The Impact of Fire on the Metric And

ERASING THE EVIDENCE: THE IMPACT OF FIRE ON THE METRIC

AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CUT MARKS

______

A Thesis

Presented

to the Faculty of

California State University, Chico

______

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Arts

Anthropology

______

Ashley Hutchinson

Fall 2010 ERASING THE EVIDENCE: THE IMPACT OF FIRE ON THE METRIC

AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CUT MARKS

A Thesis

Ashley Hutchinson

Fall 2010

APPROVED BY THE DEAN OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND VICE PROVOST FOR RESEARCH:

Katie Milo, Ed.D.

APPROVED BY THE GRADUATE ADVISORY COMMITTEE:

______Turhon A. Murad, Ph.D., Chair

______Eric J. Bartelink, Ph.D. DEDICATION

To my loving family and fiancé, without your continued support throughout my education

I would not be where I am today.

iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The completion of my master’s thesis would not have been possible without my committee members, Dr. Turhon Murad and Dr. Eric Bartelink. Their continual guidance and patience have made all the difference. I greatly appreciate all time and effort which they have put into reading chapter drafts, providing their suggestions, and their input.

I would also like to thank Steve Maletik and the Butte Fire Academy for the use of their facility. The realistic conditions which they have provided have made all the difference in the outcome of this research. Thank you to Shannon Clinkinbeard and the

CSU-Chico Human Identification Lab for access to invaluable resources, and David

Philhour for his statistical insight.

Thank you to Dr. John DeHaan and Fire-Ex Forensics for the use of equipment and his extensive knowledge on burning. I am also thankful to the Chico Meat

Locker; without them I would not have had a research sample.

I am thankful to Melanie Beasley for her guidance during the initial stages of my thesis development. I would also like to thank my graduate cohort for all their support. We have shared some ups and downs over the last three years and I would not have made it through without them.

iv Finally I would like thank my family and friends for all of their love and support. They are my emotional support and a constant reminder of what I am able to achieve.

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Dedication...... iii

Acknowledgments ...... iv

List of Tables...... viii

List of Figures...... ix

Abstract...... x

CHAPTER

I. Introduction...... 1

Research Questions ...... 3 Organization of Thesis ...... 4

II. Literature Review on Burning...... 7

Composition of Bone...... 8 Mechanism of Fire...... 9 Thermal Damage to Bone...... 10 Previous Research on Burning ...... 13 Summary...... 20

III. Cut Mark Literature Review...... 21

Classifications of Tools and Cut Marks ...... 22 Effects of Sharp Force Trauma on Bone ...... 25 Previous Sharp Force Trauma Research...... 26 Summary of Sharp Force Trauma ...... 31

vi CHAPTER PAGE

IV. Materials and Methods ...... 33

Materials...... 33 Methods ...... 39 Summary...... 42

V. Results...... 43

Descriptive Analysis of the Pilot Study and Research Sample .... 43 Analysis of Statistical Results from Research Sample...... 47 Indications Based on the Analytical Results ...... 54 Summary...... 54

VI. Discussion...... 56

Morphological Changes...... 57 Discussion of Change in Cut Mark Size...... 62 Summary...... 66

VII. Conclusion...... 67

Implications ...... 69 Limitations of Study...... 69 Future Research...... 71

References Cited...... 73

Appendices

A. Raw Cut Mark Data from Pilot and Research Sample ...... 79 B. Data: Fire Temperature Recordings ...... 83

vii LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

1. Heat Related Fractures and Their Characteristics ...... 12

2. Pre- and Post-Burn Measurements of the Research Sample...... 48

3. Paired T-test Results for Pre vs. Post Burn Width Comparisons...... 50

4. Description of Cut Marks and Data Recorded on Each Tool ...... 51

5. Survivorship Rate of Striations After Burning ...... 52

viii LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

1. Tools Used to Create Cut Marks: a) Hand Saw, B) Cleaver, C) Steak Knife, D) Scalpel...... 36

2. Research Sample Bones Prior to Burning: a) Saw, B) Scalpel, C) Knife, D) Cleaver ...... 38

3. Set up of Fuel with Research Sample and Heat Couplings in Place...... 39

4. Pilot Study Sample Post Burn and Research Study Sample Post Burn.... 45

5. Cleaver Marks Before Burning (Specimen D) ...... 46

6. Knife cut Marks on the Femoral Head (Specimen C)...... 51

7. Post Burn Striations of the Eleventh Cut on the Anterior Surface of Specimen A (Saw) ...... 53

ix ABSTRACT

ERASING THE EVIDENCE: THE IMPACT OF FIRE ON THE METRIC

AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CUT MARKS

Ashley Hutchinson

Master of Arts in Anthropology

California State University, Chico

Fall 2010

The aim of this study is to provide a preliminary framework for understanding how fire affects the survivorship of cut marks on bone. This study analyzed the survivorship of cut marks, striations, and metric changes of kerf size associated with burning. There was an expectation that most cut marks would survive the fire, although changes were expected such as that the previous damage to bone would lead to extensive fracturing in the areas of the preexisting trauma.

An understanding of how fire affects cut marks on bone is important when attempting to determine a particular class of tool based on cut mark features. Because the use of burning to hinder identification and destroy evidence are common challenges faced by forensic scientists, understanding that fire may change trauma characteristics is important when attempting to draw conclusions about a suspect weapon. With kerf

x width being a criterion for assessing tool class, forensic investigators need to understand that if bone is burned, this method may not be able to be used to eliminate suspect weapons.

For the purpose of this study cut marks were created on pig (Sus scrofa) femora using a cleaver, hand saw, scalpel, and steak knife. From these cut marks, casts were made and then analyzed using a digital microscope. The total number of cut marks present on each bone was noted, and widths were taken at three intervals along the length of each cut mark. Once casted, the pig femora were burned in a controlled building fire for approximately 45 minutes with the temperature ranging from 277.3°C-

1,096°C. The surviving cut marks were casted again.

The results from this study were quite variable between the different tools.

With only 47.2 percent of the cut marks surviving the fire, the bone with cut marks created by the cleaver demonstrated extensive fracturing. Survivorship was much higher for the cut marks for the scalpel (68.8%), steak knife (88.6%), and hand saw (72.5%).

Paired t-tests were conducted to determine the significance of width changes among the different tools. The results were drawn from the second width measurement, taken at the approximate center of each kerf. Paired t-tests yielded results that indicated that only the cleaver had non-significant changes in width. Both the scalpel and the saw showed a significant decrease in width. Percentages were also determined for the survivorship of striations from the cleaver, saw, and steak knife. The saw had the highest survivorship (81%), followed by the steak knife (43.8%) and the cleaver (0%). The scalpel did not demonstrate striation characteristics.

xi These results suggest that burning does have a significant effect on cut marks on bone. Bone with perimortem trauma is prone to extensive fracturing due to fire exposure, which may lead to a loss of observable traumatized bone. In regards to width change, as the overall bone shrinks and warps, there is a decrease in cut mark width. While there does not seem to be a consistent pattern between serrated and non- serrated tools, it is clearly shown that fire has an impact on the metric characteristics of cut marks. These results indicate that after fire exposure, width can no longer be utilized as a line of evidence for assessing tool class.

xii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

In a forensic setting, burning is often employed by criminals to eliminate evidence and conceal the identity of a victim (Ubelaker 2009:2). Situations that may involve cut marks include stab wounds as well as defensive wounds associated with an assault. With such evidence becoming potentially compromised by burning, it is imperative for forensic investigators to be able to identify cut marks and recognize how they are altered with exposure to fire.

The array of tools that may be used to cut, stab, or dismember an individual are highly varied. When examining cut marks, it is important to be able to distinguish among the different classes of cutting tools, such as knives, axes, or saws. Of particular interest in cases of dismemberment is whether the marks are knife-cut wounds, which are defined as incised wounds where the length is greater than the depth, or knife-stab wounds that nick, puncture, or gouge the bone (Symes et al. 2002:407). Also, it should be noted that while knives are frequently used to hinder the identification of or stab an individual, both knives and saws are used for dismemberment (Symes et al. 2002:404).

Tool marks associated with dismemberment follow the contour of the bone allowing for easier disarticulation. Research has indicated that joint regions are particularly important in dismemberment cases. However, cut marks are also often found on the proximal third of a long bone as opposed to the actual joint surface (Reichs 1998:361). Such practice is

1 2 useful for easier transport, or alternatively, if the criminal is attempting to conceal the identity of the individual, they may only go to the trouble of removing the head, hands, and feet.

After stabbing or dismembering a victim, some perpetrators will burn the corpse to further conceal evidence of the crime. However, contrary to popular belief, an individual cannot completely destroy a human body by merely setting fire to a surrounding structure, such as a house (Bass 1984:159). Short of a modern cremation, complete destruction of the remains is rare (Kennedy 1999:144). Thus, under most circumstances, there will still be a considerable amount of remains present for examination in a criminal investigation. What remains after being burned may still be able to yield a significant amount of information about what happened to the individual.

Certain aspects of burning have already been explored. For instance, it is known that sharp force trauma that occurred prior to burning results in more exposure of internal bone. This exposed bone will tend to have a darker margin upon burning when compared to the periosteum and adjacent cortical bone (Fairgrieve 2008:121). Such information is pertinent for a criminal investigator to determine the sequence of events.

Understanding how burning affects cut marks will continue to be important in trauma analysis. Currently the research on this topic continues to be sparse and anecdotal.

Studies that examine burned remains with evidence of sharp force trauma need to be more developed. Burning continues to be an effective means to conceal evidence of a crime and hinder positive identification. It is essential to differentiate whether a victim was burned accidently or as a means to destroy evidence.

This research examines the effects of fire on cut marks. Forensic investigators need to be able to determine if sharp force trauma was present on remains prior to burning. They also need to be able to determine if the cut marks were altered by the fire.

Cut marks are able to yield identifying characteristics (e.g. kerf and striations) of a bladed instrument, and investigators need to know if these features survive during a fire. Another issue to be examined is whether or not the cut marks themselves survive burning for analysis of identifying characteristics.

Research Questions

This research examines the metric and morphological changes to cut marks caused by fire. Previous research has examined how fire affects bone and the characteristics left by sharp force trauma on bone, however, there has been very little research on how fire affects evidence of sharp force trauma. This study specifically examines the survivorship of cut marks, the survivorship of striations on kerf walls, and the change in cut mark width due to exposure to fire.

The first research question examined is whether the striations left by tools would survive thermal exposure. If the striations are clearly defined on the cut mark, then they are more likely to survive. However, if the striations are faint, fire would more likely damage the surface of the cut mark enough to eliminate evidence of the striations.

Striations can be identifying features of a tool, thus their survivorship is useful in forensic cases for identifying a possible suspect weapon. This research suggests that the more defined striations made by a serrated blade will more likely survive exposure to fire than those made by a non-serrated blade.

Survivorship of the cut marks was examined in this research. This study should indicate that clearly defined cut marks will still be definable after burning. On the other hand, if the cut mark is not well defined before burning, it is less likely that it will be observable after burning. If this were the case, then evidence of sharp force trauma may not be observable after thermal exposure.

The final research question is whether or not cut marks change in size after being exposed to fire. Previous research has shown that fire causes bone to shrink

(Kennedy 1999; Buikstra and Swegle 1989).

Organization of Thesis

Despite the importance of understanding how fire affects cut marks, thus far there has been only limited research on the topic. It is the aim of this study to provide a foundation for future research. The goal is to determine how exposure to fire affects cut marks through the examination of a study sample before and after exposure to fire.

Chapter II discusses the composition of bone and the behavior and effects of fires. An understanding of the composition of bone is necessary for this study as fire affects bone both macroscopically and microscopically. This chapter will also discuss what is necessary for a fire to develop and the various stages of fire progression. The final aspect of this chapter examines previous research that has been conducted on burning, including studies of macroscopic examination of fire on bone (e.g., color change, warping, fracturing), microscopic analyses (e.g., change in crystal size), and chemical studies.

Chapter III examines the cut mark aspect of this study. This research utilized several different classes of sharp bladed implements. The classification and characteristics for each tool type and tool mark is discussed in this chapter. There is also an examination of how cutting influences bone characteristics. Depending on the tool used, a bone surface is expected to respond in a certain way (e.g., fracturing, osteon pullout).

When there is no foundation for research, it is especially important to record how the sample was obtained and how it was analyzed. Chapter IV discusses the details of how the sample bones were obtained and prepared for the study. There is also a need to examine how the study fire was created, and what fuel source was used to sustain the fire. The Methods section discusses the equipment used to process and examine the sample, and also addresses how data taken from the sample is analyzed.

The results are discussed in Chapter V, which breaks down each research question and presents the results of the statistical analysis. Percentages were also determined for the survivorship of both the cut marks as well as the striations for each tool. It was also determined how fire exposure and ultimately bone shrinkage affected the size of cut marks.

Because similar research has yet to be conducted, a discussion of the results and their implications for forensic science research was necessary. Chapter VI discusses the implications that can be drawn from the results of this study. This chapter also looks at how the results compare to previous research. While this particular line of research has not been thoroughly explored, the results could also be examined to determine if they were consistent with what would be expected from previous studies.

The final chapter of this study, Chapter VII, summarizes the results of the thesis. The limitations of this study are addressed, as well as some implications for future research.

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW ON BURNING

Knowledge of the composition of bone is crucial in order to determine how fire affects skeletal remains. Bone has unique structures and an intricate chemical makeup which influences its reaction to fire. Similarly, fire is an equally complex entity.

All fires require a fuel source, heat source, and oxygen (DeHaan 2008; Fairgrieve 2008).

Variation of the composition of these criteria can influence the extent of fire damage. Fire is able to produce an array of destructive changes to bone. Due to the complexities associated with bone microstructure and fire progression, an examination of both is necessary.

Studies have examined the potential damage that fire may cause to bone, ranging from color changes to changes in the chemical composition of bone. These studies are utilized in the forensic investigations of fires. However, research has shown that there are several changes that can occur to a bone after being exposed to fire.

Because there is a variety of way which fire may affect bone, it is crucial for forensic investigators to have a working knowledge of these effects, and for further research to continue to be developed (Ubelaker 2009:1).

7 8

Composition of Bone

To understand how burning affects the structure of bone, knowledge of the composition of bony material is needed. Bone provides form and structure to the human body and is composed of both an organic part as well as a mineral component. This organic component is primarily collagen, a protein that accounts for approximately 90 percent of bone composition and provides flexibility (White and Folkens 2005;

Götherström et al. 2002). Hydroxyapatite comprises the mineral portion of the bone and provides strength and rigidity (White and Folkens 2005; Baltar et al. 2002; Götherström et al. 2002).

Besides the components that make up bone, there are also several important features that should be discussed. A bone’s midshaft is composed of cortical bone, which is made up of lamellar bone laid down parallel to the long axis of the diaphysis (Byers

2008:53). A histological feature that should be discussed is the Haversian system, also known as a secondary osteon. Through the center of each Haversian system is the

Haversian canal, which provides the passage of blood vessels through the bone (Byers

2008; White and Folkens 2005). Surrounding the Haversian canal are concentric rings of bone called lamellae. Because Haversian systems can be affected by both burning as well as sharp force trauma, they are relevant to the current study. While there are more histological structures that form a bone, these particular structures have been examined in the literature in regards to both burning and cut marks.

