Contents

Contributors xv Preface xix

1. Development of the Lithium-Ion Battery and Recent Technological Trends 1 Akira Yoshino 1. Introduction 2 2. Development of the Practical LIB 3 3. Development of Cathode Materials 7 4. Development of Anode Materials 11 5. Development of Electrolyte Solutions 13 6. Separator Technology 15 7. Conclusion 19

2. Past, Present and Future of Lithium-Ion Batteries: Can New Technologies Open up New Horizons? 21 Yoshio Nishi 1. Introduction 22 2. How LIB was Born? 22 3. Performance that Users Expect from LIB 25 4. Improvement of LIB 26 5. Can New Battery Technologies Open up Novel Horizons for LIB? 34 6. Conclusion 38 Nomenclature 38

3. Fast Charging (up to 6C) of Lithium-Ion Cells and Modules: Electrical and Thermal Response and Life Cycle Tests 41 Andrew Burke 1. Introduction 41

v vi Contents

2. General Considerations and Requirements 42 3. Fast Charging Characteristics of Various Lithium Battery Chemistries 44 4. Fast Charging Tests of 50-Ah LTO Cells and Modules 47

4. Nanostructured Electrode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries 57 Nicholas S. Hudak 1. Introduction 57 2. Nanoscale Effects in Intercalation-Based Electrode Materials 58 3. Nanostructured Lithium Metal Phosphates for Positive Electrodes 61 4. Titanium-Based Nanomaterials for Negative Electrodes 63 5. Conversion Electrodes 64 6. Lithium Alloys for Negative Electrodes 68 7. Carbon Nanostructures as Active Materials in Negative Electrodes 71 8. Carbon-Based Nanocomposites 75 9. Conclusion 76

5. EVs and HEVs: The Need and Potential Functions of Batteries for Future Systems 83 Hideaki Horie 1. Introduction 83 2. Power Performance Analysis of Batteries 85 3. Basic Performance Design of Vehicles 88 4. Thermal Analysis and Design 90 5. Battery Pack System Establishment 91 6. High-Power Performance of Lithium-Ion Batteries 92

6. Manufacturing Costs of Batteries for Electric Vehicles 97 Kevin G. Gallagher, Paul A. Nelson 1. Introduction 98 2. Performance and Cost Model 99 3. Battery Parameters Affecting Cost 107 Contents vii

4. Uncertainty in Point Price Estimates 119 5. Effect of Manufacturing Scale 121 6. Outlook 123

7. Lithium-Ion Battery Packs for EVs 127 John Warner 1. Introduction 127 2. Lithium-Ion Battery Design Considerations 129 3. Rechargeable Energy Storage Systems 132 4. Testing and Analysis 143 5. Applications of Electric Vehicle Rechargeable Energy Storage Systems 145 6. Conclusions 149 Nomenclature 150

8. The Voltec System—Energy Storage and Electric Propulsion 151 Roland Matthé, Ulrich Eberle 1. Introduction 151 2. A Brief History of Electric Vehicles 152 3. Extended-Range Electric Vehicles 158 4. The Voltec Propulsion System 161 5. Voltec Drive Unit and Vehicle Operation Modes 164 6. Battery Operation Strategy 165 7. Development and Validation Processes 169 8. Vehicle Field Experience 171 9. Summary 173 Nomenclature 175

9. Transit Bus Applications of Lithium-Ion Batteries: Progress and Prospects 177 Aviva Brecher 1. Introduction 178 2. Integration of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Drive Buses 180 viii Contents

3. Examples of HEB/EB Transit Buses with LIB-Based Rechargeable Energy Storage Systems (RESS) 183 4. Lessons Learned, Progress, and Prospects 192 Nomenclature 197

10. EVs and HEVs Using Lithium-Ion Batteries 205 Fabio Orecchini, Adriano Santiangeli, Alessandro Dell’Era 1. Introduction 207 2. HEVs 210 3. BEVs and EREVs 224 4. Electric Microcars 244 5. New Concepts of Urban Transport Vehicles 246 6. Conclusions 248

11. The Challenge of PHEV Battery Design and the Opportunities of Electrothermal Modeling 249 Peter Van den Bossche, Noshin Omar, Monzer Al Sakka, Ahmadou Samba, Hamid Gualous, Joeri Van Mierlo 1. Introduction 249 2. Theory 251 3. Setup Description 253 4. Model Parameter Extraction 254 5. Results and Discussion 261 6. Conclusions 268 Appendix 268

12. Solid-State Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles 273 Fuminori Mizuno, Chihiro Yada, Hideki Iba 1. Introduction 273 2. All-Solid-State Lithium-Ion Batteries 276 3. Conclusions 290 Contents ix

13. Lithium-Ion Batteries for Storage of Renewable Energies and Electric Grid Backup 293 Matthias Vetter, Lukas Rohr 1. Introduction 294 2. Applications 295 3. System Concepts and Topologies 301 4. Components and Requirements 304 5. Conclusions 308

