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A Framework for Leadership: Analyzing the Struggles of Aung San Suu Kyi

By

Tehreem Saifey

A Thesis Submitted to

The Faculty of

The Graduate School of Political Management of The George Washington University in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Professional Studies

November 11, 2011

Thesis Directed by

Dr. David Ettinger and Dr. Dennis W. Johnson Saifey - 2

CONTENTS

Chapter 1 – Introduction 3

Chapter 2 – A Theoretical Framework 24

Chapter 3 – A Case Study of Aung San Suu Kyi 53

Chapter 4 – Conclusion and Suggestions for Future Study 87

Appendix – Tables and figures 102

Bibliography 105 1

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CHAPTER 1

Introduction

The story of Burma and Aung San Suu Kyi is no less than an epic. Like the novel Anna

and the King of Siam, it would not be far-fetched to call this one Suu and the King(s) of Burma.

Burma and Aung San Suu Kyi are, figuratively speaking, two yet one; Burma will never be

viewed the same as a result of its relation to this one woman. They are inseparable. Both are

striving for the same cause: their vision of freedom for Burma. Aung San Suu Kyi has sacrificed

her life and freedom for Burma’s sovereignty and future. It would be unfair to call her anything

less than a political prophet of Burma. It is amazing to see how her spiritual connection to

Buddhism has helped her rise to the pinnacle of political activism, marrying politics and her

spiritual convictions together, making her the most influential figure on the political spectrum of

Burma. The political destiny of this country has changed due to her free heart and iron will. She

continues to lead a non-violent revolution against Burma’s military junta to bring valuable and

long-term social, political and economic change to the country.

This thesis emanates from the study and observation of women leaders in the developing

nations of the East who must struggle to achieve a respectable and powerful status in their

respective countries. These extraordinary women are breaking the social norms and are fighting

the prevalent “androcentric power structures” that have dominated their societies. 1 Each story is

inspirational, not to mention being both liberating and extremely dangerous, pragmatically

speaking. There is a strange paradox in the stories of all these powerful yet submissive women of

the East. They exhibit an amazing ability to live in the contradiction between their sense of

1 Bruce O. Solheim, On Top of the World: Women’s Political Leadership in Scandinavia and Beyond (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000), x. 23

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traditional duty and social unconventionalities. Any one of them could easily be imagined saying

the following line from Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar: “Think you I am no stronger than my sex,

being so fathered and so husbanded?”2 Quite impressively, these women have wrestled with

hostile and challenging circumstances and have fought with dedication and perseverance for the

recognition and appreciation of their unique talents.

In her dissertation, Extraordinary Women All: The Influence of Madame de Stael on

Margaret Fuller and Lydia Maria Child, Susan Toth Lord delineates the foremost obstacles faced

and overcome by exceptional women. First, the extraordinary woman has had to overcome or

otherwise deal with the stereotypical views of women in general, views that have often restricted

them to the home and located the sphere of their influence only within its walls. Second, she has

had to distinguish herself from those women who conformed to societal expectations, thus

separating herself from others of her gender just as surely as her gender separated her from men.

In the course of this resistance, she has had to combat age-old ideas about women’s intellectual

inferiority, their irrationality, their dangerous sexuality, and their flawed moral integrity.3

To understand the central theme of this paper, it is essential to ask: what does it mean to

be a woman leader in today’s world? This leads to another logical question: what does it mean to

be a leader in today’s world? By answering these two questions and finding the connection

between the answers, it is possible to find some answer for our basic question in this thesis. That

2 Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, II, i, 296-297, accessed October 9, 2011, http://www.shakespeare- online.com/quotes/juliusquotes.html.

3 Susan Toth Lord, “Extraordinary Women All: The Influence of Madame de Stael on Margaret Fuller and Lydia Maria Child” (PhD diss. Kent State University, 2004), 16-17. 4

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is, what are those unique forces that drive and sustain Aung San Suu Kyi, and likely other

women in leadership roles in developing countries of the East?

Before delving into our question of what makes women leaders successful in today’s

world, let us first explore the pivotal qualities in the case of Aung San Suu Kyi that have directed

and sustained her in her present leadership role as Burma’s political hero. The third chapter of

this thesis will show that these qualities include courage, fearlessness, forgiveness, an ability to

live in the paradox between her sense of traditional duty and social nonconformities, and a

constant and uninterrupted connection with both her own region’s non-violent traditions and a

wider perspective of political possibilities than the Burmese have yet to experience. Now the

questions remain: who identifies these characteristics and attaches a positive value to them?