Mechanism of Fire

While fire can be used for constructive tasks such as heat or cooking, it also is a destructive force. There are three requirements for fire to occur: oxygen, a fuel source, and a heat source (DeHaan 2008; Fairgrieve 2008). In order for these three elements to create combustion, an exothermic chain reaction must occur. During a fire, heat will transfer from a warmer area into a cooler area (Fairgrieve 2008:26). The rate at which heat transfers will depend on the temperature variation in different areas. Heat will transfer by way of convection, radiation, conduction, or some combination of these factors (DeHaan 2008; Fairgrieve 2008). As fire continues to spread, other objects in the vicinity may catch fire as well. However, the temperature of these objects will never exceed that of a surrounding fire (Branningan et al. 1980:155).

A fire will progress through four phases as it continues to burn. Fire starts with incipient ignition. This phase is characterized by low heat and no flame. Complete ignitability of a fuel source depends on the density, heat capacity, and thermal conductivity. From here the fire will progress into the second stage, growth. Here, flames will form and begin to spread laterally over a horizontal surface. The third stage that fire enters is when the fire is fully developed. At this stage, the fire is beginning to extinguish either because there is a lack of oxygen or the maximum rate of burning has been achieved. Last, fire reaches the final stage of decay. By this point, only 20 percent of the original fuel remains and the fire begins to extinguish (Fairgrieve 2008:33). At this point a fire has completed its life cycle and will slowly smolder out.

There are two types of fire. A flaming fire consists of a developed flame which is caused by the ignition of a gaseous fuel. This fire can also be maintained by the

10 vapors of its fuel. The second type of fire, a smoldering fire, does not produce a flame and is the result of a solid fuel source burning. If a smoldering fire is able to achieve a high enough temperature, it will be observable to the human eye (DeHaan 2008:1). When a fire is contained in a room, a flashover may occur. This happens when the temperature becomes high enough that the heat will ignite all available fuel sources (DeHaan 2008:7).

Though this may not always happen, it is important to keep in mind when investigating a fire scene.

No two fires are the same, but the general principles of combustion and progression can be applied. In a forensic setting, fire has the potential to not only destroy evidence but may be a criminal act in itself. Forensic investigators that deal with fire should have an understanding of the various dynamics that affect a fire scene.

Thermal Damage to Bone

The effect fire can have on bone is dependent on several variable (e.g. temperature, exposure time, conditions of bone, etc.). In the literature, it has been noted that bone tends to warp and shrink when exposed to fire (Fairgrieve 2008; Kennedy 1999;

Mays 1998; Heglar 1984). Shrinkage starts at approximately 700°C and stops at about

1,100°C (Kennedy 1999; Buikstra and Swegle 1989). Mays (1998:207) states that shrinkage is caused by the change in structure of the hydroxyapatite crystals. The degree to which a bone will warp or shrink decreases if a bone is burned in a “dry” state, that is to say, that there is little to no moisture still present in the bone (Kennedy 1999:143).

Bone shrinkage and warping can impact the formulation of a biological profile of a decedent. Without the ability to take accurate measurement of bones, estimations such as

11 stature cannot be obtained. Though not the focus of this research, there is a possibility that both warping and shrinking will impact the survivorship and characteristics of cut marks present on bone.

Color change is another notable alteration that occurs to bones exposed to fire.

It was believed that color change of bone could indicate temperature, exposure time, and fire progression (Heglar 1984:148), though more recent research suggests that color change can only be used as an approximation of these at best (Correia and Beattie

2002:448). Depending on its location in a fire, a single bone may show a variety of colors as certain areas are more exposed to fire than others. This change in color is, in part, an indication of the amount of collagen present (Fairgrieve 2008:49). While there is a range of color changes that may occur on a bone, the final stage is complete calcination. This stage indicates that there is no longer organic material left, and has been described as “a fired pottery appearance with the feel, weight, and sound of unglazed ceramic” (Heglar

1984:149). Though color change may not be a precise measurement of heat exposure, it does provide a starting point for investigators to begin drawing conclusions about the conditions of the fire.

Burning may also cause various types of fractures (Table 1). It should first be noted, however, that while a heat fracture may propagate from a previously existing trauma, a heat fracture will not propagate into unburned bone (Fairgrieve 2008:122).

Traumatized bone has a greater probability of fracturing when exposed to heat than bone without trauma. The interpretation of trauma could potentially be hindered on heat- fractured bone.

TABLE 1. HEAT RELATED FRACTURES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Fracture Type Fracture Characteristics Patina Do not penetrate medullary cavity and affect only the surface of the bone Longitudinal Follow the axis of the long bone and may penetrate into the medullary cavity Transverse Perpendicular to bone axis and may transect bone completely

Source: Adapted from FAIRGRIEVE, SCOTT I. 2008. Forensic cremation: Recovery and analysis. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 50.

Understanding the formation of heat related fractures is essential for interpreting trauma on burned bone. While the previously mentioned fractures are commonly found on long bones, the literature has shown that heat fractures of the skull are less uniform (Bohnert et al. 1997:60). When examining fracture patterns in burned remains, investigators must be careful when determining whether a fracture was heat induced, or the result of a previous trauma.

Under magnification histological changes can be observed on burned bone. At approximately 600°C, small spherical crystals begin to form ranging from .06± .007 mm in diameter (Fairgrieve 2008:48). The number of crystals present, as well as their size, increases in conjunction with temperature (Fairgrieve 2008; Holden et al. 1995).

Research has also shown that at ~200°C, Haversian canals begin to disintegrate (Holden et al. 1995:33). By 700°C, histological features have completely disappeared (Hanson and Cain 2007:1910). While not as obvious as some of the macroscopic changes that may occur to bone, histological changes can be just as revealing, if not more so, about the effects of burning.

Previous Research on Burning

Burning is an extremely destructive force to human remains that can limit a forensic investigation. Destruction caused by fire and heat can make it extremely difficult to identify not only a decedent, but also perimortem trauma. The study of fire and heat on human remains has become an important area of research in forensic science. Currently, the literature on burning comprises both case studies as well as controlled experiments.

While sample sizes are usually quite small, a vast array of topics that involve burning have been examined. Also of importance, is that many experiments addressing these issues usually involve nonhuman remains, which may have some impact on results because of anatomical differences.

Much of the research on burning is based on descriptive analysis, such as evaluation of changes in color, surface texture, and anatomical continuity of bone heated at different temperatures (Heglar 1984:148). Though many experiments focus on a particular bony response, it is important to understand how each response is connected

(Thompson 2004:S204). Thompson (2004) examined color change, weight loss, recrystallization, and changes in bone size associated with burning, and also the order in which each of these changes occur. Researchers are able to better understand the impact of heat on skeletal remains by observation and experimentation.

Research that has analyzed the overall impact of heat on bones includes a study by Bohnert et al. (1998). By using a series of undissected human bodies, Bohnert et al. were able to record the progression of heat damage at known time intervals within a retort. Time intervals ranging from 10 to 60 minutes were recorded during this experiment as well as the degree of destruction. When examined in relation to house and

14 car fires, Bohnert et al. (1998:20) discovered that the damage was fairly comparable. This type of experiment allows for a better understanding of what may have happened in a forensic setting. This study provides not only a description of color changes at particular temperatures, but also the extent of damage to different elements of the skeleton. This type of research provides a more realistic understanding of the effects of temperature on the condition of human remains.

Not all research has taken such a broad approach to examining the effects of fire. Experiments have ranged from superficial observation of color change, to more analytical study of changes in physical features, to microscopic analysis of changes in bone burned at specific temperatures. While such experiments may not demonstrate how each alteration affects other changes, a thorough understanding of each alteration individually is also necessary.

Mays (1998) conducted an experiment that examined the color change of goat bones burned at various temperatures, which was then compared to results by Shipman et al. (1984). While Mays’ study attempted to evaluate Shipman et al.’s research, this study did not correspond enough to provide a valid comparison. For example, Mays does not replicate the same temperatures used by Shipman et al. (1984). While this study provides a basis for comparison, more research is needed to provide more uniform descriptions.

Knowledge of how the color of bone changes at certain temperatures would allow a better understanding of the characteristics of the fire which burned the bones.

Bone and ash weight have also been analyzed in the literature. This is especially important when examining cremated remains (Warren and Maples 1997:417).

Since the advent of commercial cremation, there have been several cases in which

15 cremated remains have been disposed of improperly or released to the wrong families. In a study using 100 cadavers, Warren and Maples (1997) examined the effect of fire on ash weight. Issues that the authors encountered included the inability to account for the influence of soft tissue on measurements, taking into consideration that more obese cadavers would be exposed to heat longer (Warren and Maples 1997:422) They suggested, however, that if an accurate skeletal weight could be determined, calculations would be able to accurately estimate the weight of the cremated material (Warren and

Maples 1997:422).

The use of ash weight to determine the sex and ancestry of an individual was examined in a study conducted by Trotter and Hixon (1973). This study included the remains of 426 cadavers, representing individuals who had died primarily of natural causes. The study indicated that after controlling for age, ash weight could not be used to accurately determine sex or ancestry (Trotter and Hixon 1973:13).

These results were not supported by later research (Van Deest 2007; Van

Deest et al. in press; Bass and Jantz 2004; Warren and Maples 1997). These studies examined the accuracy of determining sex and age based on ash weight, and showed that there is about 1000g difference in weight between the sexes, making this a reasonable method for sex estimation. The authors of these studies also note that geographic and genetic variability may also influence bone density, which would impact the use of ash weight in determining sex.

Bone size is another characteristic affected by heat. Buikstra and Swegle

(1989) examined the extent of bone shrinkage at various temperatures. Based on the results of this research it can be assumed that bone may shrink up to 5.6 percent when

16 smoked and up to 2.2 percent when calcined (Buikstra and Swegle 1989:254). Knowing the degree to which bones shrink at certain temperatures can provide information that may aid in estimating stature as well as other conclusions that can be drawn from bone size.

Histological changes have also been a focus of study in burning research. This provides a different approach to determine the temperature and length of time bone has been exposed to heat. Studies that have examined histological changes have also examined archaeological human remains to try to get a better understanding of burial practices of various past cultures. This line of research can be used to determine how the strength and durability of bone is affected by heat. The development and organization of hydroxyapatite crystals is particularly important when examining the histology of burned remains.

Fairgrieve (2008) has examined histological changes in bone due to fire. An experiment showed that bone develops small crystals at 600°C, which measure .06±.007 mm in diameter. Again this test was conducted at 800°C and showed that the crystals increased from .25±.07 mm to .41±.09 mm in size (Fairgrieve 2008:48). Fossilization and weathering will also cause crystal alteration. Stiner et al. (1995) note that fresh bone weight consists of 60 to 70 percent carbonated apatite crystals. Over time the size of the crystals will be altered through the natural processes of fossilization and weathering

(Stiner et al. 1995:227). Exposure to heat causes these alterations to occur at a much faster rate. Interestingly Mays (1998:209) notes that this change in crystal size can temporarily give bone greater mechanical strength. This increase in strength occurs above

800°C when the crystal composition changes the hydroxyapatite of the bone into

17 betatricalcium phosphate; however as the bone cools, it returns to its weakened state

(Mays 1998:209).

Using the midshaft of several human femora taken from cadavers, Holden et al. (1995) examined histological changes caused by fire. This research showed that by

600°C, the endosteum of a bone is completely destroyed and crystals on the heat fractured surface become less densely packed than at lower temperatures (Holden et al.

1995:33). With an increase in temperature, Holden et al. (1995:35) found that crystals increased in size up to 1.2±.1 mm at 1,200°C. These results indicate that the patterns documented by Fairgrieve (2008) continue at even higher temperatures. Holden et al.

(1995:37) also took careful note of the differences in crystal shape at different temperatures as well as variation between individual of different ages. This information may be useful in suggesting the age of a deceased individual who has been burned, especially in the absence of other age indicators.

Recrystallization can also be seen in archaeological remains. Stiner et al.

(1995) examined how this type of fire damage manifests on archaeological bone. With bones that have been exposed to the elements, it is important to know the difference between fire-damaged bone and the signs of weathering and fossilization which fire damage can resemble (Stiner et al. 1995:224). While examining archaeological remains is often helpful for understanding modern remains, the opposite is often true when studying burned archaeological remains. Modern experimentation often provides a starting point for understanding cremation events of the past. This not only includes the condition of the remains at the time of cremation and the temperature of the fire, but also the

18 ceremony that was associated with the cremation. There is evidence of cremation in many cultures around the world.

Ubelaker and Rife (2007) examined archaeological cremated remains from

Kenchreai, Greece. The authors found that cremation was not practiced in Greece until about 1,000 BC, and that infants and young children were usually not cremated (Ubelaker and Rife 2007:40). By using the results of modern experiments, several conclusions were able to be drawn from the Kenchreai remains. Coloration and fragmentation patterns were consistent with those of remains burned fresh with soft tissue still present. Also, the large amount of calcined bones indicates that the pyre must have reached temperatures of at least 700°C (Ubelaker and Rife 2007:50).

Cremation sites from the Late Archaic period (9,000 BCE-AD 500) in

Michigan have also been studied (Binford 1963). While the information gathered from the three sites examined are not necessarily comparable, they each provide data on the overall cremation practice in the area. Binford (1963) used experimental bones of various conditions to learn what conditions the remains were in when cremated. By burning

1,500 year old remains as well as an anatomical specimen, Binford was able to replicate the burning of dry bone. For a green bone sample, Binford used a partially dissected green monkey carcass (Binford 1963:101). By performing this experiment, Binford was able to interpret the remains found at the three sites. This allowed for greater compatibility for understanding the mortuary practices of the region.

In addition to archaeological studies of cremation, the study of burned remains has become a major focus of research in the forensic sciences. It should be expected that

19 the condition and response of human remains exposed to burning in a mortuary context differs from those observed in a forensic context.

Fanton et al. (2006:87) provide an overview of 40 burned human remains cases through the Institut Universitaire de Médecine Légale in Lyon, France (1993-2003).

Individuals in this study died as a result of accident, suicide, and homicide. By examining the sample demographics, scene locations, and other characteristics, the authors were able to identify patterns between accidents and homicides. Males were far more likely to be burned than females in accidents. Also homicide victims were most commonly discovered in their own homes (Fanton et al. 2006:91).

Bohnert et al. (1997) conducted a study in which they examined the occurrence of cranial base fractures associated with cremation. This study was prompted by the discovery of a female victim with a cranial base fracture (Bohnert et al. 1997:56).

Using the charred bodies of 20 individuals, the research examined the changes that occurred to the skull during the cremation process. After 45 to 60 minutes, none of the 20 individuals showed any indication of a basilar-skull fracture (Bohnert et al. 1997:60).

Despite the high temperatures, this area of the skull was sufficiently protected by the brain and the soft tissues of the neck. Based on this study, it could be determined that those fractures were most likely caused by trauma and not due to burning (Bohnert et al.

1997:61).

As the previous study indicates, frequent injuries to the skull make it a particularly important area to observe burn patterns. Iwase et al. (1998) examined the dissected head of a woman who had been burned after being killed with a baseball bat.

Burn patterns indicated that the head was disarticulated after the body was burned. This

20 was shown by the salmon color muscles in the neck area, indicating that that region had not been directly exposed to the fire (Iwase et al. 1998:11). A clear charring pattern on the anterior portion of the skull also indicated that the fracture on the unburned left temporal bone was not caused by the fire (Iwase et al. 1998:12). Using a MR-CT scan, there was also evidence of a blood clot in the left mastoid cells, indicating that the blows to the head occurred prior to the fire, and further that the heat most likely caused the blood in this region to condense (Iwase 1998:14).

Summary

The literature has shown that burning has been a common occurrence throughout history and an understanding of it is necessary for medicolegal investigations.

