Risk Factors for Decompression Illness
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
Risk Factors for Decompression Illness Every diver intuitively understands that the depth, duration and ascent protocol of a dive are perhaps the most important determinants of the risk of decompression illness (DCI). In general, we assume that the longer and deeper the dive, the more nitrogen is absorbed, and the greater the risk; especially if the longer duration and deeper depth are not compensated for with a suitable ascent (decompression) protocol. On top of this, there is a group of widely cited “factors” which are consideredPhoto to increase Brett Forbes risk, either by increasing the likelihood of nitrogen bubble formation, or by predisposing to the adverse effects of any bubbles that do form. The fact that such factors exist is suggested by studies which have used Doppler ultrasound to detect markedly variable numbers of venous bubbles after identical depth / time exposures, and studies which show that symptoms may occur even when relatively few bubbles are detected. Problem is, we really don’t know for sure what these factors are. Brett Forbes Photo There are a number of ideas. For example, we all know that divers should lose weight, do the deepest dive first, and be more conservative if they are female in order to reduce risk. Right?? Well, maybe. Unfortunately, some of these “sacred cows” are rich in assumption and poor in supportive science. Indeed, in some cases, divers have been deceived into decades of bizarre practice on the basis of someone’s opinion alone. Perhaps the biggest problem we face in assessing the significance of a “risk factor” is a lack of demographic data describing the diving habits of the recreational diving population. For example, we can look up treatment statistics that might tell us that 65% of all divers treated for DCI were repetitive diving. However, this figure of itself tells us nothing about the significance of repetitive diving as a risk factor for DCI. If 65% of all dives performed were repetitive dives, then, all other factors being equal, we would expect that 65% of DCI cases would come from repetitive dives. However, if only 40% of all dives were repetitive dives, but these dives produced 65% of our DCI cases, then we might begin to suspect that repetitive diving was a risk factor for DCI. Unfortunately, we usually do not have that critical denominator (the data that describe the activity of the general diving population) because there is no easy way of obtaining it. With that in mind, this article reviews many of the so-called risk factors for DCI, and point out which are truly supported by sound science, and which should be treated with skepticism; and perhaps even ignored. The “risk factors” are most usefully divided into 3 categories: those relevant to the diver; those relevant to the dive; and those relevant to the post-dive period. Part 3 of a 3-part article by Dr. Simon Mitchell Alert Diver, SEAP 6 THE DIVER Previous DCI men. Results of surveys comparing the relative rates of DCI between Body fat Previous DCI may predispose to men and women have been another episode by reducing the inconclusive, and the results of It has been suggested that since body’s ability to compensate for any actual experiments comparing the nitrogen is more soluble in fatty subsequent bubble formation, or risk of DCI between the sexes have (lipid) than watery (aqueous) tissues, some unknown mechanism. This often been contradictory. There has a greater percentage body fat results theory is supported by caisson work been some interesting recent work, in greater nitrogen loading, more data, and there are limited supportive as yet unpublished, that supports the bubble formation, and higher risk of data from contemporary diving. notion that the risk of DCI for DCI. This sounds plausible, and Divers previously treated for DCI do women may change in different some old studies of compressed air appear over-represented in the phases of the menstrual cycle. workers are supportive of the Diver’s Alert Network database of However, there is no conclusive notion. But two more recent studies divers treated for DCI. However, answer on the question of how their have failed to show a relationship these divers may just dive more than risk compares to men. Most diving between body fat or body mass index everyone else, or they may physicians agree that if there is a and DCI. It is probably fair to call repeatedly indulgence in risk-taking difference, it is likely to be trivial. this one “controversial” and behaviour. In general, we consider conclude that divers are better off the risk of another episode after Dehydration with a normal body mass index. But successful treatment of mild DCI to be purging dive clubs or even the ranks only trivially greater than baseline. Pre-dive dehydration may exacerbate of commercial divers of fatties on However, if recovery from either DCI because blood will tend to be the basis of the available evidence mild or more serious DCI is “thicker” and flow less easily through is not justified. incomplete, then the risk of another any small blood vessels damaged by episode is considered to be bubbles. Despite the conviction with Age unacceptably high and cessation of which this theory is taught, there are diving is usually recommended. no supportive data from actual Advancing age may increase the risk diving, and the two best animal of DCI, perhaps because of a general Being female studies drew opposite conclusions. decline in physical fitness and ability Nevertheless, in view of the strong to compensate for damage, or the For many years it has been proposed theoretical basis for this risk factor presence of other possible risk that women might be at higher risk and the known potentiation of factors such as previous DCI and of DCI than men. This notion has dehydration during immersion, it is higher percentage body fat. Several been based on a variety of probably appropriate to encourage studies appear to confirm increased hypotheses. Most popular has been divers to actively maintain good risk in older subjects and a recent the concept that their higher mean hydration. Since alcohol has a study showed a positive correlation body fat percentage might put them diuretic effect, concerns over between advancing age and numbers at risk (see above). It has also been dehydration constitute reason of venous bubbles after suggested that hormonal changes enough to advise against moderate decompression. Although one study during menstruation can result in to heavy use of alcohol on an in the late 1980s found that fluid retention (oedema) and fluid evening prior to diving. increasing age of itself was not a shifts, and that some oral significant risk, it must be concluded contraceptive pills can cause a that the weight of evidence supports microsludging or slowing of the age as a risk factor. Not surprisingly, circulation. All these factors no clear threshold age at which risk theoretically suggest that women increases has been identified. might be more prone to DCI than 7 Physical fitness THE DIVE once daily dives on sequential days There is an intriguing and growing Repetitive diving and multi-day have repeatedly been shown to body of recent evidence that animals diving progressively lower the risk of DCI subjected to exercise conditioning as the sequence proceeds; a regimens over days prior to diving are Repetitive recreational dives, phenomenon referred to substantially more resistant to multiple ascents to the surface within “acclimatization”. The mechanism is decompression illness than a single “dive”, and multi-day diving uncertain but it may relate to unconditioned animals. Even more are considered to increase risk of consumption of gaseous micronuclei intriguing is the finding that a single DCI. The suggested basis for by bubble formation on each single episode of heavy exercise about a increased risk in closely spaced daily dive, but with sufficient time day prior to diving appears to reduce sequential dives is bubble formation for most bubbles to decay and bubble formation (in humans) and from dissolved inert gas after the first disappear before the next dive, thus decompression illness (in animals). ascent to the surface. During any leaving less nuclei available for The mechanism responsible for this subsequent dive, these bubbles may bubble initiation. The protective protection is not established, and nor affect inert gas kinetics (thus making effect seems to disappear after about is the relevance of these data to the diver’s tables or computers less 5 days without diving, and this is human divers completely clear. accurate) and may act as seeds for interpreted as the time it takes for Nevertheless, it will be an interesting larger bubbles. In addition, it has been micronuclei to be replaced. area of research to watch. In the demonstrated in animals that venous meantime, remaining physically fit bubbles trapped in lung capillaries Interestingly, this phenomenon has for diving makes sufficient intuitive after diving will redistribute into the not been recorded in recreational sense to warrant it being a goal for arterial circulation during another divers. This may be because all divers. dive if the surface interval is short. recreational multi-day diving This sounds disadvantageous, but it frequently involves multiple dives on Fatty food is of unknown relevance in human each day of the multi-day program. DCI. This may not allow sufficient time for bubbles to resolve prior to the It has long been suggested that the next day’s first dive. Just to high concentration of lipo-protein These concerns warrant attention to complicate matters further, recent complexes in the blood after a fatty conservatism during repetitive and unpublished studies from the meal may be disadvantageous in multi-day programs of diving, but DCIEM in Canada suggest that diving because interactions between they do not mandate avoidance of closely spaced repetitive dives may bubbles and these complexes might repetitive or multi-day diving.