Political Decay and Cultural Achievements: The Politics of Cultural Patronage During the Phanariot Administration of the Romanian Principalities

Annales d’Université Valahia Targoviste, Section d’Archéologie et d’Histoire, Tome XI, Numéro 2, 2009, p. 131-136 ISSN: 1584-1855

Political Decay and Cultural Achievements: The Politics of Cultural Patronage During the Phanariot Administration of the Romanian Principalities

Elisabeta Negrău*

*Universitatea Na Ńional ă de Arte din Bucure ti, Facultatea de Istoria i Teoria Artei, str. General Budi teanu nr. 19, sector 1, Bucure ti, cod 010773; e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Political Decay and Cultural Achievements: The Politics of Cultural Patronage During the Phanariot Administration of the Romanian Principalities .The study presents some observations regarding the diligent cultural activity of the Phanariot governors in the Romanian Principalities (1711/1716-1821), in response to the necessity to gradate with notes and details the general negative overview of the scholars regarding the cultural achievements of the Southeastern Europe and particularly of the Romanian Principalities in this late period of political decay, i.e. of accentuation of the Greek political dominance against the Romanian people in the times of Ottoman economics’ and ideas’ decadence.

Key-words: cultural patronage, cultural recession, national conscience, , post-Byzantine culture.

By the end of the 18 th century the They brought nothing but trouble, they weakened our Graecization of the Romanian society was much power to fight and they cooled us the love for our advanced, owing to the presence of the Phanariot country. In a word, they made us poorer even than the bourgeoisie at many levels in the government, populations in Africa and America.... And if this administration and culture. In reaction, Romanian tyranny will be further, alas the woefulness of our people began to manifest profoundly the conscience country! Even now, during six years, the tyrant of alienation towards the imperial Ottomans who had Karadja showed himself off in the mankind... like been taken the place of the former , those tyrants of Sicily. His tyranny made the as well as towards the who showed the peasantry decay so much…” (C. Erbiceanu, 2003). intention to patronize the Romanians culturally, There is to remark also the interesting knowledge prospecting, in fact, to bring the Principalities into about world’s history at this churchman, about whom their influence sphere and make them to provide is known he have studied only in the country. economic and political support for the Greek The Romanian role in the financial provinces. By the beginning of 19 th century, the sustainment of the eastern Orthodox culture is at negative effects of this domination were already maximum during the 17 th -18 th centuries, by the profoundly felt, especially by the population from the donations, the book printings and the renderings of lower classes. A Romanian contemporary chronicler, monasteries, mainly actions of the voevods’ cultural protosynkellos Naum of Râmnic, describes the politics. Though, these affiliations of Romanian situation this way: „... until the coming of the monasteries to Balkan and near eastern foundations Phanariot rulers, we lived much better in our country increased so much until the end of the 18 th century, (Simbatriotismos) . But when the Phanariot rulers that the phenomenon worked in the detriment of the came, by their political determents, by their diabolical Romanian churches and countries and this was actions, they made us obey them more and more. possible because of a lack in the ecclesiastical censure

