conditions overcrowded The is housing adequate provide to Lagos of failure the of explanation prime The ailImmerwahr Daniel rose fe needne–fo 2 n15 o5%i 1973 in 50% to 1952 in 22% from – independence after Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 o 1 fdelnsi pni 2 nOaee 2 nOdMkk,ad75% and Makoko, Old in 72% Olaleye, accounted in units 62% of these Iponri, survey that in his discovered dwellings In 409) courtyard. of (1989: internal 61% the Aina reduced for whom Akin of for Tade sort a slums, Yorubas, as Lagos among used popular was particularly corridor central was type building Brazilian Lagos postcolonial in urbanism and Architecture ewe ulig,adwl hcns moidBiihclna oin of notions colonial space British house, embodied for thickness standards wall minimum and specifying buildings, Rules between population. regulations. entire the building of apparent law-breakers illegality. make readily into to too transformed was been all had laws were Extra-legality metropo- colonial – independent outdated burgeoning state a to subjecting on-the- colonial lis of and effect These the ideals The Lagos. by Lagos. legal capital postcolonial ignored of between in a conflicts all – for result, to realities a ill-suited apply As ground holdovers Africa. to colonial independent practice, areas often in in European city were select and however, in independence paper themselves, only on Indeed, laws enforced both altogether. and applied expanded, control formerly were government laws the of that outside meant 33). not 1985: (Fapohunda were poor they or every in rich found – be could area but metropolitan slums, sector the the informal activities of to of the limited the yet part not three-quarters And in were another. 95). economy time of under informal employ part 1981: the the just only of under (Peil but working and informally those self-employment working of those include men through or study not of 1981 wages does Peil’s figure quarter primary Margaret That their well. a as earned over Makoko women for that 402), the true (1989: found either be study called to that Ajegunle another been same found In has the production.’ 92) found what commodity he by (1990: petty dominated Aina or is sector” Olaleye-Iponri, settlement “informal of the in study life his ‘economic In economy. informal feasting and various sacrifice, as rituals, community by 44). the marked 1988: often within (Aina were meanings house-construction on in took stages themselves houses the Even residents found, observer. European 137) a for to (1993: room confounding be Awotona make might slums, that to ways off In in space neigh- blocked 5). use the traffic would in 1988: houses and ceremony, (Onajide commandeered burial dancing modernized or be naming example, a would for at Yorubas, bourhood that Lagosian so ritual, well. urbanized as and differently space used also Makoko. New in wligui n niomn,sc stedos idw,ec,wr frequently were individual etc., outside the and windows, inside between the doors, between channels the bridge a the as as used All such vigorously there. and environment, of part home’ and space, living ‘at unit a were dwelling as the space, was and public surroundings adjoining territory, and or their street, units the dwelling used the residents between The rule. permeability of degree high A lhuhLgsa lm elotieo h uve fgvrmn provision, government of purview the of outside fell slums Lagosian Although the to connections close had areas residential unplanned these surprisingly, Not they did, government the than differently build just not did Lagosians Poorer h otipratsto aswt eadt aoinsuswr,o course, of were, slums Lagosian to regard with laws of set important most The oentjs h wligui u hl oa eini hc h households the which in region lives. their local of whole aspects a meaningful but most the unit of dwelling some the experienced just not fore ... Hm’wsthere- was ‘Home’ 177 Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 178 ainl tbssos hp,adgvrmn fcs(sga 98 182). 1998: (Osaghae offices government sector queue and informal to shops, its Nigerians training of stops, and country bus markets, the War at raiding rid the slums, patiently to sentiment, bulldozing campaign unpatriotic by in a with entirely begun was life Indiscipline, Indiscipline Against street War Against ‘undisciplined’ Buhari’s was Equating space. project urban 1984. of that policing of aggressive control an centrepiece to component, attempts The major his a pro- that as numerous noted included, and be country odd 1985. should liberties the it civil to and but Nigerian have officials, 1983 government of even of curtailments so from secutions both his government, for do with known military is cars to Buhari’s Buhari have Muhammadu afford under to can reached as who so registrations.’ families car, their second in many hardship numbers a inflicted mass- while that initial efficient has buying owners, surprisingly, edict no by ‘this is Not car reacted 144), there (1981: cars). some ‘Because Ayeni days all. even-numbered on Bola (other odd at wrote for week an solution system,’ the no reserved with transit of was beginning days were solution in certain plates week ham-fisted on traffic license area on the bearing municipal down late cars of the cut the enter only to could In that number even attempting Lagosians. declared But administrators for city example. urban consequences for the instance, festivals, painful for major have before 1970s, could vagrants problems action of enduring streets for ineffectual patches the ineffective clearing and quick – than more little to inter- amounted did aggressive it and 1980s, policing Lagos the active of in with affairs. out laws soared everyday pulled draconian Lagos in its on in government vention enforcing crime federal war violent – the declare and that as effectively Abuja just And in time, city. climes any cooler the at for of could, part government any unrealistic the almost such of of that existence use meant the and Nevertheless, shape laws lax. the concerning conspicuously laws was of space enforcement urban the when in 1970s, particularly early periods, and certainly were 1960s There government. Lagos the for problem alone. coverage plot the concerning found law 268) the (1981: of Idi-Araba industrial breach of small-scale study combine Awotona’s even settlements Similarly, entire The levels.’ and all regulations. educational at formal use unaffected existing religious, con- and the residential, mixed 406) by is (1989: commercial, extent Makoko Aina and great Olaleye-Iponri surveys, any areas both his to in slum use making in ‘land regulations (Agbola After that building government documented. cluded to amply the compliance for of been by reach The building, lack has demolished of illegal constant economy. and The legally out settlements 93). Lagosian housing be 1994: squatter municipal legal could to the put instead consequently, English in resorted to which, who from was unattainable poor, standards urban directly simply these the copied of were result often that unfortunate – – hygiene legislation and respectability h pxo tt rcdw nilglo tews udsrbe eaiu was behaviour ‘undesirable’ otherwise or illegal on crackdown state of apex The behaviour ‘undesirable’ otherwise or illegal against strikes police Often, a been have itself in not might law the of breach in fell that houses of full city A ailImmerwahr Daniel lmt ei ilto fpann as ih8%o h ulig in buildings the of 87% with laws, planning of violation in be to slum Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 96 4) h ao tt oenetsSre rdn n lea Markets Illegal and Trading Street in Government’s (quoted State regulations Lagos building for The disregard’ 747). com- ‘utter Transport 1986: an and Works as for of Commissioner the plained illegal what 4,838 for demolishing punishment reported – government structures Lagos the 1986, and 1985 Between Lagos postcolonial in urbanism and Architecture ipy‘neiitpormet ev h neeto h etrcasdurban classed as better did, the later of 271) interest 1993: the (Amdii see serve to commentator to hard not programme one dwellers.’ is elitist as It it ‘an Filth, 270–271). found 1993: simply they Against Amdii wherever 189; War it 1991: dumped (Peil the just so arrange- many do made waste; to actually own convenient had their firms industrial handling esti- Lagos for Planning of the ments Physical percent after and three Environment years only of few that At Ministry A mated those the unchecked. pol- began, stench. to relatively to Filth danger contribution went Against considerable significant serious War industries the a Lagos time, and became same by the and land, made At settle lution 189). to some 1991: and (Peil failed it Ajegunle, added refuse near the Akoko, living projects Ijora, as in these such as they areas worst, best, trash peripheral the At in tighter moved projects Ijora. only authorities but reclamation municipal rich land the the for rich fact, for the environment In from cleaner poor. collected Predictably, a the 138). to for 1981: led (Ayeni discipline Filth waste high-density Against own and War their slums transport the