The Sociology of Assessment: Comparative and Policy Perspectives: the Selected Works of Patricia Broadfoot/Patricia Broadfoot

The Sociology of Assessment: Comparative and Policy Perspectives

In the World Library of Educationalists series, international experts themselves compile career-long collections of what they judge to be their finest pieces – extracts from books, key articles, salient research findings, major theoretical and practical contributions – so the world can read them in a single manageable volume. Readers will be able to follow the themes and strands and see how their work contributes to the development of the field. In a collection of her most influential work spanning nearly four decades, Patricia Broadfoot applies her trademark sociological and comparative perspective to empirical studies at every level of the educational system. From her classic long-term study of the impact of changing national assessment policies on pupils and teachers in the classrooms of England and France to her sustained championship of the need for a better understanding of the impact of assessment on learning, Broadfoot has consistently championed the need for a more developed sociological understanding of assessment. Broadfoot’s accessible writing offers insights that are as novel as they are important for the education of future generations. This book allows readers to follow themes and strands across Patricia Broadfoot’s career and will be of interest to all followers of her work and any reader interested in the development of teaching, learning and assessment.

Dr Patricia Broadfoot is Professor Emeritus of Sociology of Education at the University of Bristol, UK. She is a former Head of the School of Education, Dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences and Pro Vice Chancellor at the University of Bristol and was Vice Chancellor of the University of Gloucestershire, UK. She is a Fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences and was awarded the CBE for services to Social Science. World Library of Educationalists series

The World Library of Educationalists celebrates the important contributions to education made by leading experts in their individual fields of study. Each scholar has compiled a career-long collection of what they consider to be their finest pieces: extracts from books, journals, articles, major theoretical and practical contributions, and salient research findings. For the first time ever the work of each contributor is presented in a single volume so readers can follow the themes and progress of their work and identify the contributions made to, and the development of, the fields themselves. The distinguished careers of the selected experts span at least two decades and include Richard Aldrich, Stephen J. Ball, Elliot W. Eisner, John Elliott, Howard Gardner, John Gilbert, Ivor F. Goodson, David Hargreaves, David Labaree and E.C. Wragg. Each book in the series features a specially written introduction by the contributor giving an overview of their career, context- ualizing their selection within the development of the field, and showing how their own thinking developed over time.

Educating Young Children: A Lifetime Journey into a Froebelian Approach The Selected Works of Tina Bruce Tina Bruce

Journeys in Narrative Inquiry The Selected Works of D. Jean Clandinin D. Jean Clandinin

Researching Literate Lives The Selected Works of Jerome C. Harste Jerome C. Harste

The Sociology of Assessment: Comparative and Policy Perspectives The Selected Works of Patricia Broadfoot Patricia Broadfoot

For more titles in this series visit www.routledge.com/World-Library-of- Educationalists/book-series/WORLDLIBEDU The Sociology of Assessment: Comparative and Policy Perspectives The Selected Works of Patricia Broadfoot

Patricia Broadfoot First published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 Patricia Broadfoot The right of Patricia Broadfoot to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Broadfoot, Patricia, author. Title: The sociology of assessment: comparative and policy perspectives: the selected works of Patricia Broadfoot/Patricia Broadfoot. Description: Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2021. | Series: World library of educationalists | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020027920 (print) | LCCN 2020027921 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367206307 (hardback) | ISBN 9780429262609 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Educational tests and measurements–Social aspects. | Students–Rating of. | Teachers–Rating of. | Educational sociology. Classification: LCC LB3051.B723 2021 (print) | LCC LB3051 (ebook) | DDC 306.43–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020027920 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020027921 ISBN: 978-0-367-20630-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-26260-9 (ebk) Typeset in Sabon by Newgen Publishing UK For my husband, David and my children, James, Laurence and Elanwy, for their sacrifices, their love and their unfailing support.

Contents

Preface: assessment, accountability and performance: the changing relations of power in education ix PROFESSOR STEPHEN J. BALL FRSA, FBA, FAcSS Acknowledgements xiv Previously published chapters xvi

Introduction 1

PART I The rationality of judgement: understanding educational assessment sociologically 5

1 Competence, competition, content and control: how assessment mediates the relationship between education and society 7

2 Selection, certification and control: meritocracy or social reproduction? 59

PART II Insights from comparing national education systems: empirical studies of differences in the impact of assessment for system control on teachers and pupils 75

3 Towards a focus on learning and culture: time for a new approach to comparative education? 81

4 New forms of system control: the power of assessment as a tool for accountability and legitimation 101 viii Contents 5 Using the comparative approach to understand teachers’ priorities: the ‘Bristaix’ study of English and French education 120

6 Values, understanding and power: mapping the impact of assessment policy changes on teachers’ practice through the PACE project 147

7 Comparing influences on pupil achievement: insights from the QUEST project 162

8 Culture, context and policy: new perspectives on learning from the ENCOMPASS study of pupils in England, France and Denmark 183

PART III Assessment as a policy tool 207

9 Performativity versus empowerment: how the ‘assessment society’ is inhibiting the advent of a ‘learning society’ 209

10 Assessment as a social technology: the socio-cultural origins and implications of the ‘standards’ agenda 236

PART IV Anticipating the future: assessment for learning and the digital revolution 253

11 Enter the ‘assessment society’: international trends and future challenges 255

12 Challenging the status quo: the potential of assessment for learning 279

13 Towards an assessment revolution? The potentially transforming potential of computer-based assessment 304

Epilogue 330

Postscript 332 Index 336 Preface Assessment, accountability and performance: the changing relations of power in education

Professor Stephen J. Ball, FRSA, FBA, FAcSS

In his seminal paper On the Classification and Framing of Educational Knowledge (Bernstein, 1971), Basil Bernstein outlined a framework for the analysis of schooling based on what he called the ‘three message systems’ of schooling – curriculum, pedagogy and assessment – as relays of knowledge. The analysis was based on the identification of the power relations embedded in each system, between teacher and learner, along a number of dimensions, and the ways in which these power relations work to construct and determine what is to be learnt, how content is to be learnt and when certain subject content is learnt. That is, ‘Curriculum defines what counts as a valid knowledge, pedagogy defines what counts as a valid transmission of knowledge, and evaluation defines what counts as a valid realiza- tion of this knowledge’ (Bernstein, 1975, p. 85). Arguably, this was the first attempt to produce a theory of educational knowledge, or educational transmissions as he later termed them. It was certainly the first time that assessment had been interrogated and related in theoretical terms to pedagogy and curriculum. Up to that point sociological interest in assessment was almost entirely limited to issues of unfairness, in terms of social class and of forms of testing like the English 11+. Chapter 10 illustrates how powerful Bernstein’s analysis of the role of assessment as a transmission system would prove to be for understanding the profound changes that were about to take place in English education policy. Perhaps more than anywhere else in the world, these changes heralded the introduction of a new social role for assessment which would become as profound as it would be internationally influential. In England, just five years after Bernstein’s paper was published, James Callaghan, the British prime minister, delivered a major speech on education. This signalled, in modest and measured tones, the beginning of what came to be called the Great Education Debate. In retrospect it can be seen as signalling much more. We might interpret this as the beginning of the end of the state education system as it had been constructed post the Second World War and of the brief flourishing of progressivism and comprehensivism in English education. We might also see it as the beginning of the end of a period of teacher professionalism that granted to teachers the right to determine the x Preface means and ends of education and the appropriate means and purposes of assessment in their own classroom. It began to open up education policy and practice to new voices and new actors. Education and education policy were shifted from a ministerial backwater to the centre of the political stage. One direct outcome of the speech was the creation of an Assessment of Performance Unit (APU). The APU’s remit was: ‘To promote the development of methods of assessing and monitoring the achievement of children at school, and to seek to identify the incidence of underachievement.’ The proposals for the work of the APU now sound modest and benign. However, as with other policy ‘moves’ in the 1970s and 1980s, its importance was strategic and symbolic. It was indicative of a shift in the loci of power in education from classrooms and schools and local authorities towards the centre, the DES and Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Schools (HMI) and later, The Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) which was established in 1992. It announced a different kind of relationship between central government and the education service, articulated through forms of accountability, based on the assessment of students. It involved the setting, monitoring and publication of performance outcomes that provided the government with levers of judgement and a basis for critique. Assessment, accountability and performance became conflated in a set of political technologies and another broader set of power relations (see Chapters 1 and 2). The clear message was that education could/would no longer be left to schools and teachers and local authorities to decide and that schools and teachers in England needed to be made more accountable, although that term did not enter into general usage in relation to education until the 1980s. The year 1988 was the key date when accountability became established in the English education system as a set of formal procedures. These procedures have been reworked many times by later governments (see Chapter 4). But it was the Education Reform Act 1988 in particular, that led to huge system change and set in train the public accountability framework still operating today. Accountability is now part of the everyday lexicon of educational practice and policy. Accountability is now a policy commonplace in ministerial talk and a key technology of policy through which secretaries of state for education represent and steer the education system. Assessment has become subsumed within and subordinated to techniques of accountability through ‘performance management’ systems of various kinds that have become a method to achieve a constant state of ‘activa- tion’ and ‘reform’ across the public sector as a whole. In effect, the intrinsic purposes of assessment have been usurped by the extrinsic purposes of accountability and government. The management of public services through the measurement and comparison of performance outcomes or by setting performance benchmarks and targets (Chapter 10) is an extremely effective method of ‘steering not rowing’, that is as an indirect, or hands-off, strategy of intervention that links the day-to-day work of practitioners and their Preface xi quotidian decision-making in the classroom to the whims and fancies of education ministers as they come and go. Within systems of public accountability, quality is reduced to productivity. In all of this, teachers come to be regarded as units of labour, represented in numerical form, and accountability, in this form, has played a key role in wearing away professional ethical regimes and their value systems (Chapter 5), and their replacement by entrepreneurial-competitive regimes and new value systems. It is not that accountability gets in the way of ‘real’ educational work: it is a vehicle for changing what real educational work is and what assessment is and is for! In relation to all of this, England (not Wales, Scotland nor Northern Ireland) has served as a kind of social laboratory for policy ideas and reform initiatives. Delegations from other countries regularly visit England to see the framework in action and are ‘sold’ policy ideas, both metaphorically and literally – a process worthy of research in its own right. Alongside national curriculum ‘standards’, forms of school autonomy, parental choice and competition, assessment reforms are moved around the globe by policy entrepreneurs and advocacy networks, and together these ideas and practices constitute what we might call a paradigm of neoliberal education. England then is a critical case for assessment research and Broadfoot’s contributions to this volume offer important insights into that case, as well as highlighting important differences in this respect with other national settings. The reforms outlined above are not exclusive to education but are part of a larger process of ‘ethical retooling’ in the public sector, which is replacing client ‘need’ and professional judgement with commercial forms of accountability-driven decision-making. The space for the operation of autonomous ethical codes, based in a moral language shared among practitioners, in a community of practice, is increasingly being colonised or closed down. Ozga (2008, p. 264), describes regimes of audit, inspection, evaluation and assessment, and the use of measurement and comparison as governing by numbers and as forms of governing knowledge that constitute a ‘resource through which surveillance can be exercised’. Teachers experience this surveillance on a daily basis. As do other public service workers. More generally, assessment in the form of numbers operates in many different aspects of our lives to rate, compare and allocate us to categories. This is part of what Broadfoot calls the ‘assessment society’ (Chapters 9–11). These numbers define our worth, measure our effectiveness and, in myriad other ways, work to inform or construct what we are today. We are subject to numbers and are numbered subjects. We come to make decisions about the value of activities and the investment of our time and effort in relation to measures and indexes and the symbolic and real rewards that might be generated from them. The technologies of assessment and accountability typically do not con- front us in the form of grand strategies but, rather, as mundane and practical changes in our everyday practices. They are embedded in new vocabularies of practice, new roles with new titles, and in grids, templates, mentoring xii Preface relationships, annual reviews, evaluations and output indicators. It is these very practical and ordinary words and artefacts that present us with new ways of thinking about what we do, about our students, about our colleagues, and about ourselves – self-assessment. There are now myriad Apps and software available to schools that enable a continuous and imme- diate monitoring of student performance and Broadfoot discusses the challenges and risk of such devices (Chapter 13). There is unsettledness in all of this in terms of what is ‘right’ and in whose interests we act, alongside a sense of constant change and concomitant anxiety, insecurity and precarity – what Lazzarato (2009, p. 120) calls the ‘micro-politics of little fears’. In relation to all of this there are new sets of skills to be acquired – the skills of presentation and of inflation, making the most of ourselves, making a spectacle of ourselves, in response to audit, inspection and review, and for promotion. Productive individuals, new kinds of social subjects, are the central resource in a reformed, entrepreneurial public sector – teachers, schools, local authorities that ‘under-perform’ are subject to moral approbation. This collection ranges across this difficult, complex, morally perplexing and messy terrain of issues, problems and controversies. Broadfoot’s work dissects, discusses and analyses the what, when, how and why of assessment at different levels and in different forms. The papers here span the period from 1979 to 2019 and are, in themselves, a history of assessment and its changing relationships to accountability, performance and student learning. Broadfoot’s work across this period has been a unique and major resource of analysis and debate in relation to assessment in policy and in practice and the relation between the two. And this analysis and debate is not limited to the educational scene in England. This book steps outside of the pre- occupation with the nation state as the obvious basis for policy analysis and puts assessment into a global context of comparison between states (Chapter 3). It recognizes the role of assessment as a key component of education reform, particularly in the form of high stakes testing (Lipman, 2004). The book concludes with forays into thinking differently about assessment and accountability, beyond the political simplicities and dangers of performance management (Chapters 12 and 13). This is a book that speaks to the policies and practices of assessment and raises fundamental questions about the modalities and purposes of assessment that are being totally lost sight of in the ‘assessment society’. It is timely, important and necessary. Professor Stephen J. Ball, FRSA, FBA, FAcSS Karl Mannheim Professor of Sociology of Education Institute of Education, University College, London

References Bernstein, B. (1971). On the Classification and Framing of Educational Knowledge. In M. F. D. Young (Ed.), Knowledge and Control. London: Collier-Macmillan., pp. 47–69. Preface xiii Bernstein, B. (1975). Class, Codes and Control, Vol. 3: Towards a Theory of Educational Transmissions. London: Routledge. Lazzarato, M. (2009). Neoliberalism in action: inequality, insecurity and the recon- stitution of the social. Theory, Culture and Society, 26(6), 109–133. Lipman, P. (2004). High Stakes Education: Inequality, Globalisation and Urban School Reform. New York: RoutledgeFalmer. Ozga, J. (2008). Governing knowledge: research steering and research quality. European Educational Research Journal, 7(3), 261–272. Acknowledgements

A book of collected works is a very special enterprise. It aims to reflect the most significant contributions from an intellectual trajectory developed over an academic lifetime. This book is no exception including, as it does, publications which span a period of more than forty years. Over such a long period, there have inevitably been many people who have influenced my work and to whom I owe a great debt – for their wisdom, their support and their friendship. During the early years of my career in Scotland, Bryan Dockrell, Bill Ritchie, Ian Morris, Nigel Grant and John Nisbet guided my first steps in both empirical research and policy engagement. Their combined influence was to determine educational assessment as my chosen sphere of endeavour and to persuade me of the importance of international comparison as a route to sociological understanding. My PhD supervisor, Roger Dale, honed these insights and skills with his expert support over a sustained period. I thank them for the time they were willing to give to a young researcher and for their faith in me. To those with whom I have collaborated in various empirical projects over many years, I owe a deep debt of gratitude. In the 1980s, Desmond Nuttall and Mary James were key partners in helping to understand the impact of the Records of Achievement initiative. That work laid the foundations for a much greater understanding of the impact of assessment on learning and how to change it for the better, work which was substantially extended later by the influential work of my colleagues in the Assessment Reform Group of which I was privileged to be a member. Particular thanks are due to Michel Gilly, Marilyn Osborn, Andrew Pollard and the members of our research teams who made possible the extended suite of comparisons of French and English education which feature so prominently in this book. It is always invidious to name particular individuals in a list that is far too long to mention everyone. I therefore extend my most sincere thanks to the dozens of colleagues and students in the UK and abroad who made my working life so enjoyable and who made it possible to generate the insights presented in this book. I especially wish to thank my colleagues at the Bristol Acknowledgements xv University School of Education with whom it was my pleasure to work over many years. I also wish to acknowledge the many teachers I have worked with over the years, in settings ranging from privileged private schools to those in des- perately under-resourced classes held under a tree. I have never failed to be amazed at the commitment of these teachers to giving of their best even in the most difficult circumstances. It has been a privilege to work with them. But even more than the support, encouragement and friendship of the many wonderful academic colleagues with whom I have worked over many years, I wish to record my thanks to my family. To my husband David and to my children, James, Laurence and Elanwy, I wish to extend my deepest gratitude for their unfailing support and their willingness to accept the inevitable time demands and associated sacrifices of a busy academic career. None of the work represented in this book would have been possible without their forbearance and their love. This collection of my work is dedicated to them. Previously published chapters

Chapter 1. Competence, competition, content and control: how assessment mediates the relationship between education and society. Broadfoot, P. (1996) Education, Assessment and Society. Buckingham: Open University Press, Chapters 4 and 5, pp. 66–121. Reprinted by permission from Taylor & Francis.