131 Tome XI, Numéro 2, 2009 Elisabeta Negr ău inside the Romanian law of church founding Patriarchate and the Wallachian voevods, who had to regarding the establishment which the founder built plight for receiving and supporting these hierarchs; it and financially supported (A. Elian, 2003; V. A. is established, thus, a tight relation between the Georgescu, 1980). In the case of the numerous Patriarchate, the Wallachian Metropolis and the affiliations of the monasteries practiced by the voevods during the Phanariot domination. Then, these voevods and , the Metropolitan didn’t have any hierarchs are often present at the Wallachian court, rights to interfere, the law not specifying the necessity fact which will also determine them to compete to the of his censure or approval. The founders had more Wallachian Metropolitan chair, too. The Wallachian prerogatives than the clergy upon churches and tradition of electing the Metropolitans prescribed that monasteries and, practically, their administration and for this chair should be designated the bishop of legal status was yet very tied to the feudal law of Râmnic. This tradition, however, will be Byzantine tradition. But to the end of the 18 th century consequently disestablished during the 18 th century, the Divan proceeds to stave off the numerous due to the close relations between the Phanariot renderings, the Metropolitans acceding, as the former princes, the Patriarchate and the oriental clergy. person in the hierarchy of the Divan, to the Seven of the twelve Metropolitans of who chrysobulls and the anaphora of the voevod (A. Elian, activated during the Phanariot leadership were 2003). The 18 th century reveals, thus, unexpected Greeks. It is significant that in , where the contributions in the matter of protecting the society was somewhat anti-Greek for it was more establishments from the interference of the foreign Slavophil, in the 18 th century was only one Greek hierarchs and from their pretensions to use the bishop, designated by the insistences of the Phanariot Romanian church’s resources. It is an epoch in which Gregory Ghyka the Third, if we disregard the case of the effects of the Austrian Josephinism are felt also by Gabriel Kallimaki, a Graecized Romanian, ex the Phanariots in Wallachia and Moldavia, in the Metropolitan of Thessalonica who, helped by his direction of an increasing control of the laical power brother John, dragoman at sultan’s court, became upon the monastic institutions, in purpose to protect Metropolitan of Moldavia (A. Ciurea, 1974). the country’s interests. In this process, to the voevod The favorable economic conditions and the is associated the Metropolitan too, whoever Greek or more liberal atmosphere in Wallachia attract the Romanian (A. Elian, 2003). The voevod Gregory tradesmen, intellectuals and diverse functionaries Alexander Ghyka intervenes in Moldavia (N. Iorga, from the Balkans and . There was 1929), Constantine Hangerli and Alexander Moruzi firstly, a pre-Phanariot period, which prepared the in Wallachia, together with the Wallachian Greek administrative and political monopole from the 18 th Metropolitan Dositheos Filliti in the same cause, of century (A. Pippidi, 1975; E. St ănescu, 1974; L. staving off the foreign interference in the Vranoussis, 1977). The effective instauration of the administration of Romanian monasteries (A. Elian, Phanariot governance in the Romanian principalities 2003). These initiatives are noticeable, considering brought forth a new stage in the cultural development, that they come from rulers of Greek origin. accentuating the Balkan unity, and meanwhile, On the other hand, the Constantinopolitan building the bases for the modern revolutions of Patriarchate confers Wallachian Metropolitan, by the national liberation from 1821 (A. Daskalakis, 1974). second half of the 18 th century, the Archbishopric Mainly, the baroque-orthodox cultural legacy of the titular see of Caesarea in Cappadocia –hardly to be former Romanian voevods - the Cantacuzens and supported these times by the ecumenical Patriarchate- voevod Constantine Brancovan are continued, but in and, also, a higher status beside other old dioceses a more eclectic spirit, very tributary to the lasting from the Byzantine times, but which declined Constantinopolitan one: the Mavrocordatos’ family, and were not representing anymore but a bygone the first Phanariot rulers of the Principalities, found reality: Soteriopolis, Sevastia, Cerven, Pogoniana. there an atmosphere of cultural familiarity in which The Constantinopolitan Patriarchate decides that the they integrated themselves quickly and without any hierarchs of those ancient Balkan and near eastern trouble, continuing as well the cultural patronage on dioceses should be elected within the Wallachian the directions of Romanian antecessors. The Metropolis, fact which has multiple procedural domination of the Mavrocordatos’ dynasty lasted implications (A. Elian, 2003). Firstly, an array of over a half of century in the two Principalities, giving rituals takes place between the Constantinopolitan to the Romanian society an interesting evolution,