14. Satellite Lithium-Ion Batteries 311 Yannick Borthomieu 1. Introduction 312 2. Satellite Missions 313 3. Li-Ion Batteries for Satellites 318 4. Satellite Battery Technologies and Suppliers 324 5. Conclusion 343 Nomenclature 343

15. Lithium-Ion Battery Management 345 Andrea Vezzini 1. Introduction 346 2. Battery Management Structure and Options 347 3. Battery Management Functions 349 4. State of Charge Controller 352

16. Electronic Options for Lithium-Ion Batteries 361 Daniel D. Friel 1. Introduction 362 2. Basic Functions 362 3. Monitoring 363 4. Measuring 365 x Contents

5. Calculating 367 6. Communicating 368 7. Controlling 370 8. One Series Li-Ion Cell Devices (3.6 V Nominal) 372 9. Two-Series Cell Devices (7.2 V Nominal) 374 10. Three and Four Series Cell Devices (10.8–14.4 V Nominal) 375 11. Five to Ten Series Cell Devices 376 12. Ten to Twenty Series Cells 380 13. Very Large Array Battery Systems 382 14. Conclusions 384

17. Safety of Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells and Batteries 387 Judith Jeevarajan 1. Introduction 387 2. Commercial Lithium-Ion Battery Packs for Portable Equipment 388 3. Limitations of Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells 389 4. Quality Control of Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells 401 5. Commercial Lithium-Ion Cell- and Battery-Safety Certification Process 402 6. Conclusions 405 Nomenclature 406

18. Safety of Lithium-Ion Batteries 409 Zhengming (John) Zhang, Premanand Ramadass, Weifeng Fang 1. Introduction 409 2. System Level Safety 412 3. Cell Level Safety 413 4. Abuse Tolerance Tests 415 5. Internal Short and Thermal Runaway 425 6. Large Format Cells and Safety 429 7. Lithium Deposition 432 Contents xi

19. Lithium-Ion Cell Components and Their Effect on High-Power Battery Safety 437 Karim Zaghib, Joel Dubé, Aimée Dallaire, Karen Galoustov, Abdelbast Guerfi, Mayandi Ramanathan, Aadil Benmayza, Jai Prakash, Alain Mauger, Christian M. Julien 1. Introduction 438 2. Electrolytes 439 3. The Separator 444 4. Thermal Stability of the Cathode 446

5. Li4Ti5O12/LiFePO4: the Safest and Most Powerful Couple 449 6. Other Factors Related to Safety 451 7. Concluding Remarks 454

20. Thermal Stability of Materials in Lithium-Ion Cells 461 Jun-ichi Yamaki 1. Introduction 461 2. Basic Consideration on Cell Safety 462 3. Chemical Reduction of the Electrolyte by the Negative Electrode 463 4. Thermal Decomposition of the Electrolyte 468 5. Electrolyte Oxidation at the Positive Electrode 475 6. Safety Evaluation by Abuse Tests 478 7. Conclusions 481

21. Lithium-Ion Battery Environmental Impacts 483 Linda L. Gaines, Jennifer B. Dunn 1. Introduction 483 2. Benefits of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling 484 3. Environmental Impacts of Lithium-Ion Batteries 486 4. Overview and Analysis of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Technologies 495 5. Factors that Affect Recycling 504 6. Conclusions 506 Nomenclature 507 xii Contents

22. Recycling of Traction Batteries as a Challenge and Chance for Future Lithium Availability 509 Marcel Weil, Saskia Ziemann 1. Introduction: Criticality of Resources 509 2. Geographic Distribution of Lithium Reserves and Resources 510 3. Impact of Future Electric Mobility on Lithium Demand 516 4. Review of Presently Used Recycling Quotas in Different Studies 519 5. Influence of Different Recycling Quotas on Lithium Availability 522 6. Conclusions 524

23. Manufacturers, Materials and Recycling Technologies 529 Andrea Vezzini 1. Lithium Battery Manufacturers 530 2. Materials Used for Battery Production and Their Cost 536 3. Recycling 539

24. The Lithium-Ion Battery Value Chain—Status, Trends and Implications 553 Wolfgang Bernhart 1. Introduction 553 2. The LIB Market 554 3. Cell and Material Manufacturing Process 555 4. Structure of the Value Chain and Expected Changes 562

25. Thermodynamics of Lithium-Ion Batteries 567 Rachid Yazami, Kenza Maher 1. Introduction 568 2. Thermodynamic Measurements: Procedure and Equipment 569 3. Thermodynamics Data Before Aging: Cell Chemistry Assessment 570 Contents xiii

4. Thermodynamics of Overcharged Cells 572 5. Thermodynamics of Thermally Aged Cells 579 6. Thermodynamics of Long-Cycled Cells 590 7. Thermodynamic Memory Effect 597 8. Conclusion 600 Nomenclature 601 Index 605 Color Plate Section