Chapter 2. Selection, certification and control: meritocracy or social reproduction? Broadfoot, P (1979) Assessment, Schools and Society. London: Methuen. Chapter 4, pp. 84–102. Reprinted by permission from Taylor & Francis.

Chapter 3. Towards a focus on learning and culture: time for a new approach to comparative education’? Broadfoot P. (2000) ‘Comparative Education for the 21st Century: Retrospect and Prospect’. Comparative Education, 36(3), 358–371. Reprinted by permission from Taylor & Francis.

Chapter 4. New forms of system control: the power of assessment as a tool for accountability and legitimation. Broadfoot, P. (2007) ‘Changing patterns of educational accountability in England and France’, in M. Crossley, P. Broadfoot and M. Schweisfurth (eds) Changing Educational Contexts, Issues and Identities: 40 years of Comparative Education. London: Routledge. Reprinted from Comparative Education (1985), 21(3), 273–286. Reprinted by permission from Taylor & Francis.

Chapter 5. Using the comparative approach to understand teachers’ priorities: the ‘Bristaix’ study of English and French education. Broadfoot, P., Osborn, M., with Gilly, M. and Paillet, A. (1988) ‘What professional responsibility means to teachers: national contexts and classroom constants’. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 9(3), 265–287. Reprinted by permission from Taylor & Francis. Previously published chapters xvii Chapter 6. Values, understanding and power: mapping the impact of assessment policy changes on teachers’ practice through the PACE project. Pollard, A., Broadfoot, P., Croll, P., Osborn, M. and Abbott, D. (1994) Changing English Primary Schools? The Impact of the Education Reform Act at Key Stage One. London: Cassell. Chapter 13, pp. 227–244. Used by permission of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

Chapter 7. Comparing influences on pupil achievement? Insights from the QUEST project. Broadfoot, P. (1999) ‘Comparative research on pupil achievement: in search of validity, reliability and utility’, in P. Broadfoot, R. Alexander and D. Phillips (eds) Learning from Comparing: New Directions in Comparative Educational Research, Vol. One: Contexts, Classrooms and Outcomes. Oxford: Symposium Books, pp. 237–260. Reprinted by permission from Symposium Books Ltd.

Chapter 8. Culture, context and policy: new perspectives on learning from the ENCOMPASS study of pupils in England, France and Denmark. Osborn, M., Broadfoot, P., McNess, E., Planel, C., Ravn, B. and Triggs, P. (2003) A World of Difference? Comparing Learners across Europe. Maidenhead: Open University Press, Chapter 10, pp. 205–225. Reprinted by permission from Open International Publishing Ltd.

Chapter 9. Performativity versus empowerment: how the ‘assessment society’ is inhibiting the advent of a ‘learning society’. Broadfoot, P. (1998) ‘Quality, standards and control in higher education: what price life-long learning?’ International Studies in Sociology of Education, 8(2), 155–180. Reprinted by permission from Taylor & Francis.

Chapter 10. Assessment as a social technology: the socio-cultural origins and implications of the ‘standards’ agenda. Broadfoot, P. and Pollard, A. (2006) ‘The changing discourse of assessment policy: the case study of English primary education’. In H. Lauder, P. Brown, J. Dillabough, and A.H. Halsey (eds) Education, Globalisation and Social Change, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Extracted from: Broadfoot, P. and Pollard, A. (2000) ‘The changing discourse of assessment policy: the case of English primary education’. In A. Filer (ed.) Assessment: Social Practice and Social Product. London: Falmer Press. Reprinted by permission from Taylor & Francis. xviii Previously published chapters Chapter 11. Enter the ‘assessment society’: international trends and future challenges. Broadfoot, P. and Black, P. (2004) ‘Redefining assessment?’ The first ten years of Assessment in Education’. Assessment in Education, 11(1) March, 7–29. Reprinted by permission from Taylor & Francis.

Chapter 12. Challenging the status quo: the potential of assessment for learning. Broadfoot, P. (2007) An Introduction to Assessment. London: Continuum, Chapter 10, pp. 109–113. Used by permission of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

Chapter 13. Towards an Assessment Revolution? The potentially transforming potential of computer-based assessment. Timmis, S., Broadfoot, P., Sutherland, R. and Oldfield, A. (2016) ‘Rethinking assessment in a digital age: opportunities, challenges and risks’. British Educational Research Journal, 42(3), 454–476. Reprinted by permission from John Wiley and Sons. Introduction

Educational assessment may be defined as the act of gathering data about an educational performance. It may be undertaken with a variety of motives. Often it involves the interpretation of that data in order to make a judgement. Crucially, such judgements may be expressed in a variety of ‘codes’ such as grades or marks. It is these ‘codes’ that provide the language of assessment discourse. They provide a proxy way of representing the perceived quality of a performance that can serve a range of purposes. Such ‘codes’ are widely used to judge whether a given individual performance has reached a particular standard, such as the driving test. Equally often these ‘codes’ are used for comparative purposes to rank individuals – a use that is, in practice, fre- quently linked to selection. The habitual use of such ‘codes’ thus makes it possible to translate the relative quality of a performance into some kind of scale. This is the explanation for the extraordinary impact of educational assessment. Numbers can be easily generated to provide a quick, convenient and readily under- standable language for all kinds of educational communications – feedback on the quality of classwork; school reports; grade-point averages and the host of other tests and examinations that punctuate the business of formal educational programmes. But it doesn’t stop there of course. Individual performance ‘codes’ can be conveniently aggregated to provide for judgements about teacher quality and about the relative performance of an individual school or group of schools. The data can be further aggregated to form the basis of judgements about the quality of entire education systems; judgements which are then used to compare the relative strengths of educational performance in different countries. This entire pyramid of judgements depends on the assumption that the data on which it is based is objective, accurate and meaningful; in assessment language, that it is both valid in the sense that the data truly reflect the quality of the performance being measured, and that it is reliable, in the sense that the performance in question would produce the same result on another day. As I argue in this collection, the idea that educational performance can be measured and reported using such ‘codes’, is rooted in the 2 Introduction post-Enlightenment scientific revolution and the search for objectivity and rationality in understanding the world to which it led. Equally, the advent of mass schooling in the 19th century brought with it the need for assessment tools that would provide a useful and publicly acceptable means for judging the quality of educational performance by individuals, by teachers and by schools. Since that time, literally millions of hours have been devoted by testing agencies and assessment experts of all kinds to the search for ever more trustworthy, ever more precise, tools with which to measure the quality of educational performance. Today, the creation, dissemination and application of various forms of assessment is a global endeavour. It exerts the most profound influence in shaping the delivery of education in the whole range of formal settings from kinder- garten to university. Surprisingly, it is only relatively recently that sociologists of education have shown interest in this phenomenon. Research into educational assessment has traditionally been dominated by more psychological perspectives focused on measuring the quality of particular approaches to testing and the development of better assessment tools. Understanding the social role of educational assessment, its origins and its impact at all levels of society, has attracted less interest. It was this awareness of the international importance of assessment in contemporary educational provision, coupled with the historic lack of scholarly attention to understanding its social significance, that has been at the heart of my academic project. For a sociologist, educational assessment cannot but be seen as a pro- foundly social activity. An individual’s performance on a particular task, cannot be divorced from their human characteristics – from culture, from personality, from motivation – even from the external conditions prevailing at the time the performance is measured. Despite attempts over more than a century to portray educational assessment as a science, dedicated to the objective measurement of achievement, common sense and personal experience alone are sufficient to challenge this view as a myth. Not only is it the case that educational assessment can only ever be a more or less good proxy for quality and should be regarded as such, but also, its profound impact on every aspect of educational provision needs to be recognised. From the chagrin of a failing student at one end of the continuum to the policy decisions made in the light of international comparisons of national achievement at the other, assessment plays a pivotal role in the educational priorities and practices of individuals, institutions and governments. Thus, this collection of some of my published work has three goals. The first goal is to establish the importance of developing a sociological understanding of educational assessment given its overwhelmingly powerful impact on contemporary society. The second goal is to illustrate various ways in which this might be done, using examples from my own theoretical and empirical work. Given the rapid pace of change in contemporary Notes 3 society, the third goal is to explore the significance of the current world- wide interest in assessment for learning, including the potentially profound impact of the digital revolution and the fundamental changes in the social role of assessment to which this might lead. The book has four parts. Each part has a brief introduction which is designed to highlight the contribution of each publication included to a sociological understanding of educational assessment. Part I is centrally concerned with my first goal of establishing the importance of developing a sociological understanding of educational assessment. It draws its title from that of my PhD thesis – The Rationality of Judgement: comparative perspectives on the social role of educational assessment – since it brings together some of my early work in which I sought to explore the various social roles of educational assessment and to understand their significance. Parts II and III address the second goal of the book in illustrating various ways to achieve a greater sociological understanding of the role of educational assessment using examples drawn from my own empirical work. Part II asserts the unique sociological value of comparative studies by drawing extensively on a series of international comparative studies that I under- took in order to help understand the impact of educational assessment in different cultural settings and in the context of significant policy change. Part III develops the focus on understanding educational assessment as a lever of policy-making and leads into the more forward-looking perspective of Part IV. Here the collection addresses my third goal of seeking to understand the potential for change in the social role of educational assessment that may result from the ever more significant impact of the digital revolution. The contributions in Part IV explore current trends in educational assessment and the challenges represented by the acknowledged need for learning itself to become ‘life-long’. The digital revolution is likely to lead to both novel social roles for educational assessment and radical new ways of forming judgements about performance. A sociological perspective is needed to understand whether and how such a transformation might come about. Finally, a brief ‘Epilogue’ offers some thoughts on the messages that can be derived from the collection as a whole. It suggests some pointers for future scholars who will share the commitment to understanding educational assessment from a sociological perspective that has driven so much of my work. I hope, too, that they will share the passion that has driven me beyond mere understanding of what is, to use their fresh insights towards what might be; disseminating that understanding to help shape educational provision in which new, creative approaches to assessment challenge the unthinking travesties of the past and the myth of measurement.