Tome XI, Numéro 2, 2009 132 Political Decay and Cultural Achievements: The Politics of Cultural Patronage During the Phanariot Administration of the Romanian Principalities especially by their reforms concerning human rights – the Greek provinces in the Balkans, by donations, the abrogation of villainy (1746 in Wallachia and scholarships, periodical annuities in poorer zones of 1749 in Moldavia), the first act of this kind in the the Greek, Bulgarian, Albanian, Anatolian, Antioch Eastern Europe which generated transformations communities (A. Camariano-Cioran, 1979, 1980). between the traditional social structures The main Greek, Turkish and Romanian (F. Constantiniu, 1974) . Their and successors’ actions typographies in the Phanariot period remain mostly intended to create new social classes, more mobile those from the Brancovan period: at Anthim and agreeable to changes, which shall form an urban monastery and the Metropolitan in , at civilization, indispensable in the process of Râmnic, at Mavrogheni monastery also in Bucharest modernity. The general vision of these Illuminated – the most important laical publication center from despots (D. Ciurea, 1974) relates to modern ideas, to the end of the 18 th century and the beginning of the a productive society which shall approach the 19 th . Two important moments are the instauration of manufactory industrial models and products of urban the ecclesial and the prince’s censure (by the character, averting progressively from the old feudal measures taken by Michael Racovi Ńă and in the model. The Constitution of Constantine chrysobull from 20 July 1742 “The New Law”, Mavrocordatos (1741, published in Mercure de which specified the obligations of controlling and France , July, 1742) is an attempt to modernize the approving by the Metropolitan of all the texts to structures of society ( . Papacostea, 1974). An publish; similar states the anaphora of Michael important criterion in conferring titles will be Soutsos from 29 February 1784.), which signifies the the public service and not the large land properties; entering into a new stage regarding the rules of the thus, boyar will be only the person in an official job, a published literature, especially laical. In the books’ dignitary. The juridical literature mixed in this period domain, the Phanariots distinguished by their special the Byzantine law with occidental sources. Alexandru interest for book patronage and by their great Valentin Georgescu outlines the byzantine libraries, the one from monastery V ăcăre ti in peculiarities of the Phanariots, formalists in what Bucharest being one of the largest in the Southeastern concerns the tradition, but starting by now to become Europe. The Greek publications and the Byzantine full of non-byzantine significations: „non-Byzantium classical literature were predominant, but there were through and over Byzantium” (A. V. Georgescu, also numerous novelties from the entire Europe 1980, p.13). (C. Dima-Dr ăgan, 1974; A. Du Ńu, 1972, 1974a-b; Being these conditions of relaxation in the N. Iorga, 1926). society, a certain liberalization of culture between the It is remarked that this bookish culture of the limits imposed by the Ottoman censure occurred: Phanariots hasn’t stimulate, however, also their commerce, crafts, founding are sustained by a artistic spirit (M. A. Musicescu, 1974). The church favorable law; many chrysobuls from the 18 th century oriented its programs towards education and written refer to accommodation and regulation of crafts literature, leaving behind the culture of image. The (D. Limona, 1974). image became less important in the 18 th century: its The Greek-Romanian Academies in spirit decades or seems to be neglected. This situation Bucharest and Iasi conquer prestige in all the Balkan may owe to the effects of the oriental civilization on area during this period, by their qualitative professors, the Byzantine iconic spirit or, more probably, to a mostly Greek, as also by the scholarships they more prosaic reality of a lack of systematic artistic provided for both Transylvanian Romanians and education in the Southeastern Europe (E. Costescu, foreigners from the orthodox orient (A. Camariano- 1983). The artistic education in the Southeastern Cioran, 1974a-b). A special status had the Greek Europe has the knowledge of the superiority of school from the monastery of V ăcăre ti in Bucharest- Occidental arts and techniques. To the narrativisation great monastic foundation of the first Phanariot ruler of the iconography contributed as well the exercise of in Wallachia, Nicholas Mavrocordatos (V. Dr ăgu Ń, the reading (A. Du Ńu, 1979) as the influence of the 1974), which benefited of a large library and western model. The main quality of the artistic typography. Besides the Academies, there were also expression in the 18 th century remains the decorative smaller schools near cathedrals, monasteries, even in spirit, which concentrates most of the artists’ capacity smaller towns: at Gala Ńi, Craiova, Buz ău, Arge , etc. of invention. The Phanariot rulers supported also the schools from