of to was Residents expected in however, were only. order collection campaign, areas areas in garbage that residential month house-to-house with funded every low-density problem authorities of upscale, The municipal Saturday Lagos yards. last in the the and remain that on homes to a.m. their Lagosians 10 clean all and to required 7 which between Filth, homes Against their War the society. called anti-social Lagosian program preventing of not heart were the raids at police striking these rather Lagosians, but many behaviour, of eyes the In poli- these what of ground: sense occurring good the a commonly on gives like the market third looked informal of of a actions an account on cing fine for raid reporter’s labour a police A a hard including of with scene 12–13). trading, imprisonment 1991: illegal months (Oloko three for offence plus penalties naira harsh thousand stipulated one 1984 of Edict tefu,rodr t edi,rte t rpe,rtivsisgosfo h hiding the 2514). from picks 1984: goods sector Jane its informal (Conconbility (contents retrieves The selling wrapper, road. sacks on lorry. its the carries reties joining the down and headtie, off places to up, its visitors rolling the the reorders back and arrived, pile up, in they vehicles goods as itself clothing their suddenly heads as in passing other Then, back the back. starts the are and above in men goods belts of other wave blue-shirted and for pictures unknown) leather batons of dive away, shoes, stroll trays shouts, chain and off Shirts, are a gutters or and There in baskets or fracas of ... open-backed benches out an indifference under selling by wares studied followed others their street and hiding the Volkswagen owners cover, C20 down shack Two slowly Island. Small come Lagos lorry. on police market, with street filled the buses Balogun, in walking am I nte motn seto h a gis nicpiewsteoffshoot the was Indiscipline Against War the of aspect important Another into orrcmuiis hr tsre ssapinfill swamp as served it where communities, poorer etAfrica West 179 Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 180 3 in cities of high-modernist hundreds other capital of Brası and lines federal Chandigarh the new like along a World planned Abuja, Third coast, the of the establishment from task. the simple miles a is such wanted be never they could sanitizing and and and not shaping was independence attest, city Indiscipline country’s international Against War strength. major the the economic a over its signal signal battles would as towns would yet, British And resemble style to buildings built modernist estates Prestige housing planning. tropical urban and a the creating architecture in in through succeed Lagos might itself in government for hope the of identity that time seemed new it a when were time independence a after Nigeria, decades and few the argued, have I As Abuja to retreat The 5. aor’btfrtems at h oesadgvrmn fcsi bj were Abuja in Nigerian offices government distinctive and ‘a hotels the Conference present parts the to most notably the sought from most for rather Associates, but Abuja, but flavour,’ Towry-Coker within form, buildings by indigenous for any few inspiration Centre The from A Tokyo. come D.C. or not York, Washington did New London, Mall in National place Abuja’s of out would that looked modernism have corporate not tro- air-conditioned of gleaming, style a Le open with by climate-sensitive, modernism the pical designed replaced buildings, blank Tange, government Kenzo a Abuja’s student Corbusier’s Marina. was Lagos Abuja the of of construction area 5). 1974: populated over. Azikiwe start barely the and to moving the chance 239 by a though, 2002: slate, security (Elleh anything, national coast than improve vulnerable even More the and aftermath from war, the away civil in capital stability 1967–1970 develop Nigeria’s the spending, demonstrate of federal industry, distribute building indigenous evenly in (quoted an more State’ development, Lagos of interior capital enhance the and the Federation play the Africa to of West unsuitable a capital ‘clearly the of and of capitals desirability stench,’ role dirtiest ‘perennial the dual the from of assess suffering ‘one world,’ to as the heavily Capital in Lagos Federal criticized a capital Committee convened the The the Muhammed of capital. new power, transfer Location to the to coming on after decided Committee Shortly unanimously Muhammed 168–170). Council Murtala 1984: govern- Military General a (Moore the when that Supreme of however, and petrodollars, idea the 1975, by until central the and inflated