Several studies examined the warping and shrinking of bone after it has been exposed to fire. Knowing to what extent bone shrinks at different temperatures could potentially be important if the bone shrinks between the cut marks. Shrinking and warping needs to be taken into consideration when taking measurements of bone after burning, since measurements may not be accurate.

There is also an expectation of extensive fracturing with this sample. Previous studies have indicated where to expect fracturing and the extent to which a bone may be fractured. Given that the sample used for this research consists of all long bones, it should be expected that there will be a great deal of fracturing, especially along the midshaft, which may influence the survivorship of the cut marks. Based on an understanding of bone composition and the effects of fire from the literature, there are certain expectations for the condition and survivorship of the research sample.

CHAPTER III

CUT MARK LITERATURE REVIEW

Like burning, a basic knowledge of sharp force trauma and the various tools is needed by forensic investigators. As will be discussed, there are several classes of tools, each with their own distinguishing characteristics. Also similar to burning, tools can affect bones in a multitude of ways. Research has indicated that tools can leave evidence ranging from superficial scratches on bone (Symes n.d.:24) to complete transection of a bone (Humphrey and Hutchinson 2001:232). Studies have examined these various effects to try to obtain a better understanding of what can be expected of the different tool classes.

Forensic investigators are interested in understanding the variation in tool marks on bone to aid in identifying a suspect weapon. In addition to the damage caused by tools, there are also blade characteristics which may be left behind on the bone, such as striations. What has not been examined is the effect of fire damage on these characteristics. Fire damage can be detrimental to evidence collection and ultimately hinder the ability to draw conclusions regarding a potential homicide. Thus all aspects of burning and sharp force trauma need to be examined and considered.

21 22

Classifications of Tools and Cut Marks

Research on cut marks has consisted mainly of discerning classes of tools based on morphological differences (e.g., incised cut marks, hacking marks, and stabbing wounds). In the literature, incised marks have been defined as cut marks “where the length is greater than its depth” (Symes et al. 2002:407). Stabbing injuries are described as wounds which nick, gouge, or puncture the bone (Symes et al. 2002:407). Lastly, hacking trauma is described as follows:

1. At least one side of the injury shows a smooth, flat surface cut by the blade. If the blade enters the bone at an angle other than 90°, the obtuse-angled side shows a smooth cut surface. The acute-angled terminates in fractured bone. 2. On the acute-angled side, the outer surface of the bone is detached from the underlying bone as thin flakes. In ancient material, the flakes are normally lost, but in the experimental bone injuries, the flakes remained held in place by the membrane that surrounds the bone. 3. Injuries also frequently show large areas of bone broken away from beneath the blades as they passed through skeletal elements [Humphrey and Hutchinson 2001:228]

Knives are defined as having a thin blade with at least one beveled edge

(Symes et al. 2002:407-408). Compared to saws, knives also demonstrate a smaller amount of wastage when forming cut marks (Bartelink et al. 2001:1288). Non-serrated knives lack “set” teeth, which allows for a cut mark to closely mimic the blade width

(Reichs 1998:358). This absence of defining features makes it more difficult to discern a particular type of knife.

Saws are characterized by leaving marks that are wider than the actual dimension of the blade (Reichs 1998:358). This class of tools also includes instruments which chisel and shave material, such as bone, using a flat-edged tooth (Symes et al.

2002:407-408). The “setting” of the saw teeth will determine the shape and size of the kerf. For the purpose of this research a saw with alternating teeth was used. This type of

23 blade is characterized by teeth that are laterally bent to opposing sides, resulting in a kerf that is wider than the blade width as each tooth creates a separate cut mark as it enters the bone (Symes et al. n.d.:5). This also allows for the cutting force to come from both the push and pull action.

By examining the characteristics of the kerf, researchers are often able to distinguish between different classes of tools. A kerf is defined as the walls and floor of a cut mark (Symes et al. 2002:408). This feature is also the termination point of a cut mark and can be indicative of the class of tool used (Humphrey and Hutchinson 2001:231).

When distinguishing the class of tool by the shape of the kerf floor, a researcher must know that knives and axes have a “V”-shaped floor, while tools in the saw class leave a squared-edge floor (Reichs 1998; Symes et al. 2002; Lewis 2008). Also, the lateral motion when using a knife may cause a meandering kerf with little damage to the sides of the cut mark (Lewis 2008:2005).

Striations on the kerf walls may record distinguishing information about the suspect tool. For instance, these features often can indicate whether the blade was serrated or not. If the blade is serrated there will be striae from the individual teeth, thus providing more information to an investigator (Reichs 1998:358). If the tool used was a saw, then information such as teeth per inch (TPI) may be able to indicate what class of saw was used (Symes et al. n.d.:4). While a point of an additional tooth may fall within a one inch section, the measurement is taken as teeth whose complete base falls within the measurement. Knives and saws which use a slicing motion leave striations that are parallel to the kerf floor (Reichs 1998; Bartelink et al. 2001; Humphrey and Hutchinson

2001). On the other hand, tools similar to axes, such as cleavers, leave striations

24 perpendicular to the kerf floor (Reichs 1998; Bartelink et al. 2001; Humphrey and

Hutchinson 2001). The ability to obtain these details is dependent on the qualities of the medium (e.g. bone, muscle, cartilage) on which the cut marks are made to record the features of the tool as well as characteristics of the cut mark itself (Houck 1998:412).

Without an adequate medium, the details of a tool’s characteristics may not be recorded.

Descriptions of the cut marks, as well as the characteristics of the kerf, can help to determine what type of tool was used. In forensic cases, the ability to distinguish between knives, axes, and saws is beneficial. Each class of tool creates very distinct marks. It would not be expected for a saw to leave a stabbing mark, nor would one observe a square kerf and suspect a knife wound. Reichs (1998:359) describes the kerf of the different blades as follows: knives are distinguished by having a kerf with dimensions that are narrower that the offending blade. Striations made by this class of tool are smooth or microscopic and run perpendicular to the kerf floor. The final characteristic of this tool is that the blade produces a minimal amount of wastage as it cuts through bone.

On the other hand, a saw (or other serrated tool) leaves a kerf with dimensions that are larger than the blade. The striations for this class are visible and are parallel to the kerf floor. The amount of wastage left by this tool is considered to be moderate. Axes and chopping tools are the last class described by Reichs (1998). These tools leave a very wide kerf. Similar to the knife, striations are smooth or microscopic and are perpendicular to the kerf floor. Unlike the previous two classes, however, this type of tool leaves significant wastage, along with the potential to cause fracturing and chattering.

Effects of Sharp Force Trauma on Bone

Tools can have various effects on bone depending on the bone’s condition

(e.g., dry/fresh, previous damage, etc.), the physical properties of the tool, and how the tool was used. The appearance of chattering, fracturing, or crushing may be present in conjunction with a cut mark. Chattering causes small chips of bone to form from the vibration of the weapon. Fracturing can be seen by radiating fracture lines away from the impact site. This response can be seen with tools that are used with a chopping motion

(Lynn and Fairgrieve 2009:795). However, frequently the arrangement of osteons parallel to the long axis of the diaphysis will prevent the fracturing (Lynn and Fairgrieve

2009:793). Fracturing can still occur though if the force is applied to the lateral side of the diaphysis. Crushing occurs when small or medium pieces of bone are pushed inward due to the force of the weapon (Humphrey and Hutchinson 2001:230). The creation of these effects can be an indication of the potential power of tool used.

Cut marks may also present distinct features such as break-away spurs, false starts, or false start scratches. Break-away spurs are defined by a projection of uncut bone at the terminal end of a cut mark (Symes et al. n.d.:3). The size of the spurs can often provide information about the amount of force used to create the cut mark. False start cuts signify an incomplete cut. These marks are discernable from cut marks in that they do not have a distinguished kerf (Symes et al. n.d.:3). On the other hand, in terms of saws, false start scratches are when only the teeth make an imprint on the bone. Since the teeth of the blade are not able to enter the bone consecutively, a definable kerf is not created, thus allowing for the blade width to be represented (Symes n.d.:24).

Microscopic damage can also be observed, such as osteon pullouts and lamellar separation (Lynn and Fairgrieve 2009). Osteon pullout occurs when a tool does not produce enough energy to cut through an osteon, and thus the energy is transferred across the osteon causing a “pull out” effect (Lynn and Fairgrieve 2009:796). Lamellar separation is also observed, although this is uncommon (Lynn and Fairgrieve 2009:795).

The effects of sharp force trauma on bone become extremely important in helping to determine what amount of force was used behind the creation of a particular cut mark. Also certain effects, such as fracturing, may not be possible for all tools.

Effects such as osteon pullout can also provide an indication as the amount of force behind a tool. In order for an osteon pullout to occur, the amount of force used would have to be relatively small. This descriptive information is necessary when trying to determine tool type, or amount of force.

Previous Sharp Force Trauma Research

It is important to have an idea of what type of implement was used to create cut marks found on bone. Bartelink et al. (2001) conducted a study using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to determine if there was a statistically significant relationship between blade width and cut mark width. In the forensic setting, this information would be quite useful in narrowing down a list of potential cutting tools.

Though the research concluded that there was a significant relationship between the blade width and the width of the associated cut mark, it was noted that different blades types overlapped (Bartelink et al. 2001:1290). While the study was able to conclusively

27 distinguish marks created with a scalpel blade, the results were less certain in terms of the other knife types.

Hacking trauma has been examined by Humphrey and Hutchinson (2001). A machete, axe, and cleaver were used on the lower limb bones of domesticated pigs (Sus scrofa) to look at evidence of chattering, crushing, and fracturing. After processing, the authors were able to examine the impact of the tools on bone. Cleavers were found to leave relatively clean entry (no sign of chattering or wastage) wounds with no radiating fractures, although there were occasionally fractures originating at the kerf floor

(Humphrey and Hutchinson 2001:230). It was also noted that cleaver cuts never completely bisected the bone, so there was no evidence of exit characteristics. On the other hand machetes showed evidence of chattering and a high frequency of fracturing originating at the kerf floor (Humphrey and Hutchinson 2001:231). In comparison to the other two tools, axe marks displayed a variety of characteristics. Fractures extended outward from the cut mark, and there was also evidence of fracturing at exit sites

(Humphrey and Hutchinson 2001:232). This experiment illustrates the range of damage that can be caused by hacking tools.

Another interesting study by Lewis (2008) examined the different classes of sword marks. In this study the cut marks of a Japanese-style katana, Arabian-style scimitar, “kris-blade” broadsword, Samburu short sword, machete, and hunting knife were compared. Lewis used the hind legs of domestic cattle (Bos taurus) as the medium to record the cut marks. After the modifications were made to the bone, Lewis recorded both metric and non-metric traits of each cut mark. Results showed that the cut marks of the swords greatly varied depending on the type of blade used. While some cut marks had

28 a kerf that was deep and narrow, others displayed a deep and wide kerf (Lewis

2008:2004). There was also evidence of significant damage to the kerf walls created by swords. When compared to the knife marks made in this study, the sword marks were very distinctive. The knife marks in this study showed long narrow cut marks as well as v-shaped kerfs (Lewis 2008:2005) which are typical of this type of tool. Thus, it could be determined that a sword mark would be easily distinguishable from that of a knife.

Cut marks have also been examined microscopically. Lynn and Fairgrieve

(2009) conducted research that examined the microscopic characteristics of axe and hatchet trauma on bone. For this research, the authors used both fleshed and defleshed limbs of domestic pigs (Sus scrofa). After the cut marks were created, the bone was cut into small fragments for examination under SEM. Interestingly the results between the two test groups were somewhat different. The fleshed limbs displayed more frequent osteon pullout, lamellar separation, and rough fracture surfaces (Lynne and Fairgrieve

2009:795). On the other hand, the defleshed specimens showed only one case of osteon pullout and no striations; however, lamellar separation was still seen in half of the samples (Lynn and Fairgrieve 2009:795). The authors suggest that the defleshed samples displayed characteristics more consistent with a higher energy impact since there was no flesh present to act as a shock absorber. The lack of osteon pullout is a good example of this since it demonstrates that the bone was hit with enough force that the energy was able to cut through the osteons (Lynn and Fairgrieve 2009:796).

Research has also been conducted on how the production of cut marks affects the attrition of the blade. Using single flakes of tholeitic basalts, Braun et al. (2008) examined the attrition of stone blades. The study examined the effect of cutting on the

29 blade after skinning, initial disarticulation, defleshing, and secondary disarticulation. It was shown that the number of cut marks created by a particular blade could not be determined by attrition, nor did cutting bone significantly dull the blade (Braun et al.

2008:1220). Results did show that defleshing caused significantly less attrition on a blade used solely for that purpose compared to blades used for defleshing and disarticulation.

This type of research could be potentially beneficial if one is trying to determine if a blade had been previously used, and if so, with what frequency.

While there are various avenues that have been taken in regards to analyzing burning and cut marks on skeletal remains, little research has been done on what effect fire has on cut marks. Baby (1954) examined the cremated remains of 128 individuals from four archaeological Hopewell sites in Ohio. This study provides an example of a systematic examination of human remains where both cut marks and burning are present.

Baby (1954:4) was able to determine that the individuals in this society were dismembered or disarticulated prior to being cremated. Similar to modern criminal concealment of a body, Baby suggested that dismemberment was performed for convenience during transport and cremation. Though this was a prehistoric account of mortuary practices, this research provides a good indication of the sites of disarticulation.

There were four examples of the skull being separated from the first cervical vertebra, as well as the instances of the upper leg being separated from the lower leg at the knee joint.

By removing the leg at the sites of muscle attachments, the ends of the leg bones were further exposed to the fire. This can be seen by the calcination of distal femora.

In a more controlled study, deGruchy and Rogers (2002) conducted an experiment in which they cut 30 pig radii and ulnae as well as 30 beef ribs. For the

30 purposes of this study they employed the use of a cleaver as well as a knife (deGruchy and Rogers 2002:1-4). After exposing the remains to the heat of an outdoor campfire with the intention of replicating a crime scene, deGruchy and Rogers examined the remains.

The authors noted that burning had little effect on the cut marks made by the cleaver, although shrinkage should be taken into consideration when examining length (deGruchy and Rogers 2002:3). While this study is a step in understanding how fire affects cut marks, it only examined the use of two cutting instruments, and only provided conclusive evidence for one.

Pope and Smith (2004) examined how to identify trauma on burned cranial bone. While many studies use long bones in trauma and burning studies, until this point there had been a lack of research done using cranial bones. For this study 40 unembalmed heads were subjected to various types of trauma. Characteristics of how the bones responded to burning as well as descriptions of the fire itself were recorded. Bones exposed to advanced burning showed defects with dark margins indicating a pressurized vent for organic materials within the vault (Pope and Smith 2004:433). It was also noted that fracture margins may become less defined as bones shrink and warp with exposure to fire. Lacerations that broke the skin, such as cut marks, exposed the bone to fire for an extended amount of time compared to the surrounding unexposed bone (Pope and Smith

2004:436). In regards to sharp force trauma, Pope and Smith (2004:437) concluded that perimortem tool marks could not be mistaken for postmortem damage on calcined bone.

The authors noted that when the same tool marks were created on calcined bone, the brittleness caused spalling and polishing of the cut mark (Pope and Smith 2004:439).

Being able to distinguish between pre-burning and post-burning (such as a scalpel mark

31 from processing) can be important when interpreting cut marks which have been subjected to fire.