Notes 1 ‘Rationality’ is taken here to refer to both forms of logic and ideology. 4 Notes 2 These terms embody a Marxist conceptualization of the relationship between economic and social relations (see, for example, Williams 1961). 3 Although some industrialized societies, such as Japan, retain a ‘collectivist’ rather than an ‘individualist’ orientation in general, underneath there is intense individualist competition in what is now regarded as an excessively competitive educational system (Takeuchi 1991). As Weber points out in his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, there are major national differences in the impact of capitalism. The Japanese case usefully emphasizes the point that while the provision of a rational means of allocating individuals to differential social roles, and hence educational assessment, is a necessary feature of an expanding division of labour, the precise way in which this process is organized will be spe- cific to the societal context. Japan arguably still represents an extreme case of ‘sponsored’ mobility (Turner 1960), in that, once selected for elite educational institutions, individuals no longer need to compete for status. After entry, such status comes from seniority. 4 For an analysis of Japanese society in these terms, see Shimahara (1979) – see note 3 above. 5 See Max Weber (1947). Also H. Gerth and C. Wright-Mills (1946). 6 Marshall (1982: 33) cites the examples of Italy, France, Spain and Portugal which had capitalism long before the Reformation and conversely, where ascetic Protestantism seems to have given no impetus to capitalist development in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary and parts of the Netherlands. 7 Matthews (1980) argues that pre-capitalist society was also essentially pre- ideological society, the term ‘ideology’ being coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy in 1795. 8 Hence the conservatism of the teaching profession – at least in some countries – identified by Durkheim and Bourdieu. 9 The three levels of the medieval French university – the Baccalauréat, the License and the Aggregation – are still essentially the same today nearly eighty years after Durkheim remarked upon this. 10 The links with the ideas of another French writer, Foucault, are explicit here. Foucault’s analysis of the increasing tendency of society to remove into institutions the criminal and the insane so that they might be subject to hierarchical authority and normalizing judgement strangely echoes Durkheim’s analysis of changing social attitudes towards another only semi-socialized group, the young, who were at this time also increasingly subject to surveillance and enclosure. 11 For a description of the Jesuit system see Durkheim (1947: 260). 12 The title of Derek Rowntree’s book, Assessing Students: How Shall We Know Them?, is particularly revealing in this respect, but the tone is essentially similar in any of the standard works on classroom assessment techniques. See, for example, Dunn (1967), Schofield (1972), Jackson (1974), MacIntosh and Hale (1976) and Sumner (1982). 13 It is important to note that it was the prevailing rhetoric, far more than the practices themselves, that changed – more traditional pedagogy now being supported by a legitimating ideology that is the product of recent years of reces- sion and disquiet. 14 Quoted by Habermas (1970: 84). See also Schostak (1983). 15 An interesting parallel with the context for Durkheim’s work. 16 See also Giddens (1982: Chapter 15). Notes 5 17 See Durkheim’s (1947) description of the advent of the monastic ideal of schooling in the seventeenth century. 18 Bell and Lancaster’s monitorial system is described by Foucault (1977). 19 In some Victorian school buildings elements of this panopticism are still visibly represented and in current use in the architectural design of a large central hall and an encircling gallery to allow for supervision. 20 The significance of such ‘self-control’ is discussed in Chapter 2 in relation to accountability, where it is argued that the exposure of teachers to both public and bureaucratic ‘surveillance’ is a great deal more effective in influencing how teachers set their own canons of moral and professional accountability than the more formal authority of a central bureaucracy. 21 A debate that ultimately cannot be resolved – at least with the current array of conceptual tools – for, as Marshall (1982: 150) suggests, ‘discussion of which changed first – the world (Marx), or people’s understanding of it (Weber) – is likely to be interminable because what is at issue is not the status of this or that body of empirical material but is rather the validity of competing frameworks for the interpretation of social reality.’ 22 It is interesting to note that Antoine Destutt de Tracy, who, as mentioned earlier coined the term ‘ideology’, was a member of the newly founded Institut de France (1795), whose members were known as ideologues – progressive, radical, liberal-scientific scholars – during the French Revolution (see Matthews 1980; see also Larrain 1979). 23 See also Ranson (1983). 24 The example Ranson et al. cite of when the increasing size of an organization constrains it to become more bureaucratic and, at the same time, it is located in a turbulent environment and therefore constrained to become more flexible and adaptable in its structural arrangements, is very clearly the situation facing the education of advanced industrial societies. 25 See also Ranson (1983). 26 A point made by a senior HMI inspector in interview. 27 A point made by IDEN in interview. 28 See Broadfoot (1980) for an enlargement of this argument. 29 It would be misleading, however, to regard the trends depicted in Figure 1.2 as anything more than general tendencies and to ignore the many examples of resistance on the part of educational practitioners and consumers to such changes that can be identified, and the associated pattern of negotiation between politicians, administrators, teachers and the public that this has made necessary. 1 For an account of this ‘cause célèbre’ which illustrated how limited the bureaucratic control of the local education authority is when put to the test by a head teacher and a group of staff who reject conventional norms of practice, see Gretton & Jackson (1976). 2 See, for example, Mager, 1962. 3 Apart from the widespread attempts currently being made in England to design ‘graded-tests’, in, for example, maths, modern languages and science, DES policy is now to follow the Scottish Education Department’s lead in instituting ‘grade-related’ criteria for the new 16 +. Thus in England this move to criterion- referencing is taking a number of different forms. Given the detailed provision of syllabus objectives in France, criterion-referencing is less necessary as a way of providing information on what pupils have obtained, and has not, as yet, taken off there to the same extent. 6 Notes 4 See, for example, Patterson (1972), Duverger (1970, 1971a, b). 5 See, for example, Spencer (1970). 1 All the tables are summaries of qualitative analyses, therefore tests of significance were not felt to be appropriate. In all tables it was possible for individual teachers to mention more than one category, therefore total percentages do not equal 100. 1 See David Reynolds’s contribution in this volume. 2 The patterns of change in these countries tends to reflect historical grounded cultural associations. For example, New Zealand, Australia and Hong Kong are all seeking to introduce a ‘levels-based’ national curriculum with specified learning targets, accompanied by a criterion-referenced assessment system. In other countries, the emphasis is more on efforts to break down national homogeneity and, as in France, to encourage teachers to introduce a more individualised pedagogy which can provide for a wider range of student learning outcomes. 3 The members of the QUEST team are Patricia Broadfoot, Marilyn Osborn and Claire Planel, University of Bristol, and Keith Sharpe and Brigitte Ward, Canterbury Christchurch College. The support of the Economic and Social Research Council for this research is gratefully acknowledged. 1 Cambridge University, for example, introduced marks for the Tripos examination in 1784. 2 For example, the recently published HEQC Report, ‘Assessment in Higher Education and the Role of Graduateness’ argues that, despite the apparent use of a common vocabulary across subjects and institutions, this may have more to do with procedural expectations than being a reflection of common values or standards. It suggests that the increasing fragmentation of courses which is the result of modularisation is leading to a decline in internalised notions of quality which in turn threatens the future reliability of assessments. The report expresses a concern that there may in practice be little real comparability across either subjects or institutions. This is also a theme of the Final Report of the HEQC (1997) Graduate Standards Programme which was set up to develop mechanisms for making degree standards more transparent and comparable across institutions. 3 See DfEE circular 2/96. 4 Significantly, this is the nomenclature employed by the Audit Commission itself. 5 The key skills initiative is now taking on considerable prominence in higher education, see for example the Key Skills in Higher Education Report University of Nottingham, 1997. 6 The use of this Foucauldian term here is deliberate since many of Foucault’s ideas are implicit in the foregoing arguments. For further discussion see Broadfoot, 1996, chapter 4. 1 It is important to note that the terms ‘performance’ and ‘competence’ as used by Bernstein (1996) and in this chapter have distinctly different meanings from those associated with ‘performance’ (authentic) and ‘competence’ testing as more generally understood in the field of assessment and as used elsewhere in this book. 1 In the USA this is generally known as Computer Aided Assessment and this ter- minology is still in use today. 2 See http://www.bristol.ac.uk/education/research/sites/tea/publications/. 3 Though versions are found in many countries and international organisations, notable examples can be seen in the US Partnership for 21st Century Skills (www.p21.org), the UK curriculum’s Personal, Learning and Thinking Skills, as References 7 well as the EU’s Key Competences for Lifelong Learning (http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/ education_culture/publ/pdf/ll-learning/keycomp_en.pdf). 4 As digital technologies evolve at a fast pace, this is an ever-changing landscape, so examples are illustrative, not definitive. 5 Massive Online Open Courses—see https://www.coursera.org/ for examples. 6 https://wiki.mozilla.org/Badges. 7 For further discussion on Learning Analytics, see our briefing paper at http://www. bristol.ac.uk/education/research/sites/tea/publications/learninganalytics.pdf. 8 See OECD’s annual ‘Education at a Glance’—and PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) at http://www.oecd.org/.

References Airasian, P. W. (1988) Symbolic validation: the case of state-mandated High States