not with was more were It toyed revenues was well. Gowon ment’s as it Lagos Yakubu from pre- General because away Postcolonial and north. move influence both Azikiwe their advo- spread Nnamdi Kaduna, to Lugard British sidents Lord to the allow even. would capital independence it before because the well moving table the cated on been had Lagos h ottligebe ftefiueo fcasadeie ogtteLagos the get to elites and officials of failure the of emblem telling most The trigoe,hwvr en eiigsm fteiel hthdgvre the governed had that ideals the of some revising meant however, over, Starting uso fAuai hsatcei nieycmail ihSotsdsrpino high- of description Scott’s dis- with The compatible 4. entirely general. ch. is in 1998: article cities Scott this modernist see in cities, Abuja high-modernist of those cussion of analysis excellent an For ailImmerwahr Daniel 96 2) h omte loepandta e aia would capital new a that explained also Committee The 522). 1976: ´ lia. 3 h eoa ftecptlfrom capital the of removal The Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 ueosgvrmna okr a ela hs mlydi h non process ongoing the in employed those as well (as workers governmental numerous (Courtney-Fitch Europe and States 23). United 1983: the in buildings corporate after modeled eaels netdi ao’ pep iutnosy h aagd adminis- Babangida the an of Simultaneously, instituted upkeep. problems tration Lagos’s in the in invested less solving administration north. became miles colonial than hundred few of rather a them encore Abuja, replicated tidy merely Areas. Lagos, The a 18). Residential was 1983: economi- Government counterparts (Courtney-Fitch their of highways ignorance inevitable deliberate main and cally city’s areas territory planned the planned carefully the to of paid of attention side outside just the low-level slums and along and workers shantytowns and construction up forced put to Abuja is servants within protests, It civil housing and structures. plans of official Capital sub-standard price despite yet, high building And predetermined. Federal the start 147). been 1992: just the Vale has to in (quoted for city anyone impossible’ the for Minister room of develop no Abdullahi, inch to be absolutely ‘Every slums Hamza for 1978. would impossible declared in camps is Territory, Abuja,’ ‘It workers’ housed. in ‘temporary’ be would no here workers plan, entirely. all themselves and government for allowed, fend the to left to those and According housing with those plan.’ segregation between master regation Housing the powerful. of and part between rich inherent line the an a for is cast housing status already and by has poor ‘Abuja the 326), for architec- (1997: housing to Elleh According Nnamdi segregation. govern- for colonial historian villas of tural luxury legacy seven-bedroom the and continued six- officials spectrum, ment the of end other the On architect one As flat. in fell had they Abuja complained: as project in just the models But on working Abuja. European for estates, the area by Lagosian shopping hired exurban the been plan had Keynes, to fact, Milton government In behind Nigerian 18). firm 1983: architectural (Courtney-Fitch the Towns’ Roche, New Britain’s Conran of team government one Nigerian Keynes, high-powered and Milton a residential by to Abuja’s visit of a or from much culture off ‘that rubbed of observer, plans demands shopping an the wrote to convinced,’ made am concessions ‘I few climate. the with on model, exclusively almost Town based New were British themselves dwellings The Abuja). building of rhtcueadubns npsclna Lagos postcolonial in urbanism and Architecture oriaeNgraseooi oiiswt h ead ftegoa market. global the of demands the with policies economic Nigeria’s coordinate nfml ie ehp h rts einr mgndfitdkthn ihwashing with kitchens fitted imagined designers ( process driers British continuous tumble a the and is machines places clothes Perhaps washing no climate life. are humid There family hot, house. the a in of In sight dry. within to but clothes roads children hang from for to nowhere away is doors There of doors. of out out play refuse to to keep no families to space are income no low is there There for crops. styles: small vital life and income Islamic Africa family in or life upgrade African for suit essential spaces to outside spaces private family no have Dwellings ergto ewe aiu lse fhuigwsls fapolmta seg- than problem a of less was housing of classes various between Segregation the house to units residential of consisted scheme Abuja the of much necessity, By si lwymvdisofie rmLgst bj,tefdrlgovernment federal the Abuja, to Lagos from offices its moved slowly it As IMF / bce tutrlAjsmn rga ( Program Adjustment Structural -backed tnad,freapeb epn hcesadgrowing and chickens keeping by example for standards, rhtcs Journal Architects’ 95 71–74). 