Marciniak (2009) conducted research on the identification of saw marks after burning. Using 36 limb bones of adult domestic pigs (Sus scrofa), Marciniak exposed the cut bones to fire for a maximum of three hours. This study however did not record the temperature of the fire. Results showed that the survivorship of striae varied among the type of saw (Marciniak 2009:781). The condition of the bone and how far it was in the burning process did affect how well the striae survived. Marciniak (2009:784) concluded that identifying features will still be present after burning depending on the saw.

Summary of Sharp Force Trauma

The understanding of how tools can affect bone is a necessary background for what to expect with the current research. What kind of damage can occur to a bone and how extensive the damage may be needs to be known for each class of tool, especially when also taking into consideration that the sample used in this study is also exposed to fire.

The literature discussed within this chapter examined several different types of tools and their characteristics. As the present study utilizes tools from each weapon class, the extensive research which has already been conducted allows a solid understanding of the type and amount of damage that can be expected from each tool class. When combined with the literature on burning, hypotheses to be generated on how the bone and cut marks will survive. There were also a few preliminary studies that examined how burning affects cut marks. Despite the limitations of these studies, they

32 contained two tools that will be used in this research. This provides a foundation on how particular tool marks should respond to fire exposure. Marciniak also discussed the survivorship of saw striae. As this is a question examined here, it will be seen whether or not this is a consistent finding for this class of tool.

CHAPTER IV

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The research presented here utilized nonhuman remains to determine the effects of fire on cut marks on bone. In order for this research to be of any consequence to future studies, knowledge of how the sample was obtained and prepared is necessary.

This chapter will describe the parameters of the pilot study, how research samples were obtained and prepared for the study, the fire and fuel source, and temperature control.

After the source and preparation of the sample are established, there is a discussion of how the sample was analyzed both macroscopically and statistically. An explanation will be stated for each test, and an explanation of all macroscopic analysis will be reviewed.

Materials

Pilot Study Sample

A pilot study was conducted to establish how long the samples should be exposed to heat and to determine the logistics of the burn building facility. Though the conditions of the pilot study were not identical to the research study, they provided a suitable starting point. The pilot study was conducted in October 2009 and used a raccoon (Procyon lotor) carcass. At the time of collection, the skull of the raccoon was fractured and most of its internal organs were protruding; the limbs, however, were intact.

33 34

The carcass was removed from the freezer and thawed overnight in the CSU

Chico Human Identification Lab (CSUC-HIL). Once thawed, a scalpel was used to extract two intact humeri and tibiae. The long bones provided a sturdy medium for creating cut marks and also had a greater chance of survival after burning.

Once the bones had been extracted and cleaned, a series of cut marks was created using a cleaver, a standard kitchen steak knife, and a hand saw. On three of the bones, only one tool was used to facilitate recording and distinguishing between the different types of tool marks. Five cut marks were created by each tool. The fourth bone had five marks from each tool. Cut marks were created using the tool in the manner for which it was designed, e.g., a chopping motion was used with the cleaver, and the saw and knife were used in a cutting motion. The tools were used in this manner to create consistency in the cut marks and to facilitate recording the characteristics of each blade.

Casts were made of each cut mark using MikrosilTM casting material. Mikrosil is pliable and has a quick setting time that provides a high quality impression of tool marks. Casting material was used to fully examine the general kerf features (e.g., length and width), as well as cut mark striations (Reichs 1998:356). Different colors of Mikrosil were used to distinguish between the casts made prior to burning (gray) from those after burning (brown). The bones and the remainder of the carcass were again frozen prior to the scheduled burn.

The remains were removed from the freezer immediately prior to burning, and were transported to the Fire Academy at Butte Community College in Oroville, CA. This facility is a two story building made of cinder blocks used for training fire cadets. The pilot study was conducted on a day when the Fire Academy was already conducting fire

35 training exercises. The carcass was placed on an armchair composed of synthetic material. The four bones with cut marks were placed next to the carcass. The chair was set on fire with a lighter without use of an accelerant. The temperature was not recorded or kept under controlled conditions for the pilot study. The chair and remains were allowed to burn for approximately 40 minutes before being extinguished with a fire extinguisher.

Once cooled, the carcass was collected and returned to the CSUC-HIL for analysis. The bones were lightly cleaned using a toothbrush and water to remove debris.

After cleaning, the bones were left to dry overnight. The cut marks were once again cast using brown Mikrosil casting material.

Research Study Sample

The main thesis study was conducted from November to December 2009.

Four pig (Sus scrofa) femora were obtained from a local butcher shop. These bones had been cured by the butcher in brine, although was unlikely to affect the results of this experiment. Two bones were from an adult and the other two were from a juvenile with unfused epiphyses. The bones had already been defleshed, except for some cartilage and muscle tissue. This allowed for the easy observation of previous cut marks caused by the butchering of the animal. Similar to the raccoon, the bones were frozen until they were to be processed.

The bones were taken out of the freezer and allowed to thaw for 24 hours.

Once thawed, they were brought to the CSUC-HIL where the sample cut marks were made using the same cleaver, saw, and steak knife as used in the pilot study (Figure 1).

The cleaver is a 5½-inch long Farberware blade. The hand saw is an Irwin Utility

FIGURE 1. Tools used to create cut marks: a) hand saw, b) cleaver, c) steak knife, d) scalpel.

Toolbox Saw, with a blade length of 11½ inches, and with 10 TPI and alternate set teeth to allow power on both the pull and push stroke. Finally the steak knife is made of stainless steel, with teeth set to the left. The blade length for this tool is 4¾ inches, with teeth only extending 2¾ inches; this blade also has 10 TPI. Similar to the pilot study, only one tool was used on each bone. On the fourth bone, a scalpel was used with a 10 mm blade. Scalpels are frequently used in the processing and postmortem examination of human remains and were thus also examined in this study. With the assistance of a lab intern, at least 29 cut marks were made on each bone.

This sample size increased the chances that a reliable sample of cut marks would survive burning to conduct a statistical analysis. Again the tools were used as designed. When the cut marks were created, there was an attempt to remove the remaining flesh and periosteum with a scalpel. This was stopped once the blade threatened to cut into the actual bone. At this point, the remainder of the processing occurred in a dermestid colony maintained at the CSUC-HIL.

When the bones were skeletonized, they were removed from the dermestid colony. The cut marks were casted using gray MikrosilTM and measurements were taken of the distance between the cut marks. This was done instead of the overall bone measurements to measure the amount of bone shrinkage. The area between the cut marks was more likely to survive burning compared to the overall bone. Measurements were taken using a sliding caliper to account for distances that could not be measured using the microscope. These measurements were taken for the pre- and post-burn casts.

The research sample was taken to Butte Fire Academy to be burned in

December 2009. Unlike the pilot study, I had more control over how this burn was conducted. The bones were placed on top of the fuel source (Figure 2) which consisted of a wooden palette stacked on a chair, surrounded by hay and two other palettes, and finally placed on top of two additional palettes (Figure 3). According to Dr. John

DeHaan, this situation would closely resemble a house fire, with multiple sources of fuel inside a structure (personal communication, December 10, 2009). A flare was used to start the fire without the use of an accelerant. Temperature was controlled using ventilation. The doors and windows of the burn facility were opened and closed as needed to keep the fire between 227.3°C and 1,096.7°C. To make sure that this was

B A C D

FIGURE 2. Research sample bones prior to burning: a) saw, b) scalpel, c) knife, d) cleaver.

accomplished, a digital data logger attached to heat couplings (courtesy of Fire-Ex

Forensics, in Vallejo, CA) was used to record the temperature every fifteen seconds. The data logger provided a printout of the temperatures from the fire, the ceiling, and the ambient air temperature. The samples were allowed to burn for 40 minutes, and the fire was extinguished using a small fire hose on a low setting to avoid displacing burned elements. Once the samples had cooled, they were collected and transported back to

CSUC-HIL.

In the lab, debris was removed from the burned remains, again using water and a toothbrush, and the bones were allowed to dry overnight. Once the bones were dry,

FIGURE. 3. Set up of fuel with research sample and heat couplings in place.

an attempt was made at reconstruction. When the parts of the bones and tool marks could be distinguished from one another, they were again casted using brown MikrosilTM.

Methods

Macroscopic Analysis

Analysis of the data collected over the course of this study was conducted in several steps. The first part of the analysis was performed on the casts of the cut marks before the bone was burned. Casts from this part of the experiment were examined with a

Fisher Scientific digital microscope. This instrument not only allowed for a digital image of the cast to be taken and saved, but also permitted an accurate measurement of the kerf dimensions to the nearest mm at 150x magnification. Once the measurements were recorded, the image was inverted using Adobe Photoshop 7.0. This provided a positive image of the cut mark, and also allowed the borders of the measurement to be examined in greater detail.

Software by Micron (2005 2.0) was used to take several measurements of the pre-burn and post-burn cut mark casts. This allowed for the assessment of possible change in the size of cut marks. First, the maximum length of the cut marks was taken.

This was determined as the distance between the opposing ends of each kerf. Next, three measurements of width were taken from each cut mark. Widths were taken by dividing the length of the cut mark into thirds. This allowed for each cut mark to be analyzed in the same manner and the widths to be taken at consistent intervals. For the purposes of this study, Width 1 will refer to the first width signifying the end point of the first third of the cut mark, Width 2 will denote the second measurement taken at the end point of the second third of the cut mark, and Width 3 will denote the final width measurement of the cut mark taken at the endpoint of the final third of the cut mark. Once the measurements and observations were complete, the data was put into Statistical Packages for the Social

Sciences (SPSS v. 17). The same process was repeated for each of the research study samples.

Striation Cut Mark Survivorship Analysis

Next, the presence versus absence of striations was examined. The scalpel was not examined since the casts did not provide an adequate kerf wall to analyze. To observe

41 the striations, each cut mark cast was cut from the MikrosilTM and attached to paper sheets using clear tape. Once mounted, the cut marks were placed again under the microscope and striations were recorded as either present or absent.

The percentage of cut mark survivability was calculated to determine the degree of destruction of trauma due to burning. The overall appearance and coloration pattern of the bone was also examined on a macroscopic level. While this is not an exact measure, color differences provided a crude basis to assess differences in temperature exposure. The extent of fracturing was also noted at this time. Fracture patterns indicated whether there was a difference in the extent of damage caused by the different tools. The extent of damage caused by a tool prior to a fire event could indicate the likelihood that the cut marks would survive burning.

Statistical Analysis

Descriptive statistics were run on all the cut mark data. The maximum length and the three width measurements for each cut mark (pre- and post-burn) were recorded.

Statistical tests were also run, including paired t-tests, to examine any change in size of the cut marks. The aim of the paired t-test was to determine if the cut marks changed in size after being exposed to fire. While the length of each cut mark was also recorded, it was not analyzed due to the extent of damage to the outer cortex of the bone at the location of some of the cut marks. The survivorship of the cut marks was the next item to be analyzed. The percent survivorship was determined from the total number of identifiable cuts.

The final test conducted was the percent survivorship of striations after burning. This was a simple percentage of the number of cut marks with evidence of

42 striations after burning relative to the number identified prior to burning. A morphological examination allowed for the determination of whether or not identifying characteristics of a tool (such as striations) would survive thermal exposure.

Summary

Nonhuman samples were chosen for the purpose of this study. Using human remains would have been ideal, but due to facility restrictions and access to such samples, this was not possible. Pig long bones were selected as a suitable substitute for human remains. To ensure that any potential issues with the study were resolved before the research sample was used, a pilot study was first conducted to establish the parameters of the study.

The research sample was analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively in order to accomplish the aims of this study. To address whether cut marks or striations endured burning, a macroscopic analysis was sufficient to determine their survivorship.

Based on this analysis a percent survivability was determined. The appropriate statistical tests were also run to examine the degree of change in cut mark size.

CHAPTER V

RESULTS

In this chapter, the survivorship of both cut marks and striations will be discussed for each tool. The survivorship of cut marks is important when determining whether or not trauma would still be observable after a thermal event. Similarly, the survivorship of striations is equally important in order to distinguish between different classes of tool. While striations may not be able to identify a specific weapon, they can certainly help to exclude classes of tools.

The results of the statistical tests will also be examined. This information can be extremely important in a forensic investigation when attempting to determine whether thermal activity had an effect on the metric features of a cut mark. Though cut mark size is not a definitive method to determine blade size, it can be used as an estimate. When cut marks are exposed to fire, it may not be possible to determine blade size. The inability to even estimate the size of a tool blade could be extremely detrimental to a forensic investigation.

Descriptive Analysis of the Pilot Study and Research Sample

Once the raccoon was completely processed, the skeleton was laid out in anatomical position to observe the burn pattern. The skeleton as a whole showed very little burn damage. The only areas that indicated that they had been exposed to fire were

43 44 the phalanges of the hind limb and the sacrum. These areas were charred, while the remainder of the skeleton lacked evidence of significant fire damage. The four elements with cut marks showed evidence of some charring, calcination, and brown coloration.

All four bones from the research study were subjected to the same fire temperature and duration. However, the extent of damage was quite variable. This could be observed by the degree of color change and the extent of fracturing. The colors most frequently observed were light grey, black (charred), and white (calcined). There was also deep blue coloration present on some of the bone fragments. Overall, the pattern seemed to be that the distal condyles and the greater trochanters of each femur were the least burned, having only charring and a grey color. When these features were separated at the epiphyses from the bone, the external surface showed more severe exposure to the fire than the metaphyses. The midshafts of each bone showed the greatest degree of color change (calcined). Grey coloration was observed at the borders between the midshaft and the distal and proximal ends. The only bone that had a blue color was the bone with cut marks created by the cleaver. This color pattern indicates that midshafts of each bone were affected more significantly by the fire.

When compared to the bones from the pilot study, the extent of burning, based on color change, of the study sample was quite extensive (Figure 4). This could indicate that the temperature of the fire involved in the pilot study did not get as high as the study fire. However, due to the lack of temperature recording during the pilot study, this cannot be determined. Based on the fact that the pilot study sample was exposed for a longer duration of time and still presented a less burned appearance (mostly charred), it can be assumed that the temperature of that fire was lower than that of the study.

FIGURE 4. Pilot study sample post burn and research study sample post burn. A) Pilot study sample post-burn (note: red coloring due to the casting material); B) Research sample postburn (note: blue coloring is tape used for reconstruction).

Fracturing was very extensive on the research sample, especially on the midshafts of the bones. On the bone with the cleaver cut marks, the majority of the midshaft could not be recovered after being burned. Additional fracturing was observed along the epiphyseal lines of both condyles and the femoral heads. These areas were very

46 fragile. Casting material separated the outer cortex of the bone in some areas, although the cut marks were still clearly observable. Areas with extensive trabecular bone were also quite fragile. After cooling, several of the bone fragments continued to fracture when handled. Severe warping was also observed, especially on the midshaft. During reconstruction of the bones, warping prevented fragments from being precisely realigned.

Bone that had been cut using the cleaver was the most fragmented of all the samples; this could be explained by the amount of damage caused by this tool (Figure 5).

Cut marks made by the cleaver showed very deep incisions on the bone. There were also

FIGURE 5. Cleaver marks before burning (specimen D).

47 areas where the force of the tool caused significant wastage, leading to extensive damage to the bone. The majority of the cut marks were made on the midshaft, causing this area of the bone to be prone to fracture. The extent of damage caused by the tool on the midshaft would explain why much of this region was not recovered. In a forensic context, this could hinder an investigation if the tool marks do not survive burning and cannot be analyzed.