133 Tome XI, Numéro 2, 2009 Elisabeta Negr ău

The most of the historiography written in the area of influence on the Romanian institutions. At the times of Phanariots, in both Principalities, is made by beginning of the 18 th century, its memory was still authors of Greek origin. However, they do not present strongly affirming in the voevodal ceremonial, being distinct qualities from their anterior models, like the visible in the symbols of legitimacy at Constantine historiographies of Cigala, Dorotheos of Monembasia Brancovan: the divine investment, the symbolic or Amiras from the 17 th century; the Greek association with emperor Constantine, a spectacular historiographies in the 18 th century are important for posture; however, the bureaucrat character of the the abundance of historical and social dates, although Phanariot governance, supervised by the Ottoman their contemporary Romanian chronicles like of Ion empire, will gradually replace the Byzantine vision of Neculce and Nicolae Costin are superior in the the curial status. Is enough to look at the princes’ quality of style and ideas (D. Russo, 1939). The votive representations which, despite their basic chronicle of Mitrofan Gregoras (1714-1716), the conventional character, are the area in which the Moldavian chronicle of Nicolas Chiparissa (1716- mentalities, the symbols, the political ideas are most 1717) the one of Constantine Dapontes ( Ephemerides visible. Or, the ruler’s portrait in the Phanariot times Daces , 1736-1739), the biography of Constantine is very poor in Byzantine significations: the divine Mavrocordatos written by the physician Peter investment isn’t represented anymore; to the end of Depasta from Pelopones, and from the end of this the century they will abandon the conventional period, The general history of Dacia (1812), work of crown, too; the sumptuous voevodal vestments are Dionysios Photinos are the main historiographies simplified, being assimilated to common dignitaries’ from the times of Phanariots The Greek chronicles clothes. In compensation, the preoccupation for a are characterized by a stylistic academism quite poor more plastic representation of the portraits intensifies, in resources of evolution, marking, thus, the end of gaining much in physiognomic observation and the Byzantine and Greek classical cultural tradition. character. The Romanian historiographies: the rhymed chronicle Although, in the social structures, the feudal of Hristache on the leadership of Nicolas Mavrogheni traditionalism begins to disappear; by the end of the (1787), the chronographs from the beginning of the 18 th century, the mentality of the younger Romanian 19 th century, written by Dionisie the Ecclesiarch, boyars was increasingly westernized; French was Naum of Râmnic, Ioan Dobrescu, by their replacing the Greek, as diplomatic language. There spontaneity and naivety detached to academism, was a general aspiration to an urban society, of contribute more substantial to the evolution of which’ effective structures will appear only in the 19 th historic literature to modern forms (N. Iorga, 1905). century. Different types of boyars’ mansions, ones for The intellectual preoccupation of the work and official receptions, others as cottage houses, Phanariots for history reaches also the Romanian of retreatment, were already replacing the old countries’ past: Nicolas Mavrocordatos, Constantine monumental, feudal palaces, together with the Mavrocordatos, Gregory Mathew Ghyka studied the redoubt, austere architecture (M. Ispir, 1996; V. old Romanian history and supported the idea of Stancu, 1974; R. Theodorescu, 1987). researching the daco-roman origins and the In the church foundry’s activity, a significant Romanian national unity. They contributed, by their fact occurred: because on its’ vertiginous increase, governance in both principalities to their especially in the milieu of mid social classes in the rapprochement and encouraged the conservation of process of affirmation, the voevod would put the the old traditions by studying and restoration of the founding activities under the tutelage of the ecclesial old voevodal monuments; such campaigns had been hierarchy, which would give the accord to the acts of done by Constantine Mavrocordat in Wallachia by religious patronage. Is to be seen here the application delegation of Metropolitan Neophytos (a Cretan of a modern principle, the separation of powers Greek) and in Moldavia by the Phanariot regnant within the state. The phenomenon of church founding Gregory Ghyka together with the boyars, mostly in became civic: the boyars started to abandon their the northern Moldavia (Bucovina). Resuming, the main characters of the feudal symbols, of great cultural patrons, and to Phanariot political and cultural program in Wallachia associate with other mid classes: tradesmen, and Moldavia during the 18 th century may, functionaries, craftsmen, priests to establish churches. paradoxically, look to narrow the Byzantine culture’s This fact had as an effect the enclosure of social

