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Immobilization of Glycoside Hydrolase Families GH1, GH13, and GH70: State of the Art and Perspectives

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Immobilization of Glycoside Hydrolase Families GH1, GH13, and GH70: State of the Art and Perspectives molecules Review Immobilization of Glycoside Hydrolase Families GH1, GH13, and GH70: State of the Art and Perspectives Natália G. Graebin †, Jéssie da N. Schöffer †, Diandra de Andrades †, Plinho F. Hertz, Marco A. Z. Ayub and Rafael C. Rodrigues * Biotechnology, Bioprocess, and Biocatalysis Group, Food Science and Technology Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, P.O. Box 15090, ZC 91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; [email protected] (N.G.G.); [email protected] (J.d.N.S.); [email protected] (D.d.A.); [email protected] (P.F.H.); [email protected] (M.A.Z.A.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +55-51-3308-7793 † These authors contributed equally to this manuscript. Academic Editor: Roberto Fernandez-Lafuente Received: 27 July 2016; Accepted: 12 August 2016; Published: 17 August 2016 Abstract: Glycoside hydrolases (GH) are enzymes capable to hydrolyze the glycosidic bond between two carbohydrates or even between a carbohydrate and a non-carbohydrate moiety. Because of the increasing interest for industrial applications of these enzymes, the immobilization of GH has become an important development in order to improve its activity, stability, as well as the possibility of its reuse in batch reactions and in continuous processes. In this review, we focus on the broad aspects of immobilization of enzymes from the specific GH families. A brief introduction on methods of enzyme immobilization is presented, discussing some advantages and drawbacks of this technology. We then review the state of the art of enzyme immobilization of families GH1, GH13, and GH70, with special attention on the enzymes β-glucosidase, α-amylase, cyclodextrin glycosyltransferase, and dextransucrase. In each case, the immobilization protocols are evaluated considering their positive and negative aspects. Finally, the perspectives on new immobilization methods are briefly presented. Keywords: enzyme immobilization; glycoside hydrolases; β-glucosidase; α-amylase; cyclodextrin glycosyltransferase; dextransucrase 1. Introduction Carbohydrates are important natural molecules presented in their free moieties or in association in glycoproteins, glycolipids, and polysaccharides, playing fundamental roles in the cell physiology and development of all organisms [1]. The enzymes that cleave or, inversely, mediate the ligation of glycosidic bonds of glycoconjugates, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides can be classified by two different systems. The IUBMB Enzyme Nomenclature of the Enzyme Commission (EC) is based on distinct enzymatic activities, substrate specificity and occasionally on their molecular mechanism [2]. In this system, the EC 3.2.1 comprises the enzymes that hydrolyze O- and S-glycosyl compounds and comprises enzymes from EC 3.2.1.1 trough EC 3.2.1.196, with some deletions and reclassifications. The second system of enzyme classifications is based on the carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZy) database (http://www.cazy.org/), where the enzymes are classified into several families based on their amino acid sequence similarities [3,4]. Currently, the Glycoside Hydrolases (GH) family classification from CAZy extends from GH1 to GH135, with 190 different enzyme activities (based on the EC code), mainly glycosidases from EC 3.2.1, but also some glycotransferases from EC 2.4.1. Among the enzymes from the GH families, some, such as amylase, cellulase, pectinase, hemicellulase, glucansucrase, lactase, invertase, and β-glucosidase, are of great interest to various Molecules 2016, 21, 1074; doi:10.3390/molecules21081074 www.mdpi.com/journal/molecules Molecules 2016, 21, 1074 2 of 38 industries. These enzymes are well studied in the literature and there are several reviews dealing with their catalyticMolecules 2016 mechanism, 21, 1074 and properties [5–9]. 2 of 35 Because of their biological origin and function in live organisms, enzymes are sometimes industries. These enzymes are well studied in the literature and there are several reviews dealing with unsuitable for direct industrial process applications. In natural systems, enzymes are usually soluble, their catalytic mechanism and properties [5–9]. are inhibitedBecause by substratesof their biological and products, origin and show functi lowon stability, in live andorganisms, do not enzymes possess are an idealsometimes catalytic characteristicunsuitable when for direct applied industrial to non-natural process applications. substrates. In These natural disadvantages systems, enzymes can are be usually overcome soluble, by their immobilizationare inhibited in by appropriate substrates and supports products, and