Analysis of Statistical Results from Research Sample

Results of Statistical Tests

The descriptive statistics illustrate the differences of cut mark widths between the tools. These results also show the difference between the cut marks before and after burning (Table 2). Results from the cleaver indicate that the mean and standard deviation of the width taken at the midpoint of the cut mark (x¯ = 1.1± .93) is the greatest width measurement for this tool prior to burning. The second width measurement still has the largest mean size after burning (x¯ = 2.2±2.4). These measurements indicate that while the center portion of a cut mark is likely to be the widest portion of the cut mark, it also appears to not be greatly influenced by bone shrinkage. The cleaver, however, had a low rate of survivorship, which may have influenced these results.

Similar findings could be observed with the saw, with the width measurement taken at the midpoint of the cut mark again being the highest pre-burning (x¯ = .64±.27).

Unlike the cleaver though, the second width measurement of the saw maintained the highest standard deviation post burning (x¯ = .56±.33). Descriptive statistics of the scalpel indicate that, unlike the previous two tools, the first width measurement had the largest

TABLE 2. PRE- AND POST-BURN MEASUREMENTS OF THE RESEARCH SAMPLE

Weapon Type Measurement of Cut Mark in mm N Mean SD Range

Cleaver Preburn Width 1 36 1.0 0.9 3.9 Preburn Width 2 36 1.1 0.9 3.7 Preburn Width 3 36 0.7 0.7 3.2 Postburn Width 1 17 1.9 2.2 6.1 Postburn Width 2 17 2.2 2.4 7.1 Postburn Width 3 17 1.9 2.6 8.8 Saw Preburn Width 1 40 0.5 0.2 1.0 Preburn Width 2 40 0.6 0.3 1.4 Preburn Width 3 40 0.5 0.2 1.2 Postburn Width 1 29 0.5 0.3 1.1 Postburn Width 2 29 0.6 0.3 1.1 Postburn Width 3 29 0.5 0.3 1.2 Scalpel Preburn Width 1 32 0.4 0.3 1.2 Preburn Width 2 32 0.3 0.2 0.9 Preburn Width 3 32 0.3 0.3 1.2 Postburn Width 1 22 0.2 0.1 0.4 Postburn Width 2 22 0.2 0.1 0.3 Postburn Width 3 22 0.2 0.1 0.3 Steak Knife Preburn Width 1 35 0.6 0.4 2.5 Preburn Width 2 35 0.7 0.4 2.2 Preburn Width 3 35 0.5 0.3 1.5 Postburn Width 1 31 0.4 0.2 0.6 Postburn Width 2 31 0.4 0.1 0.4 Postburn Width 3 31 0.4 0.1 0.5

mean and standard deviation both before (x¯ = .36±.35) and after (x¯ = .23±.09) burning.

This would indicate that the width of a scalpel cut mark decreases in size as it continues to burn. The final tool, the knife, shows that while the second width measurement is the greatest before burning (x¯ = .66±.39), the first width measurement maintains a greater width after burning (x¯ = .44±.17). Interestingly, based on the descriptive statistics, it would appear that the cut marks shrink in size after being exposed to fire.

Paired t-tests were conducted to examine the degree of change of width pre- and post-burning. This test was able to discern whether any change in width was at a significant level. When examining individual weapons using a paired t-test, the significance level varied by tool type and by width measurement.

The cleaver and the saw both showed insignificant changes in width. Saw measurements significantly changed for Width 2 (t = 2.58, df = 28, p = .016). Of all the tools, the cleaver appears to have the smallest change in cut mark size. For the cleaver

Width 1 (t = -1.05, df = 16, p = .31) showed the lowest degree of change, whereas Width

3 showed the greatest change in size (t = -1.69, df = 16, p = .11). The non-significant results of the paired t-test for the cleaver may be explained by a low survivorship of cut marks. This sample had extensive fracturing, leaving very few cut marks to be examined post burning (n = 12). The remainder of the tools showed at least two width measurements that showed at a significant change.

Results for the scalpel paired t-tests indicated that the most significant change in width was at Width 1 (t = 2.55, df = 21, p= .02), which is also the width that on average was the widest point of the scalpel cut marks. For this tool, Width 3 had a non- significant result (t = 1.16, df = 21, p = .25). Unlike the former three tools, the steak knife yielded significant results at all three widths (Table 3). Further testing indicates that the steak knife also shows the highest survivorship. It could be this high level of survivorship that allowed for the significant results.

Cut Mark Survivorship

Survivorship of the cut marks was also examined by comparing the total original cut marks present on the bone with the number recognized after burning (Table

TABLE 3. PAIRED T-TEST RESULTS FOR PRE VS. POST BURN WIDTH COMPARISONS

Tool Measurement (in mm) t df p-value

Steak Knife Width 1 2.93 30 0.01 Width 2 3.85 30 <0.01 Width 3 2.41 30 0.02 Cleaver Width 1 -1.05 16 0.31 Width 2 -1.27 16 0.22 Width 3 -1.69 16 0.11 Scalpel Width 1 2.55 21 0.01 Width 2 2.19 21 0.04 Width 3 1.18 21 0.25 Saw Width 1 0.15 28 0.88 Width 2 2.58 28 0.02 Width 3 1.32 28 0.20

4). From these totals, percentages were calculated to determine the cut mark survival rate.

The cleaver demonstrated the lowest level of survivorship (47.2%). This was to be expected considering that the majority of the midshaft of this bone was not be recovered after burning. The steak knife had the highest level of survivorship at 88.6 percent.

Similar to the saw, the majority of the bone with the knife marks was able to be recovered. Cut marks made by the knife were still clearly observed on the surface of the bone (Figure 6). Like the saw, the knife also made scratches on the surface of the bone that survived burning. Of the four tools, the steak knife also had the greatest overall survival rate. This tool produced very little damage, which may explain why the bone with knife cut marks was the least affected by the burning.

It seems that the degree of destruction to the bone by fire is the cause for low cut mark survivorship. Cut marks were still clearly defined on the portions of bone that

1 TABLE 4. DESCRIPTION OF CUT MARKS AND DATA RECORDED ON EACH TOOL

Tool Number of Cut Number of Cut % Characteristics Marks Prior to Marks Post Survivorship Recorded Burning Burning

Scalpel 31 21 67.7 Length, Width Hand Saw 29 26 89.7 Length, Width, Striations Steak Knife 35 26 74.3 Length, Width, Striations Cleaver 30 12 40 Length, Width, Striations

1All bones were burned for approximately 40 minutes at temperatures ranging from 277.3°C-1,096.7°C

FIGURE 6. Knife cut marks on the femoral head (specimen C).

52 survived the fire. These findings indicate that if trauma is present on a bone prior to burning, there is a high likelihood that it will be present for examination.

Striation Survivorship

The final variable examined during this research was the survivorship of striations for the different tools (Table 5). As stated earlier, scalpel striations were not examined due to the insufficient definition of the kerf walls on the casts. As seen in

TABLE 5. SURVIVORSHIP RATE OF STRIATIONS AFTER BURNING

Weapons Type Cleaver Saw Steak Knife Percentage of striations that 100 19 56.2 did not survive Percentage of striations that 0 81 43.8 did survive

previous research, the cleaver left striations perpendicular to the kerf floor, consistent with a tool used in a chopping motion. Both the saw and the steak knife left striations parallel to the kerf floor consistent with a cutting motion. Prior to burning, the cleaver showed very little evidence of identifiable striations (n = 8). This could be expected since this is a non-serrated instrument. After burning, there was no evidence of striations on the kerf walls. This was not the same with the other tools. Both the saw (n = 21) and steak knife (n = 16) left definable striations prior to burning, and these striations were just as visible after burning. the saw showed the greatest survivorship of striations (81%). This increased survivorship of striations could be attributed to the high survival rate of the saw marks.

After burning, the striations along the kerf walls were still distinguishable (Figure

7). Striations from the saw and steak knife probably survived better due to the number of striations present. the alternate set of the saw teeth allowed for a set of striations to be

FIGURE 7. Post burn striations of the eleventh cut on the anterior surface of Specimen A (saw).

created by each row of teeth. This is because of how the teeth enter the bone, each one creating its own saw mark as well as a separate striation. on the casts, levels of striations are clearly visible both before and after burning. No deterioration of the striation marks was detected of the saw or steak knife. Striations can be crucial in determining the class of a suspect weapon.

Indications Based on the Analytical Results

Cut mark survivorship and striation survivorship are closely related to the recovery of the bone. Bone recovery depends on the extent of damage created to the bone surface by each tool. The cleaver created extensive damage on the bone surface, and as a result, very little of this bone survived burning. Likewise, this tool had the lowest rate of survivorship for both cut marks and striations. In comparison, the steak knife had the highest rate of survival. Unlike the cleaver, the steak knife created superficial marks on the surface of the bone, leaving the bone uncompromised. Based on these findings, the likelihood of recovering evidence of trauma from a fire scene depends on the extent of the trauma. Forensic investigators could expect to find evidence of trauma on bone after thermal exposure provided that the bone was not severely compromised prior to being burned.

Summary

The cut marks from all of the tools except the cleaver showed evidence of shrinkage due to burning. Although the cleaver width increased, this was not significant.

This decrease can be accounted for by the overall bone shrinkage and has been observed in previous research (Buikstra and Swegle 1989). the results indicate that the cut mark width shrinks in conjunction with the shrinkage of the bone.

While the results of the change in cut mark width are interesting, the findings on survivorship levels were expected. Previous studies have indicated that cut marks will survive thermal exposure. However, regardless of whether cut marks or striations survive, there is clear evidence that heat alters measurements of cut marks. This could have

55 profound effects at a forensic scene where investigators are attempting to get information on a potential tool based on cut mark measurements.

CHAPTER VI

DISCUSSION

This thesis examined how burning affects cut marks on bone. Previous research on this topic is sparse and consists mainly of small samples sizes and uncontrolled burning experiments. This study attempted to provide an overview of how fire affects sharp trauma caused by different classes of tools, and also what evidence an investigator could expect to recover from a fire scene. Cut mark and striation survivorship were the morphological characteristics examined during this study.

Investigators need to know if cut marks and striations will survive thermal exposure in order to be examined as evidence. These characteristics can provide information about the tool that made them. Striations can play an important role when suggesting the class of tool used to create them; thus it is necessary for these characteristics to survive burning in order to rule out suspected weapons.

Finally, changes in cut mark widths were examined. With bone shrinkage being a well-documented occurrence, it was presumed to affect the size of cut marks exposed to heat. This finding was supported, although not in the manner originally anticipated. Based on how different tools create cut marks, kerf size is often used as a basis to draw assumptions on blade dimensions. This research has shown that once cut marks have been exposed to fire, kerf dimensions can no longer be used for the purpose

56 57 of making assumptions on blade size. This chapter examines the results as they relate to the research questions of this study.

Morphological Changes

Color Changes

As expected, the bones presented a variety of colors after being exposed to fire. The midshafts of the bones showed the greatest response to heat, with a high degree of calcination. This suggests that this area of the bone reached the highest temperatures, most likely because the difference in thickness between the midshaft portions and the condyles and trochanters could have allowed the temperature of the fire to affect these areas differently. The variation in color on the same bone is be consistent with Correia and Beattie’s (2002) hypothesis that color change is not an accurate means by which to draw conclusions about fire temperature and duration.

The color was also variable within the condyles. After the condyle separated from the diaphysis at the epiphyses, the metaphysis presented a different coloration pattern than the outer cortex. The superior aspect of the condyle showed evidence of charring, whereas the external portion of the condyles varied in color from blue to grey.

This difference suggests that the superior aspect was not exposed to the fire until after the separation of the epiphyses. This delayed exposure would be evident by the charring that was present on this section of bone. All of the bones were subjected to the same fire and temperature for the same duration, yet the various sections of the bones presented different coloration patterns.

Cut Mark Survivorship

Although burning caused extensive damage, the trauma caused by the instruments severely compromised the integrity of the bones prior to burning. As expected, there were no fractures on the bone caused by the tools (Humphrey and

Hutchinson 2001:230). However, this damage provided a compromised location for fracturing to occur during burning (Fairgrieve 2008:122). The area of the midshaft where the majority of cut marks were made showed the most extensive level of fracturing.

Fracturing of this sample strongly influenced the survivorship of the cut marks. The extent of the damage led to large portions of bone not being recovered after burning. Similar to what Fairgrieve (2008:50) reported, this sample showed evidence of both transverse and longitudinal fracturing. These fracture patterns not only allowed the bone to break along the medullary cavity where much of the trauma was located, but also completely transected the bone, separating large portions.

Similar to the color change, the most extensive fracturing was seen at the midshafts of the bones. Severe fracturing at this location could also be explained by the bone being thinner, allowing for the heat of the fire to affect the region more intensely.

The midshaft of the bone contains the medullary cavity, which may have been more readily exposed due to the presence of trauma.

The fire also caused the epiphyses to separate from the diaphysis. While two of the bones were those of a juvenile pig with unfused epiphyses, the other two bones were from an adult. After burning, the femoral heads and condyles had separated, and the latter became especially fragile. Trabecular bone in this region continued to fracture when handled after cooling. When casted, cortical bone became stuck in the casting

59 material and detached from the bone. The structure of the bone in this area could explain why it was left in such a fragile state compared to the rest of the bone after being burned.

The remaining tools did not create extensive damage on the bones, which might explain why these bones survived better than those damaged by the cleaver. While the midshaft portions of these bones fractured extensively, the majority of these elements were still able to be recovered. Though the scalpel, saw, and steak knife left discernable cut marks, they did not compromise the integrity of the bone in the same manner as the cleaver. Study results indicate that evidence of scalpel, saw, and steak knife cuts may survive a fire.

Survivorship of sharp force trauma could be expected even on archaeological remains. Despite the most likely presence of flesh and the weathering of the bones over time, Baby (1954:4) was able to find evidence of cut marks on the remains at four

Hopewell sites in Ohio. Given that evidence of sharp force trauma was able to survive the burial practices of this society and the weathering of time, it was expected that the cut marks for the current research would survive exposure to fire.

Survivorship of the cut marks is another important issue for forensic investigators, and varied among the different tools. As stated previously, the cleaver had the lowest rate of survival at 47.2 percent. However, cut marks could still be seen clearly on the undamaged bone. As could be expected with this type of tool, there was a large amount of wastage, which would have compromised the midshaft before being exposed to fire. Severe damage to the midshaft led to extensive deterioration of this area, which prevented a large portion of it from being collected for analysis. Fracturing of this area led to a low survivorship of cleaver marks. Investigators should keep in mind that in a

60 case where a cleaver is the suspect weapon, there is a high likelihood that evidence of this trauma will not survive an extensive fire. If this is the case, there may be little evidence to link a suspected weapon to the trauma.

Interestingly, the scalpel had the second lowest survivorship at 68.8 percent.

This bone also had extensive fracturing along the midshaft. Much of this bone was not recovered, similar to the cleaver. The damage caused by the tool prior to burning cannot explain the amount of damage caused by the fire. This particular bone was mostly calcined, which would suggest that the bone was greatly weakened by the fire, thus causing extensive fracturing. Fracturing would cause a situation where parts of the bone were not able to be identified, thus showing a lower cut mark survival rate.

At 72.5 percent, the saw had the second highest survivorship of cut marks.

Much of this bone was able to be recovered after the fire, which allowed a large portion of the trauma to be observed. The saw did not create much damage on the surface of the bone, which prevented extensive fracturing from occurring. Without fracturing, much of the bone was able to be recovered, thus allowing a high survivorship of cut marks. If this type of weapon was suspected in a forensic investigation, there is a high likelihood that remnants of the tool marks would survive a fire.