Testing, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 10 (4): 301–15. Archer, M. S. (1979) Social Origins of Educational Systems. London: Sage. Archer, M. S. (1981a) Fields of specialisation: educational systems, International Social Science Journal XXXIII (2): 261–84. Archer, M. S. (1981b) On predicting the behaviour of the educational system: extended review, British Journal of Sociology of Education 2 (2): 211–19. Archer, M. S. (1982) Educational politics: a model for their analysis. In P. Broadfoot, C. Brock and W. Tulasiewicz (eds) Politics and Educational Change. London: Croom Helm. Ball, S. (1990) Politics and Policy-making in Education. London: Routledge. Banks, O. (1978) Macro and micro perspectives in the sociology of education. In L. Barton and R. Meighan (eds) Sociological Interpretations of Schooling and Classrooms. Driffield: Nafferton. Bates, R. (1980a) Educational administration, the sociology of science and the management of knowledge, Educational Administration Quarterly 16 (2): 1–20. Bates, R. (1980b) Bureaucracy, professionalisation and the control of knowledge. Paper presented to the National Conference of Professors of Education Administration. Norfolk, Virginia. Beeby, C. E. (1966) The Quality of Education in Developing Countries. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bernstein, B. (1977) Class Codes and Control, vol. iii. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Bernstein, B. (1982) Codes, modalities and the process of cultural reproduction: a model. In M. Apple (ed.) Cultural and Economic Reproduction in Education. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Blau, P. M. (1964) Exchange and Power in Social Life. New York: Basic Books. Braudel, F. (1973) The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Phillip II. London: Collins. Broadfoot, P. (1980) Assessment, curriculum and control in the changing pattern of centre-local relations, Local Government Studies, November: 57–68. Broadfoot, P. (1991) The significance of contemporary contradiction in educational assessment policies in England and Wales. In R. Stake (ed.) Advances in Program Evaluation: Volume 1 (Part A). London: JAI Press. Broadfoot, P. (1992) Assessment developments in French education, Education Review 44 (3): 309–16. 8 References Broadfoot, P. (1994) Assessing quality in education: some international examples. In W. Harlen (ed.) Towards Quality Assessment. London: Paul Chapman. Broadfoot, P., Pollard, A., Croll, P., Osborn, M. and Abbott, D. (1994) Changing English Primary Schools. London: Cassell. Broadfoot, P., Osborn, M., Planel, C. and Pollard, A. (1996) Teachers and change: a study of primary school teachers’ reactions to policy changes in England and France. In Thyge Winther-Jensen (ed.) Education in Europe: A Comparative Approach. Copenhagen: Comparative Education Society of Europe. Cherkaoui, M. (1977) Bernstein and Durkheim: two theories of change in educational systems, Harvard Education Review 47 (4): 156–66. Chin, R. and Benne, K. (1978) General strategies for effecting changes in human systems. In W. G. Bennis, K. D. Benne, R. Chin and K. E. Corey (eds) The Planning of Change, 3rd edn. London: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Coleman, J. (1968) The concept of equality of educational opportunity, Harvard Educational Review, Special Issue, 38(1): 7–22. Collins, R. (1979) The Credential Society. New York: Academic Press. Dale, R. (1981) From Expectations to Outcomes in Educational Systems. Milton Keynes: The Open University. Dale, R. (1983) The political sociology of education: review essay, British Journal of Sociology of Education 4 (2): 185–202. Dallmayr, F. (1982) The theory of structuration: a critique. In A. Giddens (ed.) Profiles and Critiques in Social Theory. London: Macmillan. Dawe, A. (1970) The two sociologies, British Journal of Sociology 21 (2): 56–75. Donald, J. (1981) Green paper: noise of crisis. In R. Dale, G. Esland, R. Fergusson and M. MacDonald (eds) Schooling and the National Interest. Lewes: The Falmer Press. Dunn, S. S. (1967) Measurement and Evaluation in the Secondary School. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research. Durkheim, E. (1947) The Division of Labour in Society. New York: The Free Press. Durkheim, E. (1961) Moral Education: A Study in the Theory and Application of the Sociology of Education. New York: The Free Press (trans. Wilson and Schnurer). Durkheim, E. (1977) The Evolution of Educational Thought: Lectures on the Formation and Development of Secondary Education in France. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Eckstein, M. and Noah, H. J. (eds) (1992) Examinations: Comparative and International Studies. Oxford: Pergamon. Eckstein, M. A. and Noah, H. J. (1993) Secondary School Examinations: International Perspectives on Policies and Practice. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Foucault, M. (1976) Two Lectures, trans. Alan Sheridan. London: Allen Lane. Foucault, M. (1977) Discipline and Punish, trans. Alan Sheridan. London: Allen Lane. Gerth, H. and Wright-Mills, C. (1946) Essay in sociology. In H. Gerth and C. Wright- Mills (eds) From Max Weber. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gerth, H. and Wright-Mills, C. (1952) A Marx for the Managers. In R. K. Merton (ed.) Bureaucracy. New York: The Free Press. Giddens, A. (1976) New Rules of Sociological Method. London: Hutchinson. Giddens, A. (1981) A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism. London: Macmillan. Giddens, A. (1982) Profiles and Critiques in Social Theory. Basingstoke: Macmillan. References 9 Gifford, B. R. and O’Connor, C. (1992) Changing Assessments: Alternative Views of Aptitude, Achievement and Instruction. Boston and Dordrecht: Kluwer. Gintis, H. (1980) Theory, practice and the discursive structure of education. Paper given to the International Sociology of Education Conference, Westhill College, 3–5 January. GNVQ Assessment Review Project (GARP) (1994) Report No. 23, final report. London: Research and Development Services, Department of Employment. Gouldner, A. (1952) On Weber’s analysis of bureaucratic rules. In R. K. Merton (ed.) Bureaucracy. New York: The Free Press. Habermas, J. (1970) Technology and science as ideology, for Herbert Marcuse on his seventieth birthday. In J. Habermas Towards a Rational Society. London: Heinemann. Habermas, J. (1976) Legitimation Crisis. London: Heinemann. Hamilton, D. (1981) ‘On simultaneous instruction – the early evolution of class teaching’, mimeo. University of Glasgow, Department of Education. Hargreaves, A. (1982) Resistance and relative autonomy theories: problems of dis- tortion and incoherence in recent Marxist analyses of education, British Journal of Sociology of Education 3 (2): 107–26. Hargreaves, A. (1989) Curriculum and Assessment Reform. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Hargreaves, D. H. (1979) A Sociological Critique of Individualism in Education. Paper presented to the annual conference of the Standing Conference for Studies in Education. London: King’s College. Hill, L. (1981) Shades of the prison house, Times Higher Educational Supplement, 2 January. Hogan, D. (1981) Capitalism, liberalism and schooling. In R. Dale, G. Esland, R. Fergusson and M. MacDonald (eds) Schooling and the National Interest: Education and the State, vol. 1. Lewes: The Falmer Press. Hopper, E. I. (1968) A typology for the classification of educational systems, Sociology 2(1): 29–46. Hoskin, K. (1979) The examination, disciplinary powers and rational schooling, History of Education 8 (2): 135–46. Hoyle, E. (1982) Micropolitics of educational organisations, Educational Management and Administration 10: 87–98. Jackson, S. (1974) A Teacher’s Guide to Testing, 3rd edn. Harlow: Longman. Larrain, J. (1979) The Concept of Ideology. London: Hutchinson. Larson, M. (1981) Monopolies of competence and bourgeois ideology. In R. Dale, G. Esland, R. Fergusson and M. MacDonald (eds) Education and the State, vol. 2. London: Falmer Press/The Open University. Lauglo, J. (1995) Forms of decentralization and their implications for education, Comparative Education 31 (1): 5–30. Lauglo, J. and Mclean, L. (1984) Central Versus Decentralized Control in Education: Comparative and International Perspectives. London: School of Education, University of London. Lee-Smith, M. (1990) The Role of Testing in Elementary School, SCE Technical Report 321 Arizona State University. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Los Angeles, Centre for the Study of Evaluation. Lukes, S. (1974) Power: A Radical View. Studies in Sociology. London: Macmillan. 10 References Macintosh, H. G. and Hale, D. E. (1976) Assessment and the Secondary School Teacher. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Marcuse, J. (1964) One-dimensional Man. New York: The Free Press. Marshall, G. (1982) In Search of the Spirit of Capitalism. London: Hutchinson University Library. Matthews, M. R. (1980) The Marxist Theory of Schooling. Sussex: Harvester Press. Mills, I. (1979) Individuality and assessment. Paper presented to the Annual Conference of the Standing Conference for Studies in Education, King’s College, London, 16 December. Munby, S. (1989) Assessing and Recording Achievement. Oxford: Blackwell. Neave, G. (1980) Statements at 16 +: a European perspective. In T. Burgess and E. Adams (eds) Outcomes of Education. London: Macmillan. Neave, G. (1989) On the cultivation of quality, efficiency and enterprise: an overview of recent trends in higher education in Western Europe, 1986–88, European Journal of Education 23 (1/2): 7–24. Nisbet, J. (ed.) (1993) Assessment and Curriculum Reform. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. O’Connor, J. (1980) The division of labor in society, Insurgent Sociologist 10 (1): 60–8. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (1989) Education and the Economy in a Changing Society. Paris: OECD. Parsons, T. (1951) The Social System. New York: The Free Press. Perrow, H. (1967) Hospitals, technology, structure and goals. In J. G. March (ed.) Handbook of Organizations. Chicago, IL: Rand-McNally. Poulantzas, N. (1973) Political Power and Social Classes. London: New Left Books. Ramirez, F. O. and Meyer, J. W. (1980) Comparative education: the social construc- tion of the modern world system, Annual Review of Sociology 6: 369–99. Ranson, S. (1983) Centre-Local Policy Planning in Education, Report to ESRC. University of Birmingham: INLOGOV. Ranson, S., Hinings, B. and Greenwood, R. (1980) The structuring of organisational structures, Administrative Science Quarterly 25 (1): 1–17. Reimer, F. (1971) School Is Dead. London: Penguin. Rodmell, D. (1977) The contribution of monitoring to educational policymaking. In R. Sumner (ed.) Monitoring Educational Achievement. Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research. Salaman, G. (1981) Class and the Corporation. London: Fontana. Salter, B. and Tapper, T. (1981) Education, Politics and the State. London: Grant-Mclntyre. Sarup, M. (1982) Education, State and Crisis: A Marxist Perspective. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Schofield, H. (1972) Assessment and Testing: An Introduction. London: Allen and Unwin. Schostak, J. F. (1983) Maladjusted Schooling: Deviance, Social Control and Individuality in Secondary Schooling. Lewes: The Falmer Press. Sheridan, A. (1980) Michel Foucault: The Will to Truth. London: Tavistock. Shimahara, N. K. (1979) Adaptation and Education in Japan. New York: Praeger. Smith, G. (1980) Politics in Western Europe, 3rd edn. London: Heinemann. References 11 Stake, R. E. (1991) Impact of changes in assessment policy. In R. E. Stake (ed.) Advances in Program Evaluation, vol. 1 (Part A), Using Assessment Policy to Reform Education. London: JAI Press. Sumner, R. (1982) Assessment for Schools. London: Croom Helm. Sutherland, M. (1977) The death of diversity. Paper presented at Third World Congress of Comparative Education Societies, London. Takeuchi, Y. (1991) Myth and reality in the Japanese educational selection system, Comparative Education 27(1): 101–12. Torrance, H. (ed.) (1994) Evaluating Authentic Assessment: Problems and Possibilities in New Approaches to Assessment. Buckingham: Open University Press. Turner, R. (1960) Sponsored and context mobility and the school system, American Sociological Review 25: 855–67. Vedder, P. (1992) Measuring the Quality of Education. Amsterdam: Swets and Zeitlinger. Weber, M. (1923) General Economic History. London: Allen and Unwin. Weber, M. (1947) The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation. New York: Free Press (trans. T. Parsons and A. M. Henderson). Webster, D. (1981) Attitudes to the world of work: the relation of theory to empirical date. Paper presented to the seventh annual conference of the British Educational Research Association, Crewe and Alsager College,4–7 September. Whitty, G. (1980) Block III Unit 8 E352 Society, Education and the State. Milton Keynes: Open University. Williams, I. C. and Boreham, W. I. (1972) The Predictive Value of CSE Grades for Further Education. London: Evans/Methuen. Wilson, H. T. (1977) The American Ideology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Zeldin, T. (1973) History of France, 1848–1945, vols I and II. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Becher, T. and Maclure, S. (1978) The Politics of Curriculum Change. London: Hutchinson. Bellaby, P. (1977) The Sociology of Comprehensive Schooling. London: Methuen. Bernstein, B. (1977) Class Codes and Control, Vol. III. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Bourdieu, P. (1974) The school as a conservative force: scholastic and cultural inequalities. In J. Eggleston (ed.) Contemporary Research in the Sociology of Education. London: Methuen. Bourdieu, P. and Passeron, J.C. (1976) Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. London: Sage. Bowles, S. and Gintis, H. (1976) Schooling in Capitalist America. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Bowles, S. and Gintis, H. (1977) IQ in the U.S. class structure. In D. Gleeson (ed.) Identity and Structure. Driffield: Nafferton Books. Broadfoot, P. (1978a) The near monopoly of one kind of mind. Times Educational Supplement (Scotland), 6.1.78. Broadfoot, P. (1978b) The Politics of Radical Education. Paper given to W. Midlands Open University Sociology Society, June. Clark, B. (1962) Educating the Expert Society. San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Co. Consultative Committee on Education (1938) Secondary Education (The Spens Report). London: HMSO. 12 References Dale, R. (1977) Implications of the rediscovery of the hidden curriculum for the sociology of teaching. In D. Gleeson (ed.) Identity and Structure. Driffield: Nafferton Books. Durkheim, E. (1969) L’evolution pedagogique en France. Presses Universitaires de France. Finn, D., Grant, N. and Johnson, R. (1977) Social democracy, education and the crisis. Cultural Studies 10: On ideology. Freire, P. (1971) A few notions about the word ‘conscientization’. HardCheese 1: 23–8. Freire, P. (1972) Education as Cultural Action. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Gardner, J. (1978) Great leap back to basics. Times Educational Supplement, 21.4.78. Goody, J. and Watt, I. (1962) The consequences of literacy. Comparative Studies in History and Society 5, no. 3. Hall, S. (1977) Review of the course. E202 Unit 32. Milton Keynes: The Open University. Halsey, A.H. (1972) Educational Priority, Vol. 1 EPA Problems and Policies. London: HMSO 95. Halsey, A.H. (1978) Change in British society: The Reith Lectures. The Listener, January/February. Hartog, Sir Philip and Rhodes, E.C. (1935) An Examination of Examinations. London: Macmillan. Hextall, I. (1976) Marking work. In G. Whitty and M. Young (eds) Explorations in the Politics of School Knowledge. Driffield: Nafferton Books. Hextall, I. and Sarup, M. (1977) School knowledge, evaluation and alienation. In M. Young and G. Whitty (eds) Society, State and Schooling. Ringmer: The Falmer Press. Holmes, E. (1911) What Is and What Might Be. London: Constable. Holt, J. (1969) Schools are bad places for kids. Saturday Evening Post, Feb. 1969. Reprinted in The Underachieving School. Harmondsworth: Pelican (1970). Illich, I. (1971) Deschooling Society. London: Calder & Boyars. Ingenkamp, K. (1977) Educational Assessment. Windsor: NFER for Council of Europe. Kamin, L.J. (1974) The Science and Politics of IQ. New York: Wiley. Karabel, J. and Halsey, A.H. (1977) (eds) Power and Ideology in Education. New York: Oxford University Press. Kelly, P.J. (1971) Re-appraisal of examinations. Journal of Curriculum Studies 3, no. 2. Kogan, M. (1978) The Politics of Educational Change. London: Fontana. Kuhn, T. (1970) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press. Lauwerys, J.A. and Scanlon, D.G. (eds) (1969) Examinations. The World Year Book of Education 1969. London: Evans. Lister, I. (1974) (ed.) Deschooling. Cambridge University Press. McHugh, P. et al. (1974) On the Beginning of Social Enquiry. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. McIntosh, H.G. (ed.) (1974) Techniques and Problems of Assessment. London: Edward Arnold. Pidgeon, D. and Yates, A. (1968) An Introduction to Educational Measurement. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Raven, J. (1977) Education, Values and Society. London: H.K. Lewis. References 13 Robinson, P. (1977) Poverty and education: a pragmatic circle. In D. Gleeson (ed.) Identity and Structure. Driffield: Nafferton Books. Rogers, V. (1978) When relevance is a dirty word. Times Educational Supplement, 28.4.78. Rowntree, D. (1977) Assessing Students: How Shall We Know Them. London: Harper & Row. Schools Council (1975) The Whole Curriculum, 13–16. Working Paper 53. London: Evans/Methuen Educational. Scottish Education Department (1977) Assessment for All. The Report of the Secretary of State’s Committee on Assessment and Certification (The Dunning Report). Edinburgh: HMSO. Secondary Schools Examination Council (1943) Curriculum and Examinations in Secondary Schools (The Norwood Report). London: HMSO. Sharp, R. and Green, A. (1975) Education and Social Control. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Stones, E. (1975) Black light on exams. British Journal of Teacher Education 1, no. 3, October 1975: 299–303. Tawney, R.H. (1951) Equality. London: George Allen & Unwin. Tyler, W. (1977) The Sociology of Educational Inequality. London: Methuen. Williams, R. (1976) Base and superstructure in Marxist cultural theory. In R. Dale et al. (eds) Schooling and Capitalism. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Williams, R. (1977) French connection. Review article, New Society, 5.5.77 43, 75, 85, 100. Young, M.F.D. (ed.) (1971) Knowledge and Control. London: Collier Macmillan. Abbott, J. (1999) Battery hens, or free range chickens: what kind of education for what kind of world? The Journal of the 21st Century Learning Initiative, pp. 1–12. Black, P. & Wiliam, D. (1998) Assessment and classroom learning, Assessment in Education, 5(1), pp. 7–74. Bray, M. (1999) The Shadow Education System: private tutoring and its implications for planners (Paris, UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning). Broadfoot, P. (1977) The comparative contribution—a research perspective, Comparative Education, Special Number, Comparative education—its present state and future prospects, 13(2), pp. 133–137. Broadfoot, P. (1996) Liberating the learner through assessment, in: G. Claxton, T. Atkinson, M. Osborn & M. Wallace (Eds) Liberating the Learner, pp. 32–44 (London, Routledge). Broadfoot, P. (1998) Quality, standards and control in higher education. What price life-long learning? International Studies in Sociology of Education, 8(2), pp. 155–180. Broadfoot, P. (1999) Not so much a context, more a way of life: comparative education in the 1990s, in: R. Alexander, P. Broadfoot & D. Phillips (Eds) Learning from Comparing. 1. Contexts, classrooms and outcomes (Oxford, Symposium Books). Broadfoot, P., Osborn, M., Gilly, M. & Brucher, A. (1993) Perceptions of Teaching: primary school teachers in England and France (London, Cassell). Broadfoot, P., Osborn, M., Planel, C. & Sharpe, K. (2000) Promoting Quality in Education: does England have the answer? (London, Continuum). 14 References Brown, M. (1999) International comparisons and maths education: a critical review, Oxford Studies in Comparative Education, 3(2). Castells, M. (1998) The Information Age: economy, society and culture, Vol. 1 The Rise of the Network Society; Vol. 2 The Power of Identity; Vol. 3 End of Millennium (Oxford, Blackwell). Claxton, G. (1998) Mastering Uncertainty: the new science of lifelong learning, mimeo. Crossley, M. & Vulliamy, G. (1984) Case study research methods and comparative education, Comparative Education, 20(2), pp. 193–207. Crossley, M. & Vulliamy, G. (1997) Qualitative Educational Research in Developing Countries: current perspectives (New York, Garland). Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990) Flow: the psychology of optimal experience (New York, Harper Perennial). Elliott, J., Hufton, N., Hildreth, A. & Illushin, L. (1999) Factors influencing educational motivation: a study of attitudes, expectations and behaviour of children in Sunderland, Kentucky and St Petersburg, British Educational Research Journal, 25(1), pp. 75–94. Fryer, B. (1998) Towards the Learning Age: from vision to implementation (London, Lloyds TSB Forum). Giddens, A. (1999) Runaway World (Cambridge, Polity). Goldstein, H. (1996) Introduction, Special Issue: The IEA Studies, Assessment in Education, 3(2), pp. 125–128. Hake, B.J. (1999) Lifelong learning policies in the European Union: developments and issues, Compare, 29(1), pp. 53–71. Halsey, A.H., Lauder, H., Brown, P. & Stuart-Wells, A. (Eds) (1997) Education: culture, economy and society (Oxford, Oxford University Press). Illich, I. (1971) Deschooling Society (London, Calder & Boyars). Kincheloe, J., Steinberg, S. & Gresson, A. (Eds) (1996) Measured Lies: the bell curve examined (New York, St. Martin’s Press). Lauwerys, J. (1973) What is comparative education? in: J. Lauwerys & G. Tayar (Eds) Education at Home and Abroad, pp. xi–xiii (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul). Lindsay, B. & Parrott, J. (1998) New challenges for educational and social policies in international settings: a review essay, Comparative Education, 34(3), pp. 341–347. Lyotard, J.-F. (1984) The Post-Modern Condition (Manchester, Manchester University Press). OECD (1992) Education at a Glance (Paris, OECD). Ordonez, B. (1996) Education for all, Keynote address to the World Congress of Comparative Education Societies, Sydney. Reimer, F. (1971) School Is Dead (Harmondsworth, Penguin). Robinson, P. (1999) The tyranny of league tables: international attainment and economic performance, in: R. Alexander, P. Broadfoot & D. Phillips (Eds) Learning from Comparing (Oxford, Symposium Books). Rogers, C. (1993) The interpersonal relationship in the facilitation of learning, in: M. Thorpe, R. Edwards & A. Hanson (Eds) Culture and Processes of Adult Learning, pp. 228–242 (London, Routledge with Open University Press). Schriewer, J. (2000) Forms of externalisation in educational knowledge. Seminar at Oxford University Day Conference ‘Theory, method and practice in comparative education’, 9 February. References 15 Schumer, G. (1999) Mathematics education in Japan, Journal of Curriculum Studies, 31(4), pp. 399–427. Steinberg, S.R. (1996) Beyond the Classroom: why school reform has failed and what parents need to do (New York, Touchstone Books). Stenhouse, L. (1962) Educational decisions as units of study in an explanatory comparative education, International Review of Education, 7, pp. 412–419. Stenhouse, L. (1967) Culture and Education (London, Thomas Nelson). Stenhouse, L. (1979) Case study in comparative education: particularity and gener- alisation, Comparative Education, 15(1), pp. 5–10. Torrance, H. (1999) Postmodernism and Educational Assessment. Assessment: social practice and social product (London, Falmer). United Nations, Centre for Human Rights (1990) The Rights of the Child. Human rights fact sheet, No. 10 (Geneva, Centre for Human Rights). Watson, K. (1998) Memories, models and mapping the impact of geopolitical changes on comparative studies of education, Compare, 28(1), pp. 5–31. Westbury, I. (1992) Comparing American and Japanese Achievement: is the United States really a low achiever? Educational Researcher, 21(5), pp. 18–24. Archer, M.S. (1981) On predicting the behaviour of the educational system, extended review, British Journal of Sociology of Education, 2, pp. 211–219. Argyris, C. (1964) Integrating the Individual and the Organisation (Chichester, Wiley). Aron, R. (1969) The Elusive Revolution (New York, Praeger). Ashley, B. (1974) Sociology as a basis for social education in the secondary school, paper given to the British Association for the Advancement of Science Annual Conference, Stirling. Bachrach, P. & Baratz, M.S. (1962) The two faces of power, American Political Science Review, 56, pp. 947–952. Bacon, W. (1978) Public Accountability and the Schooling System (London, Harper & Row). Barker, R. & Gump, P. (1964) Big School, Small School (Stanford, Stanford University Press). Bates, R. (1980) Bureaucracy, professionalisation and the control of knowledge, paper presented to the National Conference of Professors of Educational Administration, Norfolk, Virginia (August). Becher, T., Eraut, M. & Knight, J. (1981) Policies for Educational Accountability (London, Heinemann Educational). Bernstein, B. (1977) (1) On the classification and framing of educational knowledge; (2) Class and pedagogies: visible and invisible, in: Class Codes and Control, Vol. III (Henley, Routledge & Kegan Paul). Black, P., Harlen, W. & Orgee, T. (1984) Standards of performance—expectations and reality, APU Occasional Paper 3. Bocock, R., Hamilton, P., Thompson, K. & Waton, A. (Eds) (1980) An Introduction to Sociology (London, Fontana). Broadfoot, P.M. (1979) Assessment, Schools and Society (London, Methuen). Broadfoot, P.M. (1982) Assessment control of curriculum practice, in: Hargreaves, A. & Hammersley, M. (1982) (Eds) Curriculum Practice: some sociological case studies (Sussex, Falmer Press). Collins, R. (1979) The Credential Society (New York, Academic Press). 16 References Crispin, A. (1983) Finance as a means of control in English education: recent trends towards centralisation, paper given to annual Comparative Education workshop, London Institute of Education. Dale, R. (1980) The State and Education (Milton Keynes, Open University Press). Dale, R. (1983) The political sociology of education: review essay, British Journal of Sociology of Education, 4, pp. 185–202. DES (1980) Secondary School Examinations: a single system at 16+, White Paper (Cmnd 7368) (London, HMSO). DES (1984) Records of Achievement: a statement of policy (London, HMSO). Duverger, M. (1970) L’université de l’ancien régime au nouveau: un état d’apesanteur, Le Monde, 9.12.70, p. 10. Duverger M. (1971a) Les nouvelles universités, Le Monde, 15.11.71, p. 1. Duverger, M. (1971b) Les nouvelles universités, Le Monde, 16.11.71, p. 10. Foucault, M. (1975) Surveiller et Punir (Paris, Gallimard). Giddens, A. (1972) Politics and Sociology in the Thought of Max Weber (Basingstoke, Macmillan). Gintis, H. (1980) Theory, practice and the discursive structure of education, paper given to the International Sociology of Education Conference, Westhill College. Gipps, C. (1985) A critique of the APU, in: Nuttall, D. (Ed.) Assessing Educational Achievement (Sussex, Falmer Press). Giroux, H. (1981) Ideology, Culture and the Process of Schooling (Lewes, Falmer Press). Gretton, J. & Jackson, M. (1976) William Tyndale: collapse of a school—or a system? (London, Allen & Unwin). Habermas, J. (1976) Theory and Practice (London, Heinemann). Harrison, A. (1983) Review of graded tests, Schools Council exam Bulletin 41 (London, Methuen Educational). Likert, R. (1961) New Patterns of Management (New York, McGraw-Hill). Lukes, S. (1974) Power: a radical view (Studies in Sociology) (Basingstoke, Macmillan). Mager, R.F. (1962) Preparing Instructional Objectives (Palo Alto, Calif., Fearon). Malan, T. (1974) L’évolution de la fonction de planification de l’éducation en France au cours des Vième et Vième plans 1966–1975, Revue Française de Pédagogie, no. 26, Janvier–Mars. Maschino, M. (1983) Vos enfants ne m’intéressent pas (Presses universitaires de France). Offe, C. (1975) The capitalist state and the problem of policy formation, in: Lindberg, L.J., Alford, R., Crouch, C. & Offe, C. (Eds) Stress and Contradiction in Modern Capitalism (Lexington, Mass., Lexington Books). Patterson, M. (1972) French university reform: renaissance or restoration, Comparative Education Review, June. Prost, A. (1983) Les lycées et leurs études au seuil du XXième siècle, rapport au Directeur des Lycées présenté par le Groupe de Travail National sur les seconds cycles (Paris, Service d’Information). Pusey, M. (1976) Dynamics of Bureaucracy: a case analysis in education (Sydney, Wiley). Pusey, M. (1980) The legitimation of state educational systems, Australia and New Zealand Journal of Sociology, 15(2), pp. 45–57. Ranjard, P. (1984) Les enseignants persécutés (Paris, Robert Jauze). References 17 Ranson, S. (1983) Centre-local policy planning in education, report to the Social Science Research Council. Rieff, P. (1966) The Triumph of the Therapeutic: uses of faith after Freud (reprinted Penguin University Books, 1973, quoted by Pusey, 1980). Salter, B. & Tapper, T. (1981) Education, Politics and the State (London, Grant McIntyre). Sarup, M. (1982) Education, State and Crisis—a Marxist perspective (Henley, Routledge & Kegan Paul). Siebel, C. (1978) Les statistiques d’éducation et de formation (Paris, Ministère de l’Éducation), mimeo. Spencer, M.E. (1970) Weber on legitimate norms and authority, British Journal of Sociology, XXI. Weiler, H. (1981) Compensatory legitimation in educational policy: legalisation, expertise and participation in comparative perspective, paper given at the 10th Conference of the Comparative Education Society in Europe, Geneva, September. Wilby, P. (1979) Habermas and the language of the modern state, New Society, 22.3.79. Young, M. (1980) Paper on the new technologies given to International Sociology of Education Conference, Westhill College, Birmingham. Acker, S. (1987) Primary school teaching as an occupation, in: S. Delamont (Ed.) The Primary School Teacher (Lewes, Falmer Press). Alexander, R. (1984) Primary Teaching (London, Holt, Rinehart & Winston). Archer, M.S. (1979) Social Origins of Education Systems (London, Sage). Barnard, H. (1969) Education and the French Revolution (London, Cambridge University Press). Berlak, A. & Berlak, H. (1981) Dilemmas of Schooling (London, Methuen). Bernstein, B. (1977) On the classification and framing of educational knowledge, in: Class, Codes and Control, Vol. III (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul). Bolton, E. (1988) The National Curriculum: an overview. Paper presented to INOGOV conference, Birmingham. Bourdieu, P. & Passeron, W.C. (1977) Reproduction (London, Sage). Broadfoot, P.M. (1981) Constants and Contexts in Educational Accountability: a comparative study, Report to SSRC. Broadfoot, P.M. & Osborn, M.J. (1987) ‘French lessons: what comparative research can teach us about plans for a national curriculum’, The Times Educational Supplement, 3 July 1987. Calderhead, J. (1987) Exploring Teachers’ Thinking (London, Cassell). Crozier, M. (1970) The Stalled Society (New York, Viking). Durkheim, E. (1977) The Evolution of Educational Thought (transl. P. Collins) (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul). Grace, G. (1978) Teachers, Ideology and Control: a study in urban education (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul). Hoyle, E. (1980) Professionalisation and deprofessionalisation in education, in: E. Hoyle & J. Megarry (Eds) World Yearbook of Education 1980: professional development of teachers, pp. 42–54 (London, Kogan Page). Isambert-Jamati, V. (1984) Culture Technique et Critique Sociale à l’École Élémentaire (Paris, P.U.F. Pedagogie d’Aujourd’hui). Jackson, P.W. (1968) Life in Classrooms (Chicago, Holt, Rinehart & Winston). 18 References Keddie, N. (1971) Classroom knowledge, in: M.F.D. Young et al. (Eds) Knowledge and Control (London, Collier-Macmillan). King, R. (1978) All Things Bright and Beautiful? A sociological study of infants’ classrooms (Chichester, Wiley). Laqueur, T.W. (1973) ‘English and French education in the nineteenth century’, History of Education Quarterly, Spring, pp. 53–60. Liard, L. (1894) L’enseignement supérieur en France 1789–1893, Vol. II (Paris, Armand Colin). Mortimore, J. & Mortimore, P. (1986) Secondary Schools Examinations: the helpful servants not the dominating master, revd. edn., Bedford Way Papers, 18 (London, Institute of Education). Nias, J. (1986) ‘What it is to feel like a teacher’, paper given at a symposium on ‘Becoming and Being a Teacher’, BERA Conference, Bristol. Pollard, A. (1986) The Social World of the Primary School (London, Holt, Rinehart & Winston). Pollard, A. (1988) Social Constructivism and the Future of ‘Primary Education’. Paper presented at 1st CARIERA conference, St Lucia, April, 1988. Poppleton, P. (1986) The experience of teaching in ‘disadvantaged’ areas in the UK and USA. Paper given at a symposium on ‘Becoming and Being a Teacher’, BERA Conference, Bristol. Sharp, R. & Green, A. (1975) Education and Social Control (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul). Thomas, N. et al. (1985) Improving Primary Schools (London, ILEA). Webb, R.B. & Ashton, P.T. (1987) Teacher motivation and the conditions for teaching, in: S. Walker & L. Barton (Eds) Changing Policies, Changing Teachers (Milton Keynes, Open University Press). Zeichner, K.M., Tabachnick, B.R. & Densmore, K. (1987) Individual, institutional and cultural influences on the development of teachers: craft knowledge, in: J. Calderhead (Ed.), op. cit. Bernstein, B. (1975) Class, Codes and Control, Vol. 3: Towards a Theory of Educational Transmission. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Bernstein, B. (1990) The Structure of Pedagogic Discourse. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Department for Education/Welsh Office (1993)The Initial Training of Primary School Teachers: New Criteria for Course Approval. Draft Circular. London: DFE. Lukes, S. (1974) A Radical View of Power. London: Macmillan. Anderson, J. & Bachor, D. (1998) A Canadian perspective on portfolio use in student assessment, Assessment in Education, 5(3). ATL (1998) Take Care Mr Blunket! London: ATL. Archer, M. (1979) The Social Origin of Educational Systems. London: Sage. Bonnet, G. (Ed.) (1998) The effectiveness of the teaching of English in the European Union. Report of a colloquium, 20–21 October 1997, Paris, Ministère de L’Éducation Nationale. Bracey, G.W. (1996) International comparison and the condition of American education, Educational Researcher, 25, pp. 5–11. Broadfoot, P. (1992) Assessment developments, French Education Review, 44, pp. 309–316. Broadfoot, P. with Osborn, M., Planel, C. & Pollard, A. (1996) Assessment in French primary schools, The Curriculum Journal, 7(2), pp. 227–246. References 19 Broadfoot, P. & Osborn, M. with Gilly, M. & Paillet, A. (1993) Teachers’ conceptions of their professional responsibilities: some international comparisons, Comparative Education, 23(3), pp. 287–301. Broadfoot, P. & Osborn, M. with Gilly, M. & Paillet, A. (1988) What professional responsibility means to teachers: national contexts and classroom constants, British Journal of Sociology of Education, 9, pp. 265–287. Broadfoot, P. (1998) What Makes Primary Education Successful? Perspectives from a Comparative Study in European Education. New York: Sharpe. Broadfoot, P., Osborn, M., Gilly, M. & Brucher, A. (1993) Perceptions of Teaching: primary school teachers in England and France. London: Cassell. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979) The Ecology of Human Development: experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Brown, M. (1999) Problems of interpreting international comparative data, Oxford Studies in Comparative Education, 9(1), pp. 183–207. Budge, D. (1997) Maths failure lingers after curriculum revolution, The Times Educational Supplement, 13 June, p. 20, popular report on TIMSS findings. Crook, S.T. & Flockton, L. (1996) Science: assessment results 1995 National Education Monitoring report 1, 2 (Art) and 3 Graphs Tables and Maps. Education Assessment Resource Unit, University of Otago, New Zealand. Crossley, M. & Broadfoot, P. (1992) Comparative and international research in education: scope, problems and potential, British Educational Research Journal, 18, pp. 99–112. DfEE (1998) Numeracy Matters. The Preliminary Report of the Numeracy Task Force. London: DfEE. Federal Reserve Bank of New York (1998) Economic Policy Review, March. Firestone, W., Winter, J. & Fitz, J. (1998) Different Policies, Common Practice: mathematics assessment and teaching in the United States and England and Wales. Paper given to the American Educational Research Association Annual Conference, San Diego. Goldschmidt, P. & Eyerman, T. (1999) International educational performance in the United States: is there a problem that money can fix? Paper submitted to Comparative Education, 35(2). Goldstein, H. (1995) Interpreting International Comparisons of Student Achievement. Paris: UNESCO. Goldstein, H. (1996) Introduction, Assessment in Education, 3, pp. 125–128. Hanushek, E. (1989) The impact of differential expenditures on school performance, Educational Researcher, 8(4), pp. 45–51. Hargreaves, D. & Hopkins, D. (1991) The Empowered School: the management and practice of development planning. London: Cassell. Husen, T (1993) Schooling in modern Europe: exploring major issues and their ramifications,International Review of Education, 39, pp. 499–509. Jones, L.V. (1996) A history of the National Assessment of Educational Progress and some questions about its future, Educational Researcher, 25(7), pp. 15–22. Kellaghan, T. & Greaney, V. (1996) Monitoring the Learning Outcomes of Education Systems. New York: World Bank Books. Keys, W., Harris, S. & Fernandes, C. (1996) Third International Mathematics and Science Study: first national report. Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research. 20 References Lees, Lynn Hollen (1994) Educational inequality and academic achievement in England and France, Comparative Education Review, 38, pp. 65–87. Maehr, M.L. (1976) Continuing motivation: an analysis of a seldom considered educational outcome, Review of Educational Research, 46(3), pp. 443–462. Masters, N. & Forster, M. (1997) Mapping Literacy Achievement: results of the 1996 National School English Literacy Survey. Canberra: Department of Employment, Education Training and Youth Affairs. Mislevy, R.J. (1995) What can we learn from international assessments? Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 17, pp. 419–437. O’Leary, M., Madaus, G. & Kellaghan, T. (1997) The validity and stability of international comparative findings in mathematics and science: the IAEP TIMSS enigma. International Centre for Research Assessment (ICRA), London, 3–5 July. Osborn, M. & Broadfoot, P. (1992) A lesson in progress? Primary classrooms observed in England and France, Oxford Review of Education, 18, pp. 3–15. Osborn, M. and Broadfoot, P. (1993) Becoming and being a teacher: the influence of the national context, European Journal of Education, 28(1), pp. 105–116. Osborn, M. (1996) Being a pupil in England and France: findings from a comparative study. Paper presented at the 17th Comparative Education Society in Europe (CESE) International Conference, Athens. Osborn, M., Broadfoot, P., Planel, C. & Pollard, A. (1997) Social class, educational opportunity and equal entitlement: dilemmas of schooling in England and France, Comparative Education, 33, pp. 375–393. Phillips, D. (1989) Neither a borrower nor a lender be? The problems of cross- national attraction in education, Comparative Education, 25(3), pp. 267–274. Pollard, A., Broadfoot, P., Croll, P., Osborn, M. & Abbott, D. (1994) Changing English Primary Schools. London: Cassell. Reynolds, D. & Farrell, S. (1996) Worlds Apart: a review of international surveys of achievement involving England. London: Office for Standards in Education/ HMSO. Sharpe, K. (1992) Educational homogeneity in French primary education: a double case-study, British Journal of Sociology of Education, 13(3). Stake, R. & Theobald, P. (1991) Teachers’ views of testing impact on classrooms, in R. O’Sullivan (Ed.) Advances in Program Evaluation, Vol. 1. London: JAI Press. Stedman, L.C. (1997) International achievement differences: an assessment of a new perspective, Educational Researcher, 26(3), pp. 4–15. Thomas, N. (1985) Improving primary schools. Report of the Committee on Primary Education chaired by N. Thomas. ILEA. Winter, S. (1999) International comparisons of student achievement and the Asian educational phenomenon: a critical analysis, Comparative Education 35(2). Audiger, F. and Motta, D. (1998) The strange concept of affective education: a French perspective, in P. Lang (ed.) Affective Education: A Comparative View. London: Cassell. Bernstein, B. (1975) Class Codes and Control Volume 3: Towards a Theory of Educational Transmission. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Best, R. (1998) The development of affective education in England, in P. Lang (ed.) Affective Education: A Comparative View. London: Cassell. Bloomer, M. and Hodkinson, P. (2000) Continuity and change in young people’s dispositions to learning, British Education Research Journal, 25(2). References 21 Broadfoot, P. (2000) Comparative education for the twenty-first century: retrospect and prospect, Comparative Education, 36(3): 357–71. Broadfoot, P. and Osborn, M. (1992) French lessons: comparative perspectives on what it means to be a teacher, Oxford Studies in Comparative Education, 1: 69–88. Broadfoot, P., Osborn, M. and Planel, C. (1996) Teachers and change: a study of primary school teachers’ reactions to policy changes in England and France, in T. Winter-Jensen (ed.) Challenges to European Education: Cultural Values, National Identities and Global Responsibilities. Berne: Peter Lang. Broadfoot, P., Osborn, M., Planel, C. and Sharpe, K. (2000) Promoting Quality in Learning: Does England Have the Answer? London: Cassell. Bruner, J. (1996) The Culture of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Cousin, O. (1998) L’Efficacité des collèges: sociologie de I’effet établissement. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. Cox, T. and Sanders, S. (1994) The impact of the National Curriculum on the Teaching of Five Year Olds, London: Falmer Press. Csikszentmihalyi, M., Rathunde, K. and Whalen, S. (1993) Talented Teenagers: The Roots of Success and Failure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dale, R. (1999) Specifying globalization effects on national policy: a focus on the mechanisms, Journal of Education Policy, 14(1): 1–17. Dale, R. (2000) Globalization and education: demonstrating a ‘common world educational culture’ or locating a ‘globally structured educational agenda?’, Educational Theory, 50(4): 427–48. Dweck, C., Chiu, C. and Hong, Y. (1995) Implicit theories and their role in judgments and reactions: A world from two perspectives. Psychological Inquiry, 6: 267–285. Elliott, J., Hufton, N., Illushin, L. and Lauchlan, F. (2001) Motivation in the Junior Years: international perspectives on children’s attitudes, expectations and behaviour and their relationship to educational achievement, Oxford Review of Education, 27(1). Giddens, A. (1993) New Rules of Sociological Method. Cambridge: Polity Press. Glassman, M. (2001) Dewey & Vygotsky: society, experience and inquiry in educational practice, Education Researcher, 30(4): 3–15. Harlen, W. and Deakin Crick, R. (2003) ‘The impact of summative assessment on students’ motivation for learning’, Review of Research for Department of Education and Skills, Evidence for Policy & Practice Research Reviews. Hatcher, R. (2001) Education Action Zones and Zones d’Education Prioritaires. Paper presented at the University of the West of England, March. Hodkinson, P. and Bloomer, M. (2000) Stokingham Sixth Form College: institutional culture & dispositions to learning, British Journal of Sociology of Education 21(2): 187–202. Hofstede, G. (1991) Cultures and Organisation: Software of the Mind. London: McGraw-Hill. Hufton, N. and Elliott, J. (2000) Motivation to learn: the pedagogical values nexus in the Russian school: some implications for transnational research and policy borrowing, Educational Studies, 26(1): 115–36. Ireson, J. (2001) Pedagogic culture and learning activity. Paper presented at the Conference on Cultures of Learning, University of Bristol, 19–22 April. Kaplan, A., Gheen, M., Midgley, C. et al. (2002) ‘British Journal of Educational Psychology’ in The Times, 10 June, p. 4. 22 References Kenway, J. and Bullen, E. (2000) Education in the age of uncertainty: an Eagle’s edge view, Compare, 30(3): 265–275. Kryger, A. and Reisby, K. (1998) The Danish class teacher: a mediator between the pastoral and the academic, in P. Lang (ed.) Affective Education: A Comparative View. London: Cassell. Letendre, G., Baker, D., Akiba, M., Goesling, B. and Wiseman, A. (2001) Teachers’ work: institutional isomorphism and cultural variation in the US, Germany, and Japan, Educational Researcher, 30(6). Linn, M., Lewis, C., Tsuchida, I. and Butler-Songer, N. (2000) Beyond fourth-grade science: why do US and Japanese students diverge? Educational Researcher, 29(3). Meyer, J., Boli, J., Thomas, G. and Ramirez, F. (1997) World society and the nation- state, American Journal of Sociology, 103(1): 144–181. Pepin, B. and Haggarty, L. (2001) Mathematics Textbooks and Their Use in English French and German Classrooms, Economic and Social Research Council, Ref. No. R000 22 3046. Milton Keynes: Centre for Research and Development in Teacher Education, Open University. Pollard, A. and Filer, A. (1996) The Social World of Pupil Career in Primary School. London: Cassell. Pollard, A., Broadfoot, P., Croll, P., Osborn, M. and Abbott, D. (1994) Changing English Primary Schools? The Impact of the Education Reform Act at Key Stage One. London: Cassell. Ryan, A. and Patrick, H. (2001) The classroom social environment and changes in adolescents’ motivation and engagement during middle school, American Educational Research Journal, 38(2). Vygotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Adelman, H. (1973) The Holiversity. Toronto: New Press. Barnett, R. (1994) The Limits of Competence: knowledge, higher education and society. Society for Research into Higher Education (SRHE)/Open University Press. Bernstein, B. (1996) Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity. London: Taylor & Francis. Black, P. & Wiliam, D. (1998) Assessment and classroom learning, Assessment in Education, 5(2), pp. 7–75. Bogdanor, V. (1997) In checking we trust, The Times Higher Education Supplement, 21 November, p. 22. Broadfoot, P., James, M., McMeeking, S., Nuttall, D. & Stierer, B. (1987) Records of Achievement: report of the National Evaluation of Pilot Schemes. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. Broadfoot, P., Grant, M., James, M., Nuttall, D. & Stierer, B. (1991) Records of Achievement: report of the National Evaluation of Extension Work in Pilot Schemes. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. Broadfoot, P. (1984) The rationality of judgement, unpublished PhD thesis, The Open University. Broadfoot, P. (1996) Assessment, Education and Society. Buckingham: Open University Press. Broadfoot, P. & Pollard (1998) Categories, standards and instrumentalism: the changing discourse of assessment policy in English primary education, paper given at the American Educational Research Association, Annual Conference, San Diego, April. References 23 Brown, S. & Knight, P. (1994) Assessing Learners in Higher Education. London: Kogan Page. Coffield, F. (1997) Can the UK become a learning society? Fourth Annual Education Lecture, King’s College, London. Crooks, T. (1988) The impact of classroom evaluation practices on students, Review of Educational Research, 58, pp. 438–481. Dearing, R. (1997) Higher Education in the Learning Society. London: Stationery Office. Deem, R. (1998) ‘New Managerialism’ and higher education: the management of performances and cultures in universities in the United Kingdom, International Studies in Sociology of Education, 8(1), pp. 47–70. DfEE (1996) Learning to Compete: education and training for 14–19 year olds, cm3486. London: Stationery Office. DfEE (1997) Excellence in Schools. Government White Paper, HMSO. Dweck, C.S. (1975) The role of expectations and attributions in the alleviation of learned helplessness, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, pp. 580–592. Dweck, C.S. & Leggett, E.L. (1988) A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality, Psychological Review, 95, pp. 256–273. Elliott, J. (1996) School effectiveness research and its critics: alternative visions of schooling, Cambridge Journal of Education, 26, pp. 199–224. Feyerabend, H. (1987) Farewell to Reason. London: Verso. Fryer (1997) The Times Educational Supplement, 28 November, p. 21. Hanson (1993) Testing, Testing: social consequences of the unexamined life. Berkeley: University of California Press. Harris, K. (1979) Education and Knowledge. Cited by Barnett, op cit. London: Routledge. Higher Education Quality Council (1997) Assessment in Higher Education and the Role of Graduateness. London: HEQC. Hinett, K. (1995) Fighting the assessment war: the idea of assessment-in- learning, Quality in Higher Education, 12, pp. 211–221. Holmes, E. (1911) What Is and What Might Be. London: Butterworth. James, D. (1997) Making the graduate: assessment events as social practices, British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, York, September. Macdonald, B. (1996) How education became nobody’s business, Cambridge Journal of Education, 26, pp. 241–249. Madaus, G. (1994) Testing’s place in society: an essay review of Testing Testing: social consequences of the examined life by F. Allen Harrison, American Journal of Education, 102, pp. 222–234. Meadmore, D. (1998) Changing the culture: the governance of the Australian pre-millennial university, International Studies in Sociology of Education, 8, pp. 27–45. Miller, C. & Parlett, M. (1974) Up to the Mark. London: Society for Research into Higher Education. Mortimore, P. & Whitty, G. (1997) Can School Improvement Overcome the Effects of Disadvantage? London: Institute of Education. National Advisory Group for Continuing Education and Lifelong Learning (1997) Learning for the 21st Century. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. 24 References National Record of Achievement Review Group (1997) Report of the Steering Group. London: Stationery Office. Neave, G. (1988) On the cultivation of quality, efficiency and enterprise: an overview of recent trends in higher education in Western Europe, 1986–88. European Journal of Education, 23, pp. 7–23. Power, M. (1997) The audit society: rituals of verification, Quality in Higher Education, 1, pp. 211–222. Royal Society of Arts (RSA) (1997) Learning for Life: A Vision for Learning in the 21st Century. London: RSA. Sadler, R. (1997a) Letting learners into the secret, Departmental Seminar, University of Bristol Graduate School of Education, July. Sadler, R. (1997b) University grading policies: international standards, ICRA conference paper, University of London Institute of Education, July. Self Assessment and Higher Education Project (SAPHE) (1997) Annual Report to Higher Education Funding Council. Spours, K. (1995) Post-16 Participation, Attainment and Progression, Post-16 Education Centre Working paper no. 17. London: Institute of Education, University of London. Triggs, P., Pollard, A., with Broadfoot, P., McNess, M. & Osborn, M. (1997) Pupils and classrooms, presentation to British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, York, September. Wilby, P. (1997) Stopping the clock on inequality will not stem it, The Times Educational Supplement, 28 November, p. 21. Young, M., Howieson, C., Raffe, D. & Spours, K. (1977) Unifying academic and vocational learning and the idea of a learning society, Journal of Education Policy, 12, pp. 527–537. Bernstein, B. (1975) Class, Codes and Control, Vol. III, London: Routledge. —— (1990) Class, Codes and Control, Vol. IV, London: Routledge. —— (1996) Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity, London: Taylor & Francis. Broadfoot, P. (1996) Education, Assessment and Society, Buckingham: Open University Press. Chubb, J. and Moe, T. (1992) Politics, Markets and America’s Schools, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution. Croll, P. (ed.) (1996) Teachers, Pupils and Primary Schooling, London: Cassell. Croll, P., Abbott, D., Broadfoot, P., Osborn, M. and Pollard, A. (1994) ‘Teachers and Educational Policy: Roles and Models’, British Journal of Educational Studies 42(2): 333–47. Department of Education and Science (1967) Children and Their Primary Schools, Report of the Plowden Committee, London: HMSO. DfEE (1997) Excellence in Schools, London: DfEE. —— (1998) The Learning Age: A Renaissance for a New Britain, London: DfEE. Elliott, J. (1996) ‘Quality Assurance, the Educational Standards Debate, and the Commodification of Educational Research’, Curriculum Journal 8(6): 63–83. Feyerabend, P. (1987) Farewell to Reason, London: Verso. Firestone, W., Winter, J. and Fitz, J. (1998) ‘Different Policies, Common Practice: Mathematics Assessment and Teaching in the United States and England and Wales’, AERA, San Diego. Gray, J. (1990) ‘The Quality of Schooling: Frameworks for Judgement’, British Journal of Educational Studies 38(3): 204–23. References 25 Hanson, F. Allan (1993) Testing Testing: Social Consequences of the Examined