1985: SAP ... en to meant ) hr is There 181 Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 182 nteoehn,petg oenetadcroaebidnsue h European the for used port buildings to corporate a and longer provision. Lagos government no and prestige city, architecture hand, present aspects: independent one two strong, the to involved On a vision as attempted That world, extraction. the government imperial to Nigerian and country, the the colonialism, After Conclusion 6. The Lagos.’ marketplace. in a space become business had into seems, converted it are city, sidewalks entire even and spaces open h wnefc fteewsdvsaigt ao.Under Lagos. to devastating was these of effect twin The iea h oenetsuh rae oto fteifra etrtruhpoli- through sector of informal same the pressures the of at economic control But the 13). greater their cing, 1991: sought making (Oloko government trading the those illegal arrested as endangered for were time traders Lagos has street in 6,767 it convicted alone, 5,049 but 1988 2 and In Lagos, economy. any 1994: informal of of the Roberts streets from police living the (Nyetmutu of protect concentration Nigeria to highest in disciplining helped the heavy town Lagos of giving or policy government city, its city The the of violence. continuation of street a policing through of and responded increase large that chil- and to particularly by vulnerable hawkers, highly officers, were security low- dren, by to (Omitogun moving patrolled trafficking by themselves drug neighbourhoods protect in could density increase Lagosians an rich Although as 203). Boys’ well 2: ‘Area as 1994: the culture) of gang birth a the Lagos pushed saw violent market mid-1980s labour (a the the and of crime, contraction into riots A Lagosians out- 1993. of another these in number fifty; city around Lagos, the killing visited In and rioting weeks demonstration.’ of two break lasting or 1989, May strike in city riot, the visited violent some without passed rmters ftect a ensplne ya qal tr prhi,separ- apartheid, stark equally Areas an super-rich. by Residential the supplanted from been Government poor had Island the the city In ating the Victoria automobiles.’ separating of expensive rest in apartheid in the games] mansions around from residential driving confidence lavish and the email up environs, effect, from its putting living and dealers, Ikoyi were a Cocaine Annex, divide. officials make social who government the across [Nigerians and cut artists that scam affluence the 1 of made of 419 (1994: wave ‘What end Adisa consequences. a Jinmi the spatial ‘was sociologist palpable by observed 167), polarization with Lagosians,’ greater 1107 trend for a to difficult to a more led risen – hardship prices had in Lagos increase Index in poor. that wealth urban Living all, of in the of All of 101). Cost reach 1991: the (Peil of 1989 zero, out inflated as goods had city putting 1975 the often in Taking subsidies considerably, 2 of Lagos ending 1994: the (Bello-Imam in and burden boom prices oil the the of of effect brunt with double the The housing, and bearing transportation predictably, as such poor, services the public in decrease a from suffered rdn,cetn,acrigt ds 19:1 (1994: Adisa to according creating, trading, atclrdne oNgra iisb nraigubnvoec.Atrteintro- the After violence. urban increasing by cities Nigerian to danger particular uto of duction eie utn mlyetadgvrmn provisions, government and employment cutting Besides ailImmerwahr Daniel SAP n18,woehsoinEoh .Oahe(98 0) n year ‘no 206), (1998: Osaghae E. Esogha historian wrote 1986, in SAP uhdmr n oeLgsasit petty into Lagosians more and more pushed / 6) astainweereserved where situation ‘a 161), / 8) ev oiighas policing Heavy 382). SAP iisars Nigeria across cities , SAP lopeetda presented also / 273). / Downloaded By: [University of California Berkeley] At: 01:24 15 December 2007 REFERENCES needneb ucsflyiiaigErpa oes o nyddtearchi- the Nigeria’s did conveyed only that Not schemes models. hand, European other housing imitating the of successfully On number by Nigeria). independence a colonial colonial initiated from from government Lagos Nigeria the independent independent thus distinguish (and to Lagos modernism tropical of language Lagos postcolonial in urbanism and Architecture b-uhd ae .1980. L. 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