Survivorship results indicate that investigators will have varying degrees of success in finding tool mark evidence on burned remains. The results suggest that as long as the bone itself survives, then the cut marks will likely survive as well. If the tool causing the trauma uses a chopping motion, such as a cleaver, the extent of damage may prevent it from surviving a fire. On the other hand, serrated tools seem to survive burning better than non-serrated tools. These tools also leave scratches on the bone, which can

61 survive burning. There would be the greatest possibility of finding evidence of a serrated tool at a fire scene. Based on the results of this study, the characteristics of serrated tools would be the most likely to be discovered due to their defined kerf marks that do not cause extensive damage to the bone.

Striation Survivorship

Striations were the final morphological characteristic examined in this study.

The casts of the scalpel cut marks did not provide a kerf wall that was definable enough to examine striations. Therefore, this analysis focuses on the steak knife, saw, and cleaver. All three of these tools presented striations on a portion of the cut marks before burning. The orientation of striations in the kerf was consistent with previous studies

(Reichs 1998, Bartelink et al. 2001, Humphrey and Hutchinson 2001). The tools that have serrated teeth and are used with a slicing motion (saw and steak knife) presented striations that were parallel to the kerf floor. The cleaver, which is not serrated and is used in a chopping motion, left striations perpendicular to the kerf floor.

The cleaver had the lowest survival rate of striations after burning (0%).

However, it also had very few striations observed prior to burning. The extent of fire damage to this bone accounts for the lack of striations surviving for this particular tool. It is possible that such extensive fire damage would destroy any evidence of cleaver striations. Striations can be an identifying feature when trying to determine the class of tool. In the case of a cleaver, the knowledge that striations may not survive burning could be critical in ruling out a potential suspect weapon. However, there was a low rate of survival of the overall cut marks in the cleaver sample, which probably influenced the results of striation survivorship. It is possible that the striations from the tool would have

62 survived if the bone had not become so fragmentary that it could not be recovered and analyzed. On the other hand, if the tool creates extensive enough damage to the bone, then it would be unlikely that the bone and any cut marks present would survive for analysis of striations.

In line with findings by Marciniak (2009), the survivorship of striations seems dependent on the tool that created the cut marks. Without knowledge of the temperature of the fire in Marciniak’s study or the overall condition of the bones, further comparison to this study is difficult. Marciniak’s study examined saw marks specifically, and the findings of the current research support that, at least for hand saws, striations may survive burning.

Discussion of Change in Cut Mark Size

The standard deviations for the three widths of each tool before and after burning also indicate a size change due to fire exposure, although the extent of change for each tool type varied. Similar to the other test results, the cleaver showed the greatest change in variation. The extent of damage caused by this particular tool would explain these results. The saw also showed an increase in the standard deviation with burning.

This change was not significant like the cleaver. With about a .1 mm increase across all three widths, it is possible that the alternate set of the saw teeth allowed for more defined and consistent kerf (Symes et al. n.d:5), making these cut marks less affected by the fire.

The cleaver and the saw were the two tools that did not show significant results for changes in cut mark size.

Both the scalpel and the steak knife showed a decrease in the amount of variation in cut mark width. These tools also both yielded a significant result for the amount of change in cut mark width. A smaller standard deviation value indicates that as the cut mark widths increased in size, they did not do so proportionally. It seems that a difference in the degree of change would cause a greater variation in the size of the cut mark widths. This variation was expected after examining the descriptive statistics. The survivorship of each bone was also quite variable; this allowed for particular tools to have more cut marks to be analyzed after burning.

A paired t-test on the cleaver also yielded non-significant results. These results could be due to the extent of damage caused by this tool on the surrounding bone.

While there was slight change in the width of the cut marks, it appears that the bone was more likely to fracture than to shrink. The extent of damage caused by the cleaver had significantly compromised the integrity of the bone prior to burning. With an increased amount of fracturing, the cut marks would have been damaged, thus preventing the fire from affecting their dimensions. The sample size (n=36) for this tool was also drastically reduced after burning. The subsequent sample (n=17) may have been insufficient to accurately analyze using a paired t-test. Results indicate that the cut mark of a cleaver could still potentially be used as a reference for blade dimensions during a forensic investigation. Based on the changes in size of the other tools’ marks, the results of the cleaver should be reanalyzed with a larger sample.

When the saw marks were analyzed, Width 2 was the only measurement that yielded a significant change in size. This tool had the second highest survival rate of all the tool marks (72.5%). A significant result here would suggest that the bone shrinkage

64 affected the middle of the cut marks more than the ends of the kerfs. This would be consistent with this area of the cut mark being the widest before burning. The ends of the kerf would be thinner, indicating that the saw did not have a set kerf when entering the bone, and also did not maintain the kerf at the termination point. In forensic investigations, it would appear that examination of the ends of a saw mark would give investigators the best representation of the actual blade characteristics.

Conversely, the scalpel yielded significant results on Width 1 and 3. This would suggest that the greatest change in width for this tool was the ends of the kerf as opposed to the center. These results could potentially be explained by the lack of serrations on a scalpel. Without teeth, the scalpel blade sets a defined kerf as it enters the bone. This blade also produced a fairly clean cut. Scalpel marks are frequently observed after the processing of a decedent by a medical examiner or forensic anthropologist, but as a weapon in a forensic case, a scalpel cut mark will probably be rarely seen. If a scalpel cut mark were to be created prior to burning, it appears that burning will make these cut marks more defined.

The final tool analyzed, the steak knife, yielded a significant change in size for all three width measurements. This is curious since the saw only indicated a significant change at Width 2, yet is also a serrated tool. A possible explanation is that the steak knife was able to be used with more force and guidance due to its small size. This additional force and control would allow for a more defined cut mark to be created on the bone. The teeth of the steak knife also were set to the left, which allowed for a defined kerf to occur more quickly compared to the alternately set teeth of the saw. Compared to the knife, many of the saw’s cut marks did not penetrate the bone very deeply. A more

65 defined cut mark would provide a stronger basis for evaluation, which would in turn allow the cut marks to be more impacted by burning, thus yielding significant results.

Like the saw, the steak knife is serrated, and each tooth would have created its own kerf as it entered the bone. The serration of the blade would make a kerf wider than the blade right from the start (Reichs 1998:359). A wider kerf would allow the fire to have a greater surface area to influence the amount of bone shrinkage. By having a greater rate of bone shrinkage, the cut marks would also be affected to a greater extent. It appears that forensic investigators would retrieve the least amount of information on the dimensions of a blade from a tool similar to a steak knife. Although the striations would survive, the width of a blade is difficult to ascertain when the cut mark is not burned, and would be impossible to determine after a cut mark was burned. This would make determining a suspect weapon difficult without the ability to estimate the size of the original cut mark, and thus the blade.

It appears that investigators would not be able to determine how much a cut mark has changed based on bone shrinkage. While it is known that bones will shrink between certain temperatures (Kennedy 1999; Buikstra and Swegle 1989), without knowing the amount that a bone shrank, it would not be possible to determine how much a cut mark changed in size. For forensic investigators, it is important to acknowledge that the width of a cut mark will continue to change until the bone has stopped shrinking.

However, it appears that an investigator would not be able to derive the size of a cut mark prior to burning after the fact based on the rate of bone shrinkage.

Overall bone shrinkage appears to have the greatest impact on the extent of change in cut mark size. Research has shown that shrinkage starts at approximately

700°C and stops at 1,000°C (Kennedy 1999; Buikstra and Swegle 1989). The fire of the current study reached just under the latter temperature. This suggests that the bone samples had probably shrunk the maximum amount (2.2%) (Buikstra and Swegle

1989:254), which also allowed for the cut marks to change the maximum amount.

Previous research and the current findings have demonstrated that shrinkage affects the size of the cut marks. Findings on the cleaver were also consistent with those of deGruchy and Rogers (2002), which showed that burning did not affect the size of cut marks left by this tool. However, they did not provide results on any other tools, making comparison between their study and the current research impossible.

Summary

The findings of this study are consistent with research reported in the literature, although there remain many gaps in the knowledge of this topic. Though it could not be directly measured, based on the amount of cut mark shrinkage, it can be inferred that the bone likewise shrunk after being exposed to fire as expected. Similarly, the various color changes that other studies have shown were also seen in this research.

Likewise, the cut mark characteristics were consistent with the tool types which created them. Furthermore these characteristics, such as striations, were still visible after burning; which is also consistent with previous research (Marciniak 2009).

The extent of damage to bone created by each tool was also similar to that reported in the literature. Although this topic has not been studied extensively, the individual components have, and this study indicates that certain bony reactions to fire and cut marks holds true even after combining the two components.

CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSION

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of burning on cut marks on bone created by various tools. Both the morphological and metric features of the cut marks were examined before and after burning. For the purpose of this research, four pig femora were used as a medium for creating the cut marks. The cut marks made on each bone included a cleaver, a scalpel, a steak knife, and a saw. All four bones were completely defleshed prior to being burned to facilitate casting the cut marks.

MikrosilTM casting material was used to record each cut mark before and after burning. This material allowed for a quick drying cast to be created for analysis. The material could be cut and was pliable enough for microscopic examination. These casts were used to analyze cut mark width and the presence or absence of striations. All casts were examined with a Fisher digital microscope.

Images of the casts were recorded using the Micron software associated with the microscope in order to measure the widths of each cut mark. Results of these measurements were used to conduct the statistical analyses. Each image was inverted to provide a positive representation of the cut marks for measurement. To determine if striations were present, each cut mark was sectioned from the casting material and mounted for microscopic examination. This allowed the cast to be placed at a vertical angle, which made the striations visible.

67 68

Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS (v. 17.0). Descriptive statistics were computed to determine to what extent the cut marks of the four tools had changed after burning. A paired t-test was conducted to see if the changes in cut mark width had changed significantly after being burned. The cleaver and the saw both showed a non- significant change in size while the scalpel and the steak knife demonstrate a significant decrease in width.

The next test determined the percent survivorship of the cut marks. This was greatly affected by the overall survivorship of the bone. The cleaver showed the lowest rate of survivorship for cut marks, however the majority of the midshaft of this bone was not recovered. The tool with the highest rate of survivorship was the steak knife (88.6%).

There was a large portion of this sample that was able to be salvaged after burning. Both the scalpel and the saw had cut mark survivorship between 65 and 75 percent. Again the survivorship of the cut marks was dependent upon the survivorship of the bone.

The final statistical test conducted was the survivorship of the striations.

Survival of this characteristic was also dependent on the survivorship of the overall bone.

The cut marks made by the cleaver showed no striations that survived burning. However, the cut marks made by the steak knife and saw both showed a high percentage of striations survivorship. At 66.7 percent, the steak knife had the highest level of striation survivorship. The results indicate that certain characteristics of tool marks can survive burning and be discernable enough for interpretation.

Implications

The results of this study illustrate that fire affects cut mark survivorship and morphology. Depending on the tool used, fire may cause the width of a cut mark to decrease. If this occurs, investigators cannot use the width of a cut mark to draw inferences on the width of a blade used to create the mark. The results suggest that the dimensions of thermally altered cut marks will often be narrower than their original dimensions. Thus, burned cut marks cannot be used to estimate a possible knife type with any degree of certainty.

It also needs to be considered that tools that cause a high level of damage may cause bone adjacent to the trauma to deteriorate to such an extent that it may not be able to be recovered after a fire. If this is the case, a considerable amount of evidence will be missing. This only seems to be of concern with cut marks made on the midshaft of bones for the present study. Cut marks located on the proximal and distal end showed a high degree of survivorship.

Striations are another means by which particular tools can be identified. It has been shown here that striations often survive after prolonged exposure to fire.

Investigators may be able to use striations to identify a class of tool even after a bone has been exposed to fire. The striations observed in this study for serrated tools showed a relatively high survivorship rate.

Limitations of Study

There are several limitations of this research. For the purpose of this study, domestic pigs (Sus scrofa) were selected due to their accessibility, and because use of

70 human remains is not permitted through the Butte Fire Academy, which provided a location to conduct this research. Pig remains are not perfect substitutes, and may produce results that vary from that seen with human remains. Nonetheless, pig bones have been used frequently in burning and cut mark research (e.g., Humphrey and

Hutchinson 2001; deGruchy and Rogers 2002; Lynn and Fairgrieve 2009; Marciniak

2009) in place of human remains, and were determined to be a suitable substitute for the current research. Pig bones have shown to have a similar density and stress load capacity as human bones (Pagano et al. 2007). Therefore the fire was expected to have similar, but not identical effects on the pig bones in comparison with human remains. Despite these similarities, there are some key differences that influence the effect of fire on the skeletal remains of a pig compared to a human. Research has indicated that while the physical composition of pig bone may be similar to human, the microstructural composition is different and must be taken into consideration when used as a substitute (Aerssens et al.

1998). With this in mind, the results and conclusions drawn from this study should ideally be confirmed using human skeletal remains.

This study used four different tools, two of which are serrated and two which are non-serrated. Each tool comes from a different class, so that different types of tools could be studied. Very little research has been done in regards to how burning affects cut marks. This study not only examined how burning affects cut marks but also provided a degree of variability in the types of tools that may be seen during a forensic case. This research may allow forensic investigators to make broad interpretations based on tool class. Extensive examination of various tools and tool classes was beyond the scope of this research.

Fire temperature was another limiting factor of this research. Ideally, the temperature would have been kept a constant. Controlling for temperature would have allowed the study of the effects throughout the duration of the fire. In this study, though recorded, temperature could not be maintained at a specific level. While giving a realistic scenario, it prevented conclusions to be drawn about temperature. When the sample bones fractured during the fire, it was not known if this event occurred at 700º C (when bone starts to shrink) or at 1,100º C (when shrinking has stopped). Without this information, forensic investigators would not be able to draw conclusions about the effect of fire temperature on cut mark characteristics.

Future Research

Future research is still needed on the effects of fire on sharp-force trauma injuries. Future research should expand on the variables that have been analyzed in this study. A larger sample size will be able to confirm or refute the current results. There are also numerous tools and weapons that can be used to create sharp force trauma. Along with expanding the sample size for the four tools presented in this study, other tools should be examined as well. For the purpose of the research conducted here, the tools were only used in the fashion that they were designed to be used; stabbing and slashing marks should also be examined.

In regards to the fire, both the time and temperature should be examined further. There was no way to examine the sample at different temperature intervals during the fire; thus, it was only examined after the fire was completely extinguished. Future research should expose a sample to a constant temperature for various durations of time

72 to determine the effect of different exposure times. A similar approach should be done for temperature. A method should be developed to keep the temperature at a constant rate for the duration of the experiment. While this would not provide a realistic fire scene, it would allow researchers to determine what effects should be expected at various temperatures. With either a lower temperature or shorter duration, the bone survivorship may be greater, which would allow for more cut marks to survive for examination.

There are many avenues where this research may be expanded. This type of study will continue to be pertinent in the forensic sciences to help interpret cases that may present characteristics consistent with sharp force trauma and fire damage. Understanding the characteristics that survive and how they are altered due to fire exposure would aid investigators in identifying potential suspect weapons. It would also allow the interpretation of possible temperatures and the length a bone was exposed to fire.

REFERENCES CITED

AERSSENS, JEROEN, STEVEN BOONEN, GEERT LOWET, AND JAN DEQUEKER 1998 Interspecies difference in bone composition, density, and quality: Potential implications for in vivo research. Endocrinology 139(2):663-670.

BABY, RAYMOND 1954 Hopewell Cremation Practices. Papers in Archaeology 1:1-7.

BALTAR, V., J. F. SALIÈGE, H. BOCHERENS, AND A. PERSON 2002 Evidence of physicochemical and isotopic modifications in archaeological bones during controlled acid etching. Archaeometry 44(3):329-336.