Life, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press HMI (1978) Primary Education in England, London: HMSO. Keys, W., Harris, S. and Fernandes, C. (1997) Patterns of Mathematics and Science Teaching in Upper Primary Schools in England and Eight Other Countries, The Third International Mathematics and Science Study 2nd National Report, Slough: NFER. Lyotard, J.F. (1979) The Post-Modern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, Manchester: Manchester University Press, xxv, 31–7. Madaus, G.F. (1994) ‘Testing’s Place in Society: An Essay Review of “Testing Testing: Social Consequences of the Examined Life”, by F.A. Hanson’, American Journal of Education 102: 222–34. Pollard, A. (1997) ‘Learning and a New Curriculum for Primary Schooling’, paper presented to the SCAA conference on Developing the Primary School Curriculum: The Next Steps, June, London: SCAA. Pollard, A., Broadfoot, P., Croll, P., Osborn, M. and Abbott, D. (1994) Changing English Primary Schools? The Impact of the Education Reform Act at Key Stage One, London: Cassell. Pollard, A., Broadfoot, P., Osborn, M., McNess, E., Triggs, P. and Noble, J. (1997) ‘Primary Assessment, Curriculum and Experience’, symposium papers, British Educational Research Association, York. Pollard, A. and Triggs, P., with Broadfoot, P., McNess, E. and Osborn, M. (2000) Policy Practice and Pupil Experience: Changing English Primary Education, London: Cassell. Whitty, G., Power, S. and Halpin, D. (1998) Devolution and Choice in Education: The School, the State and the Market, Buckingham: Open University Press. Airasian, P. W. & Gregory, K. D. (1997) The Education Reform Act of 1998 (Review essay), Assessment in Education, 4(2), 307–314. American Educational Research Association (AERA)/American Psychological Association (APA)/National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME) (1999) Standards for educational and psychological testing (Washington DC, AERA). Bachor, D. G. & Anderson, J. O. (1994) Elementary teachers’ assessment practices as observed in the province of British Columbia, Canada, Assessment in Education, 1(1), 63–94. Baker, E. L. & O’Neil, H. F. (1994) Performance assessment and equity: a view from the USA, Assessment in Education, 1(1), 11–26. Baumgart, N. & Halse, C. (1999) Approaches to learning across cultures: the role of assessment, Assessment in Education, 6(3), 321–339. Beattie, N. (1996) Interview and concours: teacher appointment procedures in England and Wales and France, and what they mean, Assessment in Education, 3(1), 9–28. Black, P. & Wiliam, D. (1998) Assessment and classroom learning, Assessment in Education, 5(1), 1–74. Blum, A., Goldstein, H. & Guerin-Pace, F. (2001) International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS): an analysis of international comparisons of adult literacy, Assessment in Education, 8(2), 225–246. Bray, M. (1998) National self-determination and international dependence: the organisation and control of secondary school examinations in the small states of the Commonwealth, Assessment in Education, 5(2), 151–173. 26 References Broadfoot, P. (1998) Records of achievement and the learning society: a tale of two discourses, Assessment in Education, 5(3), 447–477. Broadfoot, P. (2001) Editorial: new wine in old bottles? The challenge of change for educational assessment, Assessment in Education, 8(2), 109–112. Brookhart, S. M. & Bronowicz, D. L. (2003) ‘I don’t like writing. It makes my fingers hurt’: students talk about their classroom assessments, Assessment in Education, 10(2), 221–242. Brown, M. (1996) FIMS and SIMS: the first two IEA International Mathematics Surveys, Assessment in Education, 3(2), 193–212. Cowie, B. & Bell, B. (1999) A model of formative assessment in science education, Assessment in Education, 6(1), 101–116. Cresswell, M. J. (1994) Aggregation and awarding methods for National Curriculum assessments in England and Wales: a comparison of approaches proposed for Key Stages 3 and 4, Assessment in Education, 3(1), 45–61. Crooks, T., Kane, M. T. & Cohen, A. S. (1996) Threats to the valid use of assessment, Assessment in Education, 3(3), 265–286. Davies, P. (2002) Levels of attainment in geography, Assessment in Education, 9(2), 185–204. Dore, R. (1976) The diploma disease (London, Unwin). Eckstein, M. A. & Noah, H. J. (1993) Secondary school examinations: international perspectives on policies and practice (New Haven, CT, Yale University Press). Firestone, W. A. (1998) A tale of two tests: tensions in assessment policy, Assessment in Education, 5(2), 175–191. Gardner, J. & Cowan, P. (2000) Testing the test; a study of the reliability and validity of the Northern Ireland transfer procedure test in enabling the selection of pupils for grammar school places (Belfast, Queen’s University of Belfast). Gilbert, J. (1996) Developing an assessment stance in primary art education in England, Assessment in Education, 3(1), 55–74. Gipps, C. (1995) What do we mean by equity in relation to assessment? Assessment in Education, 2(3), 271–282. Harlen, W. & Deakin-Crick, R. (2003) Testing and motivation for learning, Assessment in Education, 10(2), 169–208. Harlen, W. & James, M. (1997) Assessment and learning: differences and relationships between formative and summative assessment, Assessment in Education, 4(3), 365–379. Husen, T. & Postlethwaite, T. N. (1996) A brief history of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), Assessment in Education, 3(2), 129–142. Jewitt, C. (2003) Re-thinking assessment: multimodality, literacy and computer- mediated learning, Assessment in Education, 10(1), 83–102. Johnson, D. (2003) Activity theory, mediated action and literacy: assessing how children make meaning in multiple modes, Assessment in Education, 10(1), 103–129. Kellaghan, T. (1996) IEA studies and educational policy, Assessment in Education, 3(2), 143–160. Kellaghan, T. & Greaney, V. (2001) The globalisation of assessment in the twentieth century, Assessment in Education, 8(1), 87–102. Klenowski, V. (1995) Student self-evaluation processes in student-centred teaching and learning contexts of Australia and England, Assessment in Education, 2(2), 145–164. References 27 Koretz, D. (1998) Large-scale portfolio assessments in the US: evidence pertaining to the quality of measurement, Assessment in Education, 5(3), 309–334. Kuhn, T. (1962) The structure of scientific revolutions (Chicago, IL, University of Chicago Press). Madaus, G. F., Clarke, M. & O’Leary, M. (1997) The kaleidoscope of assessment: disciplinary angles (Review essay), Assessment in Education, 4(3), 431–438. Mavrommatis, Y. (1997) Understanding assessment in the classroom: phases of the assessment process—the assessment episode, Assessment in Education, 4(3), 381–400. McDonald, B. & Boud, D. (2003) The impact of self assessment on achievement: the effects of self assessment training on performance in external examinations, Assessment in Education, 10(2), 209–220. Messick, S. (1989) Validity, in: R. L. Linn (Ed.) Educational measurement (3rd edn) (London, Collier Macmillan), 12–103. Moni, K. B., van Kraayeenoord, C. & Baker, C. D. (2002) Students’ perceptions of literacy assessment, Assessment in Education, 9(3), 319–342. Morgan, C. (1996) The teacher as examiner: the case of mathematics coursework, Assessment in Education, 3(3), 353–376. Morgan, T. (2001) Assessment in Roman education, Assessment in Education, 8(1), 11–24. Morrison, K. & Tang Fun Hei, J. (2002) Testing to destruction: a problem in a small state, Assessment in Education, 9(3), 289–317. Murphy, P. (1995) Sources of inequity: understanding students’ responses to assessment, Assessment in Education, 2(3), 249–270. Murphy, P. (1996) The IEA assessment of science achievement, Assessment in Education, 3(2), 213–232. National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME) (1995) Code of professional responsibilities in educational assessment. Reproduced in Assessment in Education, 3(3), 401–411. Newfield, D., Andrew, D., Stein, P. & Maungedzo, R. (2003) ‘No number can describe how good it was’: assessment issues in the multi-modal classroom, Assessment in Education, 10(1), 61–81. Paechter, C. (1995) ‘Doing the best for the students’: dilemmas and decisions in carrying out statutory assessment tasks, Assessment in Education, 2(1), 39–52. Preece, P. F. W. & Skinner, M. C. (1999) The national assessment in science at Key Stage 3 in England and Wales and its impact on teaching and learning, Assessment in Education, 6(1), 11–26. Rogers, T. W. (1996) Principles for fair student assessment practices for education in Canada, Assessment in Education, 3(3), 397–400. Rogosa, D. (1999) How accurate are the STAR national percentile rank scores for individual students?—An interpretive guide. CSE Technical Report 509a (Los Angeles, CA, CRESST). Available online at: http://www.cse.ucla.edu/products/ reports_set.htm Rowe, J. R. & Hill, P. W. (1996) Assessing, recording and reporting students’ educational progress: the case for ‘subject profiles’, Assessment in Education, 3(3), 309–352. Sadler, R. (1994) Examinations and merit (Review of Secondary school examinations by M. A. Eckstein & H. J. Noah), Assessment in Education, 1, 115–120. 28 References Sebatane, E. M. (1994) Enhancement of teacher capacities and capabilities in school-based assessment: Lesotho experience, Assessment in Education, 1(2), 223–234. Shen, C. (2002) Revisiting the relationship between students’ achievement and their self-perceptions: a cross-national analysis based on TIMSS 1999 data, Assessment in Education, 9(2), 161–184. Shen, C. & Pedulla, J. J. (2000) The relationships between students’ achievement and self-perception of competence and rigour of mathematics and science, Assessment in Education, 7(2), 237–254. Speedy, J., Winter, J., Broadfoot, P., Thomas, J. & Cooper, B. (2003) Researching assessment cultures, re-searching ourselves, in: R. Sutherland, G. Claxton & A. Pollard (Eds) Learning and teaching where worldviews meet (Stoke-on-Trent, Trentham Books), 255–271. Stecher, B. (1998) The local benefits and burdens of large-scale portfolio assessment, Assessment in Education, 5(3), 335–352. Thomas, S., Madaus, G. F., Raczek, A. E. & Smees, R. (1998) Comparing teachers’ assessment and standard task results in England: the relationship between pupils’ characteristics and attainment, Assessment in Education, 5(2), 213–246. Torrance, H. & Pryor, J. (1995) Investigating teacher assessment in infant classrooms: methodological problems and emerging issues, Assessment in Education, 2(3), 305–320. Yair, G. (1997) When classrooms matter: implications of between-classroom variability for educational policy in Israel, Assessment in Education, 4(2), 225–248. Abbott, J. (1998) ‘Why Good Schools Alone Will Never Be Enough’ The Journal of the 21st Century Learning Initiative (March). Letchworth, Herts, UK. Assessment Reform Group (ARG) (1999) Assessment for Learning: Beyond the black box (http:www.assessment-reform-group.org.uk). Assessment Reform Group (ARG) (2002) Assessment for Learning: 10 principles (http:www.assessment-reform-group.org.uk). Bandura, A. (1977) Social Learning Theory Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Black, P. (2003) ‘Assessment for learning-lessons from research and from practice’ Presentation at Beyond Exams conference, 19 November 2003, Bristol. Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B. and Wiliam, D. (2003) Assessment for Learning Maidenhead: Open University Press. Black, P. and Wiliam, D. (1998) ‘Assessment and Classroom Learning’ Assessment in Education Volume 5, Number 1, pp. 7–74. Boekaerts, M. (2002) Motivation to Learn Educational Practices, series 10 Geneva: International Academy of Education. Boud, D. (2002) ‘Sustainable Assessment: Re-thinking assessment for the learning society’ Studies in Continuing Education Volume 22, Number 2, pp. 151–67. Broadfoot, P. (2003) ‘Thinking About Feeling: Transforming learning through assessment’ invited keynote address. Challenges and Issues in Educational Evaluation Conference, University of the West Indies/Caribbean Examinations Council, Barbados. Crooks, T. (1988) ‘The Impact of Classroom Evaluation Practices on Students’ Review of Educational Research Volume 58, Number 4 (Winter), pp. 438–81. Crooks, T. (2001) ‘The Validity of Formative Assessments’ British Educational Research Association Conference, Leeds (September). References 29 Csikszentmihalyi, M. K. et al. (1993) The Roots of Success and Failure Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dann, R. (2002) Promoting Assessment as Learning: Improving the Learning Process London: RoutledgeFalmer. Deakin-Crick, R. (2004) ‘The Evaluating Lifelong Learning Inventory (ELLI) Project; Final Report’, University of Bristol mimeo. Deakin-Crick, R., Broadfoot, P. and Claxton, G. (2004) ‘Developing an Effective Lifelong Learning Inventory’ Assessment in Education Volume 11, Number 3, pp. 248–72. Dweck, C. (1989) ‘Motivation’ in Lesgold, A. and Glazer, R. (eds) Foundations for a Psychology of Education Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Earl, L. M. (2003) Assessment as Learning Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Harlen, W. (ed.) (1994) Enhancing Quality in Assessment London: Paul Chapman. Harlen, W. and Deakin-Crick, R. (2002) Testing Motivation and Learning Cambridge: Assessment Reform Group Cambridge University School of Education. Harlen, W. and Deakin-Crick, R. (2003) ‘The Impact of Summative Assessment on Students’ Motivation for Learning’ Assessment in Education Volume 10, Number 1. Harlen, W. and James, M. (1997) ‘Assessment and Learning: Differences and relationships between formative and summative assessment’ Assessment in Education Volume 4, Number 3, pp. 365–79. Hufton, N., Elliot, J. and lllushin, L. (2006) ‘Teachers’ Beliefs About Student Motivation: Similarities and differences across cultures’ Comparative Education. Jackson, N. (2001) ‘Personal Development Planning: What does it mean?’ PDP Working Paper 1, Version 4 (June), York: LTSN. McGettrick, B. (2002) personal communication. McGuiness, C. (1999) From Thinking Schools to Thinking Classrooms: A review and evaluation of approaches for developing pupils’ thinking DfEE Research Report 115. McMeniman, M. (1989) ‘Motivation to Learn’ in Langford, P. (ed.) Educational Psychology: An Australian perspective Longman. Madaus, G. (1993) ‘A National Testing System: Manna from above? An historical/technological perspective’ Educational Assessment Volume 1, Number 1, pp. 9–26. Madaus, G. and Clark, M. (2001) ‘The Adverse Impact of High-Stakes Testing on Minority Students: Evidence from 100 Years of’ in G. Orfield and M. Kornhaber (eds) Raising Standards or Raising Barriers? Inequality and High-Stakes Testing in Public Education New York: The Century Foundation. Merrett, J. and Merrett, F. (1992) ‘Classroom Management for Project Work: An application of correspondence training’ Educational Studies Volume 18. Mislevy, R. J., Yamamoto, K. and Anacker, S. (1991) Towards a Test Theory for Assessing Student Understanding ETS Princeton Research Report. Osborn, M., Broadfoot, P., McNess, E., Planel, C., Ravn, B. and Triggs, P. (2003) A World of Difference? Comparing learners across Europe Maidenhead: Open University Press. Pollard, A., Broadfoot, P., Croll, P., Osborn, M. and Abbott, D. (1994) Changing English Primary Schools? The impact of the Education Reform Act at Key Stage One London: Cassell. 