show matrices low stability, [10,11]. and Enzyme do not immobilization possess an ideal iscatalytic defined as the processcharacteristic of confinement when applied of theto no enzymen-natural molecule substrates. into These or ontodisadvan a phasetages (matrix/support)can be overcome by differenttheir from thatimmobilization of substrates in appropriate and products supports [12]. and Immobilized matrices [10,11]. enzymes Enzyme can immobilization be applied in differentis definedreactor as configurations,the process allowing of confinement easy reaction of the enzyme control, molecule avoiding into product or onto contaminationa phase (matrix/support) of the enzyme, different which is anfrom important that of propertysubstrates inand food products technology [12]. Immobi allowinglized enzymes their reuse can overbe applied many in reactiondifferent cyclesreactor [10]. configurations, allowing easy reaction control, avoiding product contamination of the enzyme, which Additionally, immobilization can improve biocatalyst stability and to modify the enzymatic activity, is an important property in food technology allowing their reuse over many reaction cycles [10]. specificity, as well as enantio and regioselectivities [13]. Additionally, immobilization can improve biocatalyst stability and to modify the enzymatic activity, Consideringspecificity, as allwell these as enanti aspects,o and theregioselectivities objective of [13]. this review is to discuss on the protocols used for immobilizationConsidering of all enzymes these aspects, from the the objective GH families of this GH1,review GH13,is to discuss and GH70,on the protocols more specifically used β-glucosidases,for immobilizationα-amylase, of enzymes cyclodextrin from glycosyltransferase,the GH families GH1, and GH13, dextransucrases. and GH70, more Initially, specifically we present an overviewβ-glucosidases, on the α types-amylase, of immobilizationcyclodextrin glycosyltransferase, techniques, and and then dextransucrases. proceed to Initially, cover the we statepresent of the art ofan enzyme overview immobilization on the types of ofimmobilization the aforementioned techniques, family and then of enzymes.proceed to Finally,cover the we state discuss of the art on the perspectivesof enzyme of newimmobilization developments of the in aforementioned the field of enzyme family immobilization of enzymes. Finally, for these we threediscuss GH on families.the perspectives of new developments in the field of enzyme immobilization for these three GH families. 2. Types of Enzyme Immobilization 2. Types of Enzyme Immobilization Enzyme immobilization methods can be divided into three categories: enzyme molecule Enzyme immobilization methods can be divided into three categories: enzyme molecule attachment to a solid support, entrapment into a matrix, and molecule cross-linking [11]. attachment to a solid support, entrapment into a matrix, and molecule cross-linking [11]. The attachmentThe attachment to ato solid a solid support support can can bebe reversible or or irreversible, irreversible, and and can canbe achieved be achieved using usinga a broadbroad variety variety of chemicalof chemical and and physical physical methods.methods. Entrapment Entrapment consis consiststs in inthe the retention retention of enzyme of enzyme moleculesmolecules into ainto polymer a polymer matrix matrix by by covalent covalent or or non-covalent non-covalent bonds. Cross-li Cross-linkingnking of enzymes of enzymes employs employs bi-functionalbi-functional reagents reagents to prepare to prepare carrier-free carrier-free macroparticles macroparticles [ 12[12,14–22].,14–22]. AA schematic representation representation of the typesof the of types immobilization of immobilization is presented is presented in Figure in Figure1. 1. FigureFigure 1. 1.Types Types of of immobilization.immobilization. Molecules 2016, 21, 1074 3 of 38 There are several reviews dealing with enzyme immobilization, explaining in details all advantages and disadvantages of each protocol [10–12,17–19,22–24], chemical [25–27], and genetic [28,29] modifications of enzymes in order to improve immobilization, one-step purification and immobilization of enzymes [30], stabilization of protein quaternary structure by immobilization [31], the effect of different supports on enzyme properties [32–36], as well as the different enzymatic reactors using immobilized enzymes [37,38]. Considering that the focus of this review is to discuss on the immobilization of glycoside hydrolases and the fact that methods of immobilization have been extensively reviewed, in this paper we will attain to present the basic concepts of each type of immobilization, as mentioned before, in order to better elucidate the discussion that will follow. 2.1. Enzyme Attachment to a Solid Support The use of pre-existing supports for enzyme immobilization is possibly the most used technique. As mentioned
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