Tome XI, Numéro 2, 2009 134 Political Decay and Cultural Achievements: The Politics of Cultural Patronage During the Phanariot Administration of the Romanian Principalities classes which were distant in their condition in the times of feudality, and from here the way for modern social mentalities was open. Regarding the monasteries, it is observed that, to the end of the 18 th century, the Phanariot BIBLIOGRAPHY governors and the hierarchs trend to restrain the conditions of the numerous rendering of the Camariano-Cioran Ariadna, 1974 a, Les Romanian monasteries to Athos and near east. In Académies princières de Bucarest et de Jassy et general, all the energy of the governor and the church leur professeurs , Thessaloniki, passim . concentrated to organize more schools in towns and Camariano-Cioran Ariadna, 1974 b, provinces and to increase the education level of the „Écoles grecques dans les Principautes priests in the country, who were in charge with the Danubiennes au temps des Phanariotes”, in education of the popular classes. The church is „Symposium. L’ époque phanariote” , p. 49-56. preoccupied with the systematic cultivation of Camariano-Cioran Ariadna, 1979, Aides peasant clergy. At the initiative of the rulers and the pécuniaires fournies par les Pays Roumains aux hierarchs, theological seminaries are been organized écoles grecques (I), in Revue des Études Sud-Est and books addressed to priests are printed (A. Du Ńu, Européennes, XVII, 1, p.123-151; 1974a-b, 1978). Camariano-Cioran Ariadna, 1980, Aides In the 18 th century the literary education of pécuniaires fournies par les Pays Roumains aux Greek classical orientation from schools and écoles grecques (II), in Revue des Études Sud-Est academies (C. Erbiceanu, 2003) offers, especially to Européennes, XVIII, 1, p.63-83 younger generations, many European cultural Ciurea Alexandru, 1974, Quelques aspects references: the figures of the philosophers, scientists, essentiels de l’époque phanariote dans l’histoire de literates and heroes of the Antiquity, all of them l’Eglise Orthodoxe de Roumanie , in “Symposium. personalities of the Hellenic classicism. „The Greek L’époque phanariote” , (21-25 oct. 1970) , Institute Olympos – with its Gods and its Muses – have been for Balkan Studies, Thessaloniki, p. 17-18. welcomed for many centuries in the Romanian Ciurea Dimitrie, 1974, Nicolas Academies from Bucharest and Iassy” remarked Mavrocordato précurseur du despotisme éclairé, in Constantin Erbiceanu on the state of the Romanian „Symposium. L’ époque phanariote” , p. 259-264. sciences from the second half of the 17 th century to Constantiniu Florin, 1974, Constantin the 19 th century. They start to replace, in a laical Mavrocordato et l’abolition du servage en spirit, the medieval models of the Byzantine saints. Valachie et en Moldavie , in „Symposium. L’ These laical models enter significantly in the religious époque phanariote” , p. 377-384. iconography, too, developing, in the same spirit of Costescu Eleonora, 1983, Începuturile civic and popular cultivation, a less theologically artei moderne în Sud-Estul European , editura savant iconography, but, thus, more accessible for the Litera, Bucure ti, p. 26-27. popular communities, by the references to a known Daskalakis Apostolos, 1974, Le scholarly literature ( e.g. antique philosophers’ and Phanariotes et le révolution grecque de 1821 , in sibyls’ figures), but also to a popular literature, like „Symposium. L’ époque phanariote” , p. 71-76. fables, Sindipa the philosopher , Alexandria - the Dima-Dr ăgan Corneliu, 1974, La epopee of Alexander the Great, The Bestiary (A. bibliophilie des Mavrocordato , in „Symposium. L’ Paleolog, 1984). In the iconography of the churches’ époque phanariote” , p. 209-216. painting, the literary traditions are present in different Dr ăgu Ń Vasile, 1974, Le monastère de forms starting from the official establishments, of the Văcăre ti. Expression des relations artistiques voevods and hierarchs to provincial ones, from romano-grecques , in „Symposium. L’ époque villages and burgs. These seem to owe the phanariote” , p. 265-294. systematization of the written culture in most the Du Ńu Alexandru, 1972, Sintez ă i social stratums in Wallachia, starting to the 18 th originalitate în cultura român ă (1650-1848) , century, to which the Phanariots and the Greek editura Enciclopedic ă, Bucure ti. hierarchs too, had the initiating role. Du Ńu Alexandru, 1974a, La culture roumaine à l’époque des Phanariots: héritage et

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