BARTELINK, ERIC J., JASON M. WIERSEMA, AND RICHARD S. DEMAREE 2001 Quantitative analysis of sharp-force trauma: An application of scanning electron microscopy in forensic anthropology. Journal of Forensic Sciences 46(6):1288-1293.

BASS, WILLIAM M. 1984 Is it possible to consume a body completely in a fire? In Human identification: case studies in forensic anthropology. Ted A. Rathbun and Jane E. Buikstra, eds. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas Publisher. pp. 159- 167.

BASS, WILLIAM M., AND RICHARD L. JANTZ 2004 Cremation weights in east Tennessee. Journal of Forensic Sciences 49(5):901- 904.

BINFORD, LEWIS R. 1963 An analysis of cremations from three Michigan sites. The Wisconsin Archaeologist 44:98-110.

BOHNERT, MICHAEL, THOMAS ROST, MARIA FALLER-MARQUARDT, DIRK ROPOHL, AND STEFAN POLLAK 1997 Fractures of the base of the skull in charred bodies- post-mortem heat injuries or signs of mechanical traumatization? Forensic Science International 87:55-62.

BOHNERT, MICHAEL, THOMAS ROST, MARIA FALLER-MARQUARDT, AND STEFAN POLLAK 1998 The degree of destruction of human bodies in relation to the duration of the fire. Forensic Science International 95:11-21.

74 75

BRANNIGAN, FRANCIS L., RICHARD G. BRIGHT, AND NORA H. JASON, EDS. 1980 Fire investigation handbook. Washington: US Government Printing Office.

BRAUN, DAVID R., BRIANA L. POBINER, AND JESSICA C. THOMPSON 2008 An experimental investigation of cut mark production and stone tool attrition. Journal of Archaeological Science 35:1216-1223.

BUIKSTRA, JANE E., AND MARK SWEGLE 1989 Bone modification due to burning: Experimental evidence. In Bone modification. R. Bonnichsen and M. Sorg, eds. Orono: Center for the Study of First Americans. pp. 275-293.

BYERS, STEVEN M. 2008 Introduction to forensic anthropology. Boston: Pearson Education.

CORREIA, PAMELA MAYNE, AND OWEN BEATTIE 2002 A critical look at methods for recovering, evaluating, and interpreting cremated human remains. In Advances in forensic taphonomy method, theory, and archaeological perspectives. William D. Haglund and Marcella H. Sorg, eds. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 435-450.

DEGRUCHY, SPENCER, AND TRACY L. ROGERS 2002 Identifying chop marks on cremated bone: A preliminary study. Journal of Forensic Sciences 47(5):1-4.

DEHAAN, JOHN D. 2008 Fire and bones. In The analysis of burned human remains. Christopher W. Schmidt and Steven A. Symes, eds. London: Elsevier. pp. 1-14.

FAIRGRIEVE, SCOTT I. 2008 Forensic cremation: Recovery and analysis. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

FANTON, L., K. JDEED, S. TILHET-COARTET, AND D. MALICIER 2006 Criminal burning. Forensic Science International 158:87-93.

GÖTHERSTRÖM, A., M. J. COLLINS, A. ANGERBJÖRN, AND K. LIDÉN 2002 Bone preservation and DNA amplification. Archaeometry 44(3):395-404.

HANSON, MEGAN, AND CHESTER R. CAIN 2007 Examining histology to identify burned bone. Journal of Archaeological Science 34:1902-1913.

HEGLAR, RODGER 1984 Burned Remains. In Human identification: Case studies in forensic anthropology. Ted A. Rathbun and Jane E. Buikstra, eds. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas Publisher. pp. 148-158.

HOLDEN, J. L., P. P. PHAKEY, AND J. G. CLEMENT 1995 Scanning electron microscope observations of heat-treated human bone. Forensic Science International 74:29-45.

HOUCK, MAX M. 1998 Skeletal trauma and the individualization of knife marks in bone. In Forensic osteology: Advances in the identification of human remains. Kathleen J. Reichs, ed. , 2nd ed. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas Publisher. pp. 410-424.

HUMPHREY, JOSHUA H., AND DALE L. HUTCHINSON 2001 Macroscopic characteristics of hacking trauma. Journal of Forensic Sciences 46(2):228-233.

IWASE, HIROTARO, YOSHIHIRO YAMADA, SUSUMU OOTANI, YASUHITO SASAKI, MASATAKA NAGAO, KIMIHARU IWADATE, AND TAKEHIKO TAKATORI 1998 Evidence of an antemortem injury of a burned head dissected from a burned body. Forensic Science International 94:9-14.

KENNEDY, KENNETH A. R. 1999 The wrong urn: Commingling of cremains in mortuary practices. In Forensic osteological analysis: A book of case studies. Scott I. Fairgrieve, ed. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas Publisher. pp. 141-150.

LEWIS, JASON E. 2008 Identifying sword marks on bone: Criteria for distinguishing between cut marks made by different classes of bladed weapons. Journal of Archaeological Science 35:2001-2008.

LYNN, KALAN S., AND SCOTT I. FAIRGRIEVE 2009 Microscopic indicators of axe and hatchet trauma in fleshed and defleshed mammalian long bones. Journal of Forensic Sciences 54(4):793-797.

MARCINIAK, STEPHANIE-MARIE 2009 A Preliminary assessment of the identification of saw mark on burned bone. Journal of Forensic Sciences 54(4):779-785.

MAYS, SIMON 1998 The archaeology of human bone. London: Routledge.

PAGANO, ANGELA R., KOJI YASUDA, KARL R. RONEKER, THOMAS D. CRENSHAW, AND XIN GEN LEI 2007 Supplemental Escherichia coli phytase and strontium enhance bone strength of young pigs fed a phosphorus-adequate diet. The Journal of Nutrition 137:1795- 1801.

POPE, ELAYNE J., AND O’BRIAN C. SMITH 2004 Identification of traumatic injury in burned cranial bone: An experimental approach. Journal of Forensic Sciences 49(3):431-440.

REICHS, KATHLEEN J. 1998 Postmortem dismemberment: Recovery, analysis, and interpretation. In Forensic osteology: Advances in the identification of human remains. Kathleen J. Reichs, ed. 2nd ed. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas Publisher. pp. 353-388.

SHIPMAN, P., G. FOSTER, AND M. SHOENINGER 1984 Burnt bones and teeth: An experimental study of color, morphology, crystal structure and shrinkage. Journal of Archaeological Science 11:307-325.

STINER, MARY C., STEVEN L. KUHN, STEPHEN WEINER, AND OFER BAR-YOSEF 1995 Differential burning, recrystallization, and fragmentation of archaeological bone. Journal of Archaeological Science 22:223-237.

SYMES, STEVEN A. N.d. Morphology of saw marks in human bone: Identification of class characteristics. Doctorial dissertation, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Department of Anthropology.

SYMES, STEVEN A., CHRISTOPHER W. RAINWATER, SUSAN M. T. MYSTER, AND ERIN M. CHAPMAN N.d. Knife and saw mark analysis on bone. Unpublished manuscript. Department of Applied Forensic Sciences, Mercyhurst College.

SYMES, STEVEN A., JOHN A. WILLIAMS, ELIZABETH A. MURRAY, J. MICHAEL HOFFMAN, THOMAS D. HOLLAND, JULIE M. SAUL, FRANK P. SAUL, AND ELAYNE J. POPE 2002 Taphonomic context of sharp-force trauma in suspected cases of human mutilation and dismemberment. In Advances in forensic taphonomy: Method, theory, and archaeological perspectives. William D. Haglund and Marcella H. Sorg, eds. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 403-434.

THOMPSON, T. J. U. 2004 Recent advances in the study of burned bone and their implications of forensic anthropology. Forensic Science International 146S:S203-S205.

TROTTER, MILDRED, AND BARBARA HIXON 1973 Sequential changes in weight, density, and percentage ash weight of human skeletons from and early fetal period through old age. The Anatomical Record 179:1-18.

UBELAKER, DOUGLAS H. 2009 The forensic evaluation of burned skeletal remains: A synthesis. Forensic Science International 183(1-3):1-5

UBELAKER, DOUGLAS H., AND JOSEPH RIFE 2007 The practice of cremation in the Roman-era cemetery at Kenchreai, Greece: The perspective from archaeology and forensic science. Bioarchaeology of the Near East 1:35-57.

VAN DEEST, TRACI 2007 Sifting through the ashes: Age and sex estimation based on cremains weight. Unpublished Master’s thesis, California State University, Chico, Department of Anthropology.

VAN DEEST TRACI, TURHON A. MURAD, AND ERIC J. BARTELINK In Press A re-examination of cremains weight: Sex and age variation in a Northern California sample. Journal of Forensic Sciences.

WARREN, MICHAEL W., AND WILLIAM R. MAPLES 1997 The anthropometry of contemporary commercial cremation. Journal of Forensic Sciences 42(3):417-423.

WHITE, TIM D., AND PIETER A. FOLKENS 2005 The human bone manual. Boston: Elsevier.

APPENDIX A

Raw Cut Mark Data from Pilot and Research Sample (in mm)

Pilot Tool Position and Cut # Max Width Width Width Striations Max Width Width Width Striations Length 1 2 3 Length 1 2 3 Before After Knife 4.87 0.57 0.64 0.57 N/A N/A N/A N/A Knife 3.17 0.29 0.27 0.24 4.60 0.42 0.31 0.46 Knife 3.06 0.40 0.40 0.24 3.68 0.18 0.27 0.27 Knife 3.24 0.51 0.53 0.20 4.58 0.40 0.44 0.40 Knife 3.60 0.35 0.46 0.24 6.01 0.51 0.46 0.42 Cleaver 5.73 0.33 0.35 0.29 4.87 0.40 0.51 0.42 Cleaver 5.62 0.26 0.26 0.24 4.34 0.29 0.44 0.25 Cleaver 3.45 0.24 0.29 0.20 2.91 0.44 0.27 0.31 Cleaver 5.20 0.31 0.40 0.36 2.50 0.35 0.57 0.58 Cleaver 6.52 0.55 0.57 0.40 2.95 0.42 0.42 0.53 Saw 5.51 0.32 0.45 0.38 3.77 0.31 0.33 0.33 Saw 3.48 0.24 0.26 0.22 1.92 0.18 0.15 0.20 Saw 4.23 0.20 0.22 0.20 N/A N/A N/A N/A Saw 3.08 0.31 0.37 0.24 N/A N/A N/A N/A Study Scalpel Anterior-1 16.30 0.15 0.20 0.20 4.90 0.12 0.12 0.12 Scalpel Anterior-2 12.27 0.09 0.09 0.15 3.45 0.17 0.11 0.14 Scalpel Anterior-3 9.54 0.15 0.20 0.20 5.97 0.18 0.20 0.20 Scalpel Anterior-4 16.21 0.20 0.20 0.06 6.60 0.20 0.18 0.12 Scalpel Anterior-5 12.67 0.18 0.24 0.11 4.78 0.37 0.31 0.26 Scalpel Anterior-6 15.47 0.20 0.04 0.08 4.08 0.18 0.15 0.22 Scalpel Anterior-7 16.78 0.09 0.13 0.07 5.05 0.18 0.35 0.17 Scalpel Anterior-8 17.09 0.18 0.18 0.15 7.35 0.15 0.17 0.15 Scalpel Anterior-9 17.09 0.13 0.11 0.13 9.73 0.17 0.17 0.18 Scalpel Anterior-10 17.20 0.13 0.13 0.15 9.10 0.12 0.14 0.12 Scalpel Anterior-11 14.79 0.14 0.12 0.18 11.15 0.12 0.15 0.14 Scalpel Anterior-12 11.64 0.13 0.13 0.13 11.49 0.20 0.26 0.38 Scalpel Anterior-13 15.46 0.18 0.16 0.09 8.85 0.20 0.14 0.20 Scalpel Anterior-14 13.82 0.18 0.18 0.09 8.12 0.18 0.17 0.14 Scalpel Anterior-15 13.21 0.24 0.09 0.10 N/A N/A N/A N/A Scalpel Anterior-16 14.66 0.09 0.06 0.03 N/A N/A N/A N/A Scalpel Post-Med Condyle-1 10.70 0.29 0.15 0.29 N/A N/A N/A N/A Scalpel Post-Med Condyle-2 17.37 0.22 0.24 0.18 N/A N/A N/A N/A Scalpel Post-Med Condyle-3 12.76 0.18 0.20 0.11 N/A N/A N/A N/A Scalpel Post-Med Condyle-4 11.30 0.24 0.18 0.22 N/A N/A N/A N/A Scalpel Post-Lat Condyle-1 12.13 0.20 0.27 0.22 N/A N/A N/A N/A Scalpel Post-Lat Condyle-2 17.82 0.07 0.09 0.10 N/A N/A N/A N/A Scalpel Post-Lat Condyle-3 17.84 0.20 0.20 0.18 N/A N/A N/A N/A Scalpel Anterior Condyle-1 11.12 0.91 0.86 0.45 10.90 0.51 0.25 0.38 Scalpel Anterior Condyle-2 11.77 0.64 0.42 0.42 4.97 0.23 0.22 0.17 Scalpel Anterior Condyle-3 12.26 0.80 0.65 0.92 6.70 0.34 0.25 0.23 Scalpel Anterior Condyle-4 12.18 1.26 0.75 0.14 6.43 0.17 0.20 0.12 Scalpel Anterior Condyle-5 11.91 0.41 0.74 0.57 9.33 0.23 0.28 0.28 Scalpel Anterior Condyle-6 11.51 1.06 0.45 0.31 7.76 0.23 0.29 0.21 Scalpel Anterior Condyle-7 11.93 1.21 0.69 0.60 8.24 0.22 0.23 0.20 Scalpel Anterior Condyle-8 12.36 0.75 0.41 0.33 9.06 0.26 0.31 0.25

80 Scalpel Anterior Condyle-9 12.46 0.71 0.54 1.22 N/A N/A N/A N/A 1=no Cleaver Anterior-1 10.77 1.17 2.07 1.30 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 2=yes Cleaver Anterior-2 10.02 0.46 0.40 0.40 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 0=N/A Cleaver Anterior-3 9.78 0.77 0.64 0.33 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Cleaver Anterior-4 7.91 0.77 0.66 0.66 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Cleaver Anterior-5 10.92 4.10 4.02 3.44 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Cleaver Anterior-6 8.14 0.60 0.99 0.40 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Cleaver Anterior-7 12.16 1.24 2.09 3.02 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Cleaver Anterior-8 9.97 1.74 1.57 0.86 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Cleaver Anterior-9 11.29 1.70 1.61 0.83 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Cleaver Anterior-10 10.57 1.21 1.51 0.62 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Cleaver Anterior-11 12.77 1.43 1.19 0.38 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Cleaver Anterior-12 9.84 0.61 0.84 0.84 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0