30 References Pollard, A., Triggs, P. with Broadfoot, P. and McNess, E. (2000) What Pupils Say: Changing policy and practice in primary education London: Cassell. Quicke, J. and Winter, C. (1994) ‘Teaching the Language of Learning: Towards a meta-cognitive approach to pupil empowerment’ British Educational Research Journal Volume 20, pp. 429–45. Ryan, A. and Patrick, H. (2001) ‘The Classroom Social Environment and Changes in Adolescents’ Motivation and Engagement During Middle School’ American Educational Research Journal Volume 38, p. 2. Sadler, D. R. (1989) ‘Formative Assessment and the Design of Instructional Systems’ Instructional Science Volume 18, pp. 119–44. Torrance, H. and Coultas, J. (2004) Do Summative Assessment and Testing Have a Positive Effect on Post-16 Learners? Motivation for earning in the learning and skills sector – a review of the research literature on assessment in post-compulsory education in the UK London: Learning and Skills Research Centre. Vygotsky, L. (1978) Mind in Society Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Watkins, C. with Carnell, E., Lodge, C., Wagner, P. and Whalley, C. (2001) ‘Learning About Learning Enhances Performance’ NSIN Research Matters 13. Weeden, P., Winter, J. and Broadfoot, P. (2002) Assessment: What’s in it for Schools? London: RoutledgeFalmer. Attwood, R. & Radnofsky, L. (2007) Satisfied—but students want more feedback, Times Higher Education, 14 September. Available online at: https://www. timeshighereducation.com/news/satisfied-but-students-want-more-feedback/ 310440 (accessed 25 September 2015). Baillie, S., Crossan, A., Brewster, S., May, S. & Mellor, D. (2010) Evaluating an automated haptic simulator designed for veterinary students to learn bovine rectal palpation, Simulation in Healthcare, 5(5), 261–266. Baillie, S., Mellor, D., Brewster, S. & Reid, S. W. J. (2005) Integrating a bovine rectal palpation simulator into an undergraduate veterinary curriculum, Journal of Veterinary Medical Education, 32(1), 85–91. Barab, S., Dodge, T., Tuzun, H., Job-Sluder, K., Jackson, C., Arici, A., Job-Sluder, L., Carteaux, R. Jr, Gilbertson, J. & Heiselt, C. (2007) The Quest Atlantis Project: A socially responsive play space for learning, in: B. E. Shelton & D. Wiley (Eds) The Educational Design and Use of Simulation Computer Games (Rotterdam, Sense Publishers), 159–186. Barbera, E. (2009) Mutual feedback in e-portfolio assessment: An approach to the netfolio system, British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(2), 342–357. Barton, M. D. & Heiman, J. R. (2012) Process, product, and potential: The archaeo- logical assessment of collaborative, wiki-based student projects in the technical communication classroom, Technical Communication Quarterly, 21, 46–60. Bayne, S. (2015) What’s the matter with ‘technology-enhanced learning’?, Learning, Media and Technology, 40(1), 5–20. Becta (2007) Impact study of e-portfolios on learning. A Becta report. Available online at: http://www.teachfind.com/becta/becta-research-research-reports-and- publications-impact-e-portfolios-learning (accessed 25 September 2015). Becta (2008) Harnessing technology Report 2. Available online at: http://dera.ioe. ac.uk/1550/1Z becta_2008_htssdata_report.pdf (accessed 25 September 2015). Beevers, C. (Ed.) (2011) What can e-assessment do for learning and teaching? Part 1 of a draft of current and emerging practice review by the e-Assessment Association expert panel. International Journal of e-Assessment, 1(2). References 31 Bennett, R. E. (2008) Technology for large-scale assessment. ETS Report No. RM- 08-10 (Princeton, NJ, Educational Testing Service). Bennett, S. & Barker, T. (2012) The use of electronic voting and peer assessment to encourage the development of higher order thinking skills in learners, International Journal of e-Assessment, 2(1). Black, P. & Wiliam, D. (1998) Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessment (King’s College London School of Education). Black, P. & Wiliam, D. (2006) Assessment for learning in the classroom, in: J. Gardner (Ed.) Assessment and learning (London, Sage). Blin, F. & Munro, M. (2008) Why hasn’t technology disrupted academics’ teaching practices? Understanding resistance to change through the lens of activity theory, Computers and Education, 50(2), 475–490. Bonderup Dohn, N. (2009) Web 2.0: Inherent tensions and evident challenges for education, International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 4(3), 343–363. Boud, D. & Falchikov, N. (2007) Rethinking assessment in higher education: Learning for the longer term (London, Routledge). Boud, D. & Molloy, E. (Eds) (2013) Feedback in higher and professional education. Understanding it and doing it well (Abingdon, Oxon, Routledge). Boyd, D. (2011) White flight in networked publics? How race and class shaped American teen engagement with MySpace and Facebook, in: L. Nakamura & P. Chow (Eds) White race after the Internet (Abingdon, Oxon, Routledge), 203– 222. Available online at www.danah.org/papers/2011/WhiteFlight.pdf (accessed 25 September 2015). Broadfoot, P. (2007) An introduction to assessment (London, Continuum). Buckingham, D. (2013) Beyond technology: Children’s learning in the age of digital culture (Chichester, John Wiley). Buckingham Shum, S. (2012) Our learning analytics are our pedagogy, Keynote address presented at the Expanding Horizons 2012 Conference, Macquarie University. Available online at: http://www.slideshare.net/sbs/our-learninganalytics-are-our-pedagogy (accessed 25 September 2015). Bull, J. & Danson, M. (2004) Computer assisted assessment (CAA) (York, Learning and Teaching Support Network). Claxton, G. (2007) Expanding young people’s capacity to learn, British Journal of Educational Studies, 55(2), 115–134. Claxton, G. (2009) Cultivating positive learning dispositions, in: H. Daniels, H. Lauder & J. Porter (Eds) Educational theories, cultures and learning: A critical perspective (London, Routledge). Coulby, C., Laxton, J., Boomer, S., Davies, N. & Murphy, K. (2010) Mobile technology and assessment—a case study from the ALPS programme, in: N. Pachler, C. Pimmer & J. Seipold (Eds) Work-based mobile learning: concepts and cases. A handbook for academics and practitioners (Oxford, Peter Lang). Dawson, S. (2010) ‘Seeing’ the learning community: An exploration of the development of a resource for monitoring online student networking, British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(5), 736–752. De Alfaro, L. & Shavlovsky, M. (2013) CrowdGrader: A tool for crowdsourcing the evaluation of homework assignments, SIGCSE 2013. doi: 10.1145/ 2538862.2538900. University of California – Santa Cruz. Available online at: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/5ds8139g (accessed 25 September 2015). 32 References Deneen, C. & Boud, D. (2014) Patterns of resistance in managing assessment change, Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 39(5), 577–591. doi:10.1080/ 02602938.2013.859654. Draper, S. (2009a) Catalytic assessment: Understanding how MCQs and EVS can foster deep learning, British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(2), 285–293. Draper, S. (2009b) What are learners actually regulating when giving feedback?, British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(2), 306–315. Durose, C., Beebeejaun, Y., Rees, J., Richardson, J. & Richardson, L. (2011) Towards co-production in research with communities, AHRC Connected Communities Programme Scoping Studies (London, AHRC). Eurydice (2009) National testing of pupils in Europe: Objectives, organisation and use of results. A report for the Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency (Brussels, Eurydice). Facer, K. (2011) Learning futures: Education, technology and social change (Abingdon, Oxon, Routledge). Facer, K. (2012) Taking the 21st century seriously: Young people, education and socio-technical futures, Oxford Review of Education, 38(1), 97–113. Falchikov, N. & Goldfinch, J. (2000) Student peer assessment in higher education: A metaanalysis comparing peer and teacher marks, Review of Educational Research, 70(3), 287–323. Ferguson, R. (2012) The state of learning analytics in 2012: A review and future challenges. Technical Report KMI-12-01, Knowledge Media Institute (Milton Keynes, The Open University). Available online at: http://kmi.open.ac.uk/ publications/techreport/kmi-12-01 (accessed 25 September 2015). Ferrell, G. (2012) A view of the assessment and feedback landscape: Baseline analysis of policy and practice from the JISC Assessment & Feedback programme. A JISC report. Available online at: http://www.jisc.ac.uk (accessed 25 September 2015). Foley, B. & Goldstein, H. (2012) Measuring success: League tables in the public sector (London, British Academy). Garrett, N. (2011) An eportfolio design supporting ownership, social learning, and ease of use, Educational Technology & Society, 14(1), 187–202. Gatten, E. (2010) Arm our children with media studies, The Guardian, 16 April 2010. Available online at: http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/apr/ 16/children-media-studies (accessed 25 September 2015). Gee, J. P. & Shaffer, D. W. (2010) Looking where the light is bad: Video games and the future of assessment, Edge: The Latest Information for the Education Practitioner, 6(1), 3–19. Hamer, J., Kell, C. & Spence, F. (2007) Peer assessment using Aropa, paper presented at the Ninth Australasian Computing Education Conference (ACE2007), Ballarat, Victoria, Australia, February 2007. Conferences in Research and Practice in Information Technology (CRPIT), Vol. 66 (Sydney, CRPIT). Hancock, T. M. (2010) Use of audience response systems for summative assessment in large classes, Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 26(2), 226–237. Hattie, J. & Brown, G. T. L. (2008) Technology for school-based assessment and assessment for learning: Development principles from New Zealand, Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 36(2), 189–201. Hattie, J. & Timperley, H. (2007) The power of feedback, Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112. References 33 Hendry, E. (2009) Duke Professor Uses ‘Crowdsourcing’ to Grade, The Chronicle of Higher Education, 30 July 2009. Available online at: http://chronicle.com/blogs/ wiredcampus/duke-professor-uses-crowdsourcing-to-grade/7538 (accessed 25 September 2015). Hickey, D. T., Ingram-Goble, A. A. & Jameson, E. M. (2009) Designing assessments and assessing designs in virtual educational environments, Journal of Science Education and Technology, 18(2), 187–208. Honey, M., Fasca, C., Gersick, A., Mandinach, E. & Sinha, S. (2005) Assessment of 21st Century Skills: The Current Landscape. A Partnership for 21st Century Skills report. Available online at: http://acrn.ovae.org/counselortk/docs/Assessment%20 of%2021st%20Century%20Skills.pdf (accessed 25 September 2015). Hughes, G. (2009) Social software: New opportunities for challenging social inequalities in learning?, Learning, Media and Technology, 34(4), 291–305. Hutchinson, C. & Hayward, L. (2005) The journey so far: Assessment for learning in Scotland, Curriculum Journal, 16(2), 225–248. doi:10.1080/ 09585170500136184. James, D. (2014) Investigating the curriculum through assessment practice in higher education: The value of a ‘learning cultures’ approach, Higher Education, 67(2), 155–169. Jenkins, H., Clinton, K., Purushotma, R., Robison, A. J. & Weigel, M. (2006) Confronting the challenges of participatory culture: Media education for the 21st century. A MacArthur Foundation report. Available online at: https://www. macfound.org/press/publications/white-paper-confronting-the-challenges-of- participatory-culture-media-education-for-the-21st-century-by-henry-jenkins/ (accessed 25 September 2015). Jones, C. (2013) The digital university: A concept in need of definition, in: R. Goodfellow & M. Lea (Eds) Literacy in the digital university: Critical perspectives on learning, scholarship, and technology (Abingdon, Oxon, Routledge), 162–172. Levin, D., Fletcher, G. & Chau, Y. (2011) Technology requirements for large-scale computer-based and online assessment: Current status and issues [Washington, DC, State Educational Technology Directors Association (SETDA)]. Available online at: http://www.setda.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/large-scale_ techrequirements_june22_combined.pdf (accessed 25 September 2015). Losh, L. (2012) Learning from failure: Feminist dialogues on technology, Part II. A blog post. Available online at: http://dmlcentral.net/learning-from-failure- feminist-dialogues-on-technology-part-ii/ (accessed 25 September 2015). Mansell, W. (2009) Why hasn’t e-assessment arrived more quickly?, The Guardian, 21 July 2009. Available online at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2009/jul/ 21/online-exams-schools (accessed 25 September 2015). McAlpine, M. (2012) Collaborative assessment and the assessment of collaboration, International Journal of e-Assessment, 2(2). Metcalf, S., Dede, C., Grotzer, T. & Kamarainen, A. (2010) EcoMUVE: Design of virtual environments to address science learning goals, paper presented at the American Educational Research Association (AERA) Conference, Denver, CO, May 2010. Mogey, N. (2011) What is it that is really acting as a barrier to widespread use of summative e- assessment in UK higher education?, International Journal of e-Assessment, 1(1). 34 References Morris, A. (2011) Student standardised testing: Current practices in OECD countries and a literature review, OECD Education Working Paper No. 65. Nicol, D. & Macfarlane-Dick, D. (2006) Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: A model and seven principles of good feedback practice, Studies in Higher Education, 31(2), 199–218. Oldfield, A., Broadfoot, P., Sutherland, R. & Timmis, S. (2012)Assessment in a digital age: a research review, Graduate School of Education, University of Bristol. Available online at: http://www.bristol.ac.uk/education/research/sites/tea/ publications/index.html (accessed 25 September 2015). Pellegrino, J. W. & Quellmalz, E. S. (2010) Perspectives on the integration of technology and assessment, Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 43(2), 119–134. Prins, F. J., Sluijsmans, D. M. A., Kirschner, P. A. & Strijbos, J. (2005) Formative peer assessment in a CSCL environment: A case study, Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 30(4), 417–444. QCA (2004) Blueprint for e-assessment. Available online at: http://webarchive. nationalarchives.gov.uk/20080602144057/http://www.qca.org.uk/qca_5412. aspx (accessed 25 September 2015). Quellmalz, E. S., Davenport, J. & Timms, M. (2012) 21st century science assessments. Working Paper (San Francisco, WestEd). Available online at: http://simscientist. org/downloads/AAAS_2012_Quellmalz.pdf (accessed 25 September 2015). Quellmalz, E. S. & Pellegrino, J. W. (2009) Technology and testing, Science, 323, 75–79. Reimers, F. M. (2013) Assessing global education: An opportunity for the OECD (Paris, OECD). Available online at: http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/ Global-Competency.pdf (accessed 25 September 2015). Ripley, M. (2007) E-assessment—an update on research, policy and practice: Report 10 update (Bristol, Futurelab). Available online at: http://archive.futurelab.org.uk/ resources/publications-reports-articles/literature-reviews/Literature-Review204 (accessed 25 September 2015). Robinson, K. (2006) Do schools kill creativity?, paper presented at the Technology, Entertainment and Design Conference (TED2006), Monterey, CA. Säljö, R. (2010) Digital tools and challenges to institutional traditions of learning: technologies, social memory and the performative nature of learning, Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26(1), 53–64. Schwartz, D. L. & Arena, D. (2009) Choice-based assessments for the digital age (Stanford, CA, Stanford University). Available online at: http://dmlcentral.net/ wp-content/uploads/files/Choice-SchwartzArenaAUGUST232009.pdf (accessed 25 September 2015). Sharples, M., Scanlon, E., Ainsworth, S., Anastopoulou, S., Collins, T., Crook, C., Jones, A., Kerawalla, L., Littleton, K. & O’Malley, C. (2015). Personal inquiry: Orchestrating science investigations within and beyond the classroom. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 24(2), 308–341. Shute, V. J. & Kim, Y. J. (2013) Formative and stealth assessment, in: J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. Elen & M. J. Bishop (Eds) Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (4th edn), (New York, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates), 311–323. Shute, V. J., Dennen, V., Kim, Y., Donmez, O. & Wang, C. (2010) 21st century assessment to promote 21st century learning: The benefits of blinking. A report References 35 for Digital Media and Learning network, Irvine, CA. Available online at: http:// dmlcentral.net/wp-content/uploads/files/val_big_pic_FINAL.pdf (accessed 25 September 2015). Siemens, G. (2012) Learning analytics: Envisioning a research discipline and a domain of practice, paper presented at the Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (New York, ACM), 4–8. Stodberg, U. (2012) A research review of e-assessment, Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 37(5), 591–604. Stone, A. (2012) What does e-portfolio mean in the vocational sector?, International Journal of e-Assessment, 2(2). Sutherland, R. (2013) Education and social justice in a digital age (Bristol, Policy Press). Sutherland, R., Eagle, S. & Joubert, M. (2012) A vision and strategy for technology enhanced learning. Report from the STELLAR Network of Excellence funded by European Commission, Brussels. Available online at: http://www.stellarnet.eu/ kmi/deliverables/20120810_d1.8_final.pdf (accessed 25 September 2015). Sutherland, R., Robertson, S. & John, P. (Eds) (2009) Improving classroom learning with ICT (London, Routledge). Thissen-Roe, A., Hunt, E. & Minstrell, J. (2004) The DIAGNOSER project: Combining assessment and learning, Journal of Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36(2), 234240. doi:10.3758/BF03195568. Thornton, S. (2012) Issues and controversies associated with the use of new technologies. Teaching politics and international relations (Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan), 91–104. Timmis, S., Joubert, M., Manuel, A. & Barnes, S. (2010) Transmission, transformation and ritual: An investigation of students’ and researchers’ digitally mediated communications and collaborative work, Learning, Media and Technology, 35(3), 307–322. doi:10.1080/17439884. 2010.509354. Timmis, S., Yee, W. C. & Bent, E. (2015) Digital diversity and belonging in higher education: A social justice proposition, in: E. L. Brown, A. Krasteva & M. Ranieri (Eds) International advances in education: Global initiatives for equity and social justice, Vol. 10. E-learning & social media: Education and citizenship for the digital 21st century (Charlotte, NC, Information Age Publishing). Van Aalst, J. & Chan, C. K. K. (2007) Student-directed assessment of knowledge building using electronic portfolios, Journal of the Learning Sciences, 16(2), 175–220. Whitelock, D. (2010) Activating assessment for learning: Are we on the way with Web 2.0? in: M. J. W. Lee & C. McLoughlin (Eds) Web 2.0-based-e-learning: Applying social informatics for tertiary teaching (Hershey, PA, IGI Global), 319–342. Whitelock, D. M. & Brasher, A. (2006) Developing a roadmap for e-assessment: Which way now? in: D. Myles (Ed) Proceedings of the 10th CAA International Computer Assisted Assessment Conference (Loughborough, UK, Professional Development, Loughborough University), 487–501. Whitelock, D. & Watt, S. (2008) Reframing e-assessment: Adopting new media and adapting old frameworks, Learning, Media and Technology, 33(3), 151–154. Whitelock, D., Ruedel, C. & Mackenzie, D. (2006) e-Assessment: Case studies of effective and innovative practice. Final report for JISC ITT funded project conducted by The Open University (Milton Keynes) and University of Derby. 36 References Winkley, J. (2010) E-assessment and innovation. A Becta report, Coventry, UK. Available online at: http://www.alphaplusconsultancy.co.uk/pdf/e-assessment_ and_innovation.pdf (accessed 25 September 2015). Woolf, B. P. (Ed.) (2010) A roadmap for education technology (Washington, DC, National Science Foundation). Available online at: http://cra.org/ccc/wp-content/ uploads/sites/2/2015/05/GROE-Roadmap-for-Education-Technology-Final- Report.pdf (accessed 25 September 2015). Zhao, Y. & Frank, K. A. (2003) Factors affecting technology uses in schools: An ecological perspective, American Educational Research Journal, 40(4), 807–840.