Pilot Tool Position and Cut # Max Width Width Width Striations Max Width Width Width Striations Length 1 2 3 Length 1 2 3 Before After Cleaver Lateral-1 6.55 0.37 0.31 0.26 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Cleaver Lateral-2 11.06 0.55 1.41 1.79 1 3.73 0.17 0.49 0.35 1 Cleaver Lateral-3 6.98 0.62 0.66 0.44 1 6.22 0.71 1.09 0.42 1 Cleaver Lateral-4 8.09 0.46 0.57 0.24 1 6.88 1.00 0.89 0.39 1 Cleaver Lateral-5 8.13 0.38 0.33 0.22 1 5.94 0.42 0.58 0.77 1 Cleaver Lateral-6 10.20 0.29 0.46 0.18 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Cleaver Medial-1 6.39 0.68 0.51 0.24 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Cleaver Medial-2 9.80 0.53 0.73 0.40 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Cleaver Medial-3 11.06 0.95 0.86 0.77 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Cleaver Medial-4 9.80 3.11 2.65 1.02 1 4.33 0.29 0.54 0.57 1 Cleaver Medial-5 9.76 0.82 1.09 0.70 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Cleaver Medial-6 11.37 1.34 1.48 0.51 1 6.84 4.88 5.25 2.99 1 Cleaver Medial-7 12.03 3.42 4.03 0.46 1 8.15 0.79 1.43 0.86 1 Cleaver Medial-8 13.37 0.57 1.10 0.66 2 13.77 6.31 7.43 9.06 1 Cleaver Post Condyle-1 13.65 0.35 0.40 0.40 1 18.34 0.71 1.24 0.48 1 Cleaver Post Condyle-2 15.03 0.91 0.27 0.18 1 19.70 1.03 1.33 1.46 1 Cleaver Anterior Condyle-1 17.03 0.42 0.93 0.73 1 5.74 0.75 0.75 0.66 1 Cleaver Anterior Condyle-2 10.86 0.96 1.44 1.39 1 8.85 5.14 5.29 4.96 1 Cleaver Anterior Condyle-3 8.51 1.15 0.93 0.46 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Knife Anterior-1 5.30 0.22 0.51 0.33 1 5.54 0.53 0.40 0.40 1 Knife Anterior-2 6.96 0.24 0.24 0.26 1 3.42 0.17 0.30 0.26 1 Knife Anterior-3 7.73 0.26 0.55 0.60 1 6.89 0.28 0.28 0.31 1 Knife Anterior-4 10.27 0.55 0.64 0.49 2 3.83 0.33 0.58 0.39 2 Knife Anterior-5 9.71 0.42 0.46 0.25 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Knife Anterior-6 10.14 0.57 0.57 0.27 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Knife Anterior-7 13.75 0.29 0.53 0.31 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Knife Anterior-8 14.52 0.69 0.84 0.48 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Knife Anterior-9 14.16 0.88 0.82 0.35 2 11.20 0.92 0.57 0.58 2 Knife Anterior-10 14.93 0.37 1.15 0.31 1 6.44 0.35 0.39 0.28 1 Knife Anterior-11 15.24 0.62 0.51 0.62 1 5.38 0.33 0.28 0.23 1 Knife Anterior-12 17.88 0.62 0.60 0.51 1 7.64 0.25 0.33 0.37 1 Knife Anterior-13 14.91 0.44 0.64 0.59 1 6.05 0.59 0.49 0.33 1 Knife Anterior-14 17.56 0.42 0.58 0.67 2 5.38 0.36 0.24 0.28 1 Knife Medial-1 17.00 0.53 0.44 0.26 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Knife Medial-2 7.09 0.73 0.71 0.29 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Knife Medial-3 7.58 0.55 0.80 0.46 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Knife Medial-4 8.98 0.36 0.53 0.40 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Knife Medial-5 10.90 0.66 0.57 0.40 2 4.84 0.30 0.83 0.35 2 Knife Medial-6 9.69 0.61 1.07 0.65 2 5.68 0.52 1.07 0.89 2 Knife Post Head-1 11.72 1.16 1.63 1.42 1 10.88 1.08 1.18 0.94 1 Knife Post Head-2 13.56 0.97 1.04 0.75 1 8.44 1.26 1.29 1.43 1 Knife Post Head-3 12.72 0.64 0.86 0.86 2 8.50 0.92 0.66 0.89 2 Knife Post Head-4 10.20 1.01 0.55 0.55 1 5.99 0.45 0.65 0.63 1 Knife Posterior-1 9.32 0.42 0.49 0.37 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Knife Posterior-2 17.32 0.73 0.89 0.63 2 10.29 1.23 1.34 0.48 2 Knife Posterior-3 11.64 0.62 0.87 0.96 2 7.79 0.54 0.94 0.50 2 Knife Posterior-4 4.52 0.29 0.63 0.33 1 4.48 0.72 0.56 0.59 1 Knife Posterior-5 12.84 0.51 0.60 0.22 1 9.53 0.60 0.63 0.30 1 Knife Posterior-6 10.93 0.31 0.58 0.34 1 6.09 0.85 0.71 0.58 1 Knife Posterior-7 7.01 0.42 0.77 0.34 1 10.04 0.46 0.51 0.28 1 Knife Posterior-8 6.76 0.66 0.71 0.66 1 7.36 0.38 0.35 0.43 1 Knife Head-1 15.09 0.27 0.36 0.18 1 9.13 0.45 0.27 0.23 1 Knife Head-2 15.38 0.40 0.40 0.26 1 12.12 0.26 0.28 0.25 1 Knife Head-3 11.56 0.53 0.67 0.68 2 7.63 0.40 0.41 0.40 1 Knife Head-4 12.05 0.57 0.53 0.58 1 9.28 0.32 0.37 0.21 1 Saw Lateral-1 6.31 0.77 0.77 0.64 2 4.10 0.25 0.25 0.13 2 Saw Lateral-2 8.73 0.71 0.55 0.53 2 6.32 0.39 0.55 0.45 2 Saw Lateral-3 8.50 0.66 0.44 0.62 2 8.61 0.27 0.38 0.32 2 Saw Lateral-4 14.12 0.55 0.79 0.66 2 7.01 0.65 0.54 0.65 2 Saw Lateral-5 14.88 1.15 1.35 0.75 1 5.64 0.24 0.31 0.31 1

Pilot Tool Position and Cut # Max Width Width Width Striations Max Width Width Width Striations Length 1 2 3 Length 1 2 3 Before After Saw Lateral-6 12.27 0.29 0.48 0.46 2 2.78 0.34 0.34 0.35 2 Saw Lateral-7 12.77 0.62 0.66 0.44 1 4.52 0.30 0.44 0.48 1 Saw Anterior-1 4.09 0.62 0.73 0.64 1 4.11 0.51 0.30 0.18 1 Saw Anterior-2 11.13 0.29 0.31 0.36 2 1.67 0.83 0.62 0.62 2 Saw Anterior-3 15.53 0.68 0.64 0.46 2 4.24 0.42 0.20 0.29 2 Saw Anterior-4 11.39 0.71 0.66 0.75 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Saw Anterior-5 9.63 0.51 0.51 0.29 2 2.45 0.21 0.28 0.18 2 Saw Anterior-6 10.54 0.86 0.68 0.58 2 4.79 0.66 0.58 0.35 2 Saw Anterior-7 7.16 0.15 0.29 0.22 2 6.72 0.39 0.38 0.38 2 Saw Anterior-8 8.70 0.88 0.90 0.75 2 5.42 0.70 0.60 0.40 2 Saw Anterior-9 8.39 0.60 0.51 0.62 2 5.08 0.30 0.27 0.31 1 Saw Anterior-10 10.33 0.73 0.93 0.93 1 4.41 0.27 0.24 0.17 1 Saw Anterior-11 8.06 0.46 0.40 0.29 2 10.25 0.68 0.60 0.40 2 Saw Anterior-12 11.33 0.57 0.72 0.56 2 2.62 0.18 0.27 0.33 2 Saw Anterior-13 12.92 0.68 0.64 0.20 1 4.29 0.59 0.61 0.62 1 Saw Anterior-14 11.63 0.26 0.29 0.26 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Saw Anterior-15 11.66 0.42 0.46 0.46 1 4.23 0.52 0.54 0.28 1 Saw Medial-1 8.79 0.44 0.44 0.53 2 2.66 0.48 0.45 0.35 1 Saw Medial-2 8.11 0.93 0.75 0.77 1 3.20 0.43 0.34 0.31 1 Saw Medial-3 6.06 0.71 0.40 0.29 2 3.29 0.40 0.44 0.45 2 Saw Medial-4 5.80 2.73 2.47 1.68 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 Saw Medial-5 5.85 0.51 0.73 0.40 2 4.76 0.40 0.41 0.28 1 Saw Medial-6 7.31 0.64 0.73 0.79 2 5.92 0.45 0.44 0.35 2 Saw Medial-7 8.40 0.40 0.46 0.31 2 8.40 0.59 0.56 0.43 2 Saw Medial-8 4.60 0.80 0.95 0.40 2 0.82 0.57 0.51 0.31 2

APPENDIX B

Data: Fire Temperature Recorded During Research Study

Time Fire Temp 1 Fire Temp 2 Ceiling Temp Ambient Temp °C °C °C °C 10:08:40 open -75.6 314.5 4.3 10:08:55 open under range 358.9 4.3 10:09:10 open open 441.7 4.6 10:09:25 open open 456.3 4.8 10:09:40 open open 222.8 5.4 10:09:55 open open 230.4 5.8 10:10:10 open open 237.2 5.3 10:10:25 open under range 240.4 5.2 10:10:40 5.4 under range 258.1 open 10:10:55 33.9 under range 233.5 open 10:11:10 34.2 open 236.7 open 10:11:55 877.7 open 243.7 open 10:12:10 904.3 open 265.9 open 10:12:25 900.9 open 539.4 open 10:12:40 878.3 open 412.4 open 10:12:55 859.8 open 354.2 5.3 10:13:10 908.1 open 362.3 4.7 10:13:25 887.2 open 419.3 4.1 10:13:40 875.7 open 398.8 4.7 10:13:55 855.1 open 418.6 5.0 10:14:10 825.4 open 481.5 4.8 10:14:25 812.4 open 450.9 4.9 10:14:40 766.9 open 429.3 4.3 10:14:55 740.3 open 407.2 2.7 10:15:10 731.6 open 400.4 3.7 10:15:25 731.1 open 416.1 4.6 10:15:40 734.1 open 415.7 5.0 10:15:55 702.6 open 398.3 4.3 10:16:10 806.0 open 374.2 4.9 10:16:25 1060.6 open 354.1 3.8 10:16:40 507.4 open 336.7 4.9 10:16:55 556.7 under range 328.8 4.7 10:17:10 708.3 25.1 328.1 3.3

84 85

Time Fire Temp 1 Fire Temp 2 Ceiling Temp Ambient Temp °C °C °C °C 10:17:25 727.5 47.9 323.6 3.2 10:17:40 764.2 64.1 317.1 3.8 10:17:55 277.3 73.8 303.8 3.5 10:18:10 357.6 67.7 299.9 3.5 10:18:25 340.6 77.8 285.2 4.0 10:18:40 -27.5 73.6 283.9 6.2 10:18:55 under range 77.7 283.8 5.0 10:19:10 490.9 76.3 277.2 5.1 10:19:25 492.2 84.3 266.1 4.8 10:19:40 481.8 78.6 256.4 5.1 10:19:55 489.3 80.6 251.4 4.7 10:20:10 455.9 87.4 244.1 5.2 10:20:25 385.6 93.1 239.3 4.0 10:20:40 311.4 16.4 234.4 3.3 10:20:55 492.8 117.6 232.8 3.2 10:21:10 834 120.3 234.1 4.0 10:21:25 948.3 114.9 222.3 4.0 10:21:40 1063.1 92.6 222.4 3.5 10:21:55 945.6 90.3 220.8 3.9 10:22:10 971.8 open 217.1 4.6 10:22:25 open open 213.3 4.9 10:22:40 open open 208.3 5.8 10:22:55 726.4 open 203.8 5.9 10:23:10 812.8 open 200.7 5.8 10:23:25 open open 197.4 4.2 10:23:40 open open 195.3 5.3 10:23:55 open open 193.7 5.5 10:24:10 open open 192.5 3.8 10:24:25 open open 190.9 4.0 10:24:40 open open 185.4 5.4 10:24:55 open open 181.7 5.1 10:25:10 open 4.7 175.9 6.0 10:25:25 662.9 4.7 171.2 6.3 10:25:40 open 5.2 166.6 6.6 10:25:55 open 6.2 163.3 7.1 10:26:10 open 8.2 158.8 6.9 10:26:25 open 8.8 155.4 5.3 10:26:40 open 8.9 154.1 5.9

Time Fire Temp 1 Fire Temp 2 Ceiling Temp Ambient Temp °C °C °C °C 10:26:55 open 9.1 151.3 6.6 10:27:10 1096.7 7.4 147.2 5.9 10:27:25 open 6.9 142.4 6.7 10:27:40 open 14.5 141.6 6.2 10:27:55 open 10.9 139.9 6.3 10:28:10 open 70.1 137.3 6.1 10:28:25 open 78.3 132.9 6.2 10:28:40 open 143.8 130.9 6.4 10:28:55 open 226.2 128.2 6.4 10:29:10 open 344.8 127.4 6.1 10:29:25 open 387.1 124.7 4.7 10:29:40 open 365.8 126.6 4.6 10:29:55 open 31.6 133.2 5.6 10:30:10 open 100.2 134.2 5.6 10:30:25 open 318.1 132.5 5.3 10:30:40 open 62.0 126.8 5.8 10:30:55 over range 723.3 125.7 5.1 10:31:10 open 762.5 122.9 4.5 10:31:25 955.9 775.3 119.5 4.8 10:31:40 909.3 780.3 120.4 5.0 10:31:55 858.6 785.6 120.1 5.9 10:32:10 713.1 791.8 115.1 4.5 10:32:25 636.3 799.2 114.1 4.7 10:32:40 735.3 799.7 113.1 5.9 10:32:55 623.9 804.4 112.1 4.8 10:33:10 624.1 808.1 111.1 5.2 10:33:25 688.8 811.2 107.5 5.0 10:33:40 252.9 812.2 107.1 4.8 10:33:55 -35.5 812.3 106.3 4.8 10:34:10 open 812.6 105.1 5.4 10:34:25 open 814.4 104.6 5.6 10:34:40 open 818.9 105.6 5.3 10:34:55 under range 821.6 102.6 5.4 10:35:10 under range 825.2 101.7 5.2 10:35:25 under range 824.7 100.8 5.6 10:35:40 under range 828.3 98.5 5.7 10:35:55 under range 828.3 99.8 5.8 10:36:10 -97.6 826.6 97.6 5.3

Time Fire Temp 1 Fire Temp 2 Ceiling Temp Ambient Temp °C °C °C °C 10:36:25 under range 826.1 98.3 5.3 10:36:40 -28.5 825.5 97.4 5.3 10:36:55 5.7 825.8 94.9 5.2 10:37:10 -27.8 832.7 93.7 5.5 10:37:25 37.3 838.7 93.7 4.9 10:37:40 49.3 843.9 92.6 4.8 10:37:55 34.1 844.2 95.1 5.3 10:38:10 30.9 844.4 93.4 4.9 10:38:25 33.9 844.7 92.8 6.5 10:38:40 37.7 846.9 91.4 5.8 10:38:55 44.8 845.1 89.1 4.9 10:39:10 158.7 845.3 88.9 5.2 10:39:25 104.8 844.1 86.3 5.2 10:39:40 136.1 843.2 85.4 4.8 10:39:55 115.2 845.4 86.8 5.1 10:40:10 148.6 845.1 84.7 5.6 10:40:25 946.7 724.3 78.1 6.3 10:40:40 open 452.6 65.7 6.7 10:40:55 under range 403.5 54.6 6.9 10:41:10 under range 297.8 50.9 6.4 10:41:25 under range 100.1 47.9 6.9 10:41:40 open 98.5 45.4 6.1 10:41:55 open 96.2 43.2 6.3 10:42:10 open 95.5 42.2 6.4 10:42:25 open 92.9 41.3 6.1 10:42:40 open 91.0 40.8 6.4