Does this come from the outside, from within the Burmese perspective, or from both?

West vs. East: Two Different Worlds

The Glory of Creation is in its infinite diversity and in the ways our differences combine to create meaning and beauty.4

This thesis applies primarily Western frameworks to a primarily Eastern woman, and

there is nuance and conflict inherent in such work. What do the above qualities mean to Suu Kyi

in her context? How can we as outsiders understand the Burmese context? The first question will

be briefly explored through Suu Kyi’s own words regarding her fearlessness, and the second will

be addressed later by making a comparison of between women’s political situations in Burma

and Norway.

4 The Star Trek character Spock quoted in Solheim, On Top of The World, ix. 65

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This thesis finds that one of Suu Kyi’s greatest attributes is her fearlessness. While

talking to Alan Clements, author of The Voice of Hope, she not only identified but also defined

some of the core qualities that can make Burma’s revolution successful. 5 Speaking about

courage, she said:

It takes courage to lift one’s eyes up from their own needs and to see the truth of the world around them, a truth, such as Burma, where there are no human rights. It takes courage to feel the truth, to feel one’s conscience. You can’t just expect to sit idly by and have freedom handed to you. In this regard, courage is threefold: The courage to see. The courage to feel. And the courage to act.6

One question that serves as an inspiration for writing this paper is how these great leaders

face and control their inner fears. It is a very humanistic notion. Even leaders are humans; they

are not gods or mythological figures, though they are endowed with certain superior qualities or

maybe they cultivate them. Based on the research and reviews from historical biographies, there

are commonalities that have come to surface such as everyone fear of failure, loneliness by

isolation, sorrow and pain at the death of loved ones, and suffering from one’s own sense of

losses in life. How did Aung San Suu Kyi, after having seen such great losses in her life, such as

the early deaths of her father and brother, and later her husband, not only deal with these feelings

but also patiently bear the painful separation from her family and a happy marital life? What

drove her to make that choice, and with such cheerful alacrity? On top of it, her consistent

willingness to have a genuine dialogue and discussion with an overtly tyrannical and non-

engaging military regime is awe inspiring.

5 Alan Clements, The Voice of Hope: Aung San Suu Kyi Conversations with Alan Clements (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2008).

6 Suu Kyi quoted in Ibid., 11. Saifey - 7

Talking about the root cause of fear and the strength that one draws from courage, she shared the following with Clements during one of her interviews:

Fear is rooted in insecurity and insecurity is rooted in lack of metta [loving-kindness]. If there is lack of metta, it may be a lack in yourself, or in those around you, so you feel insecure. And insecurity leads to fear.7

She added:

Fearlessness may be a gift but perhaps more precious is the courage acquired through endeavor, courage that comes from cultivating the habit of refusing to let fear dictate one’s actions.8

While showing complete astonishment at the interviewer’s assumption of her fearlessness she mentioned to Alan Clements that the interviewer did not believe that she was not frightened all those years under house arrest. On the contrary the interviewer thought that she would have been petrified. Emphasizing Buddhism, the manifold force from which she draws her strength, she said:

I’m not sure a Buddhist would have asked this question. Buddhists in general would have understood that isolation is not something to be frightened of. People ask me why I was not frightened of them. Was it because I was not aware that they could do whatever they wanted to me? I was fully aware of that. I think it was because I did not hate them and you cannot really be frightened of people you do not hate. Hate and fear go hand-in- hand.9

Probably, this East vs. West dichotomy stems from the divergent cultural and societal tendencies that seem to exist in different societies. There are certain values in the East which are completely unpalatable to members of Western society; The West honestly cannot understand or appreciate

7 Suu Kyi quoted in Ibid., 29.

8 Suu Kyi quoted in Ibid., 62.

9 Suu Kyi quoted in Ibid., 42. Saifey - 8 these ideals and vice versa. Suu Kyi’s complete calm and composure in the face of visibly turbulent and tormenting circumstances is just one example of this.

Everyone who has joined Suu Kyi in the movement of democracy and freedom for

Burma has seen betrayal with varying intensity. It is remarkable to read and listen to these people who maintained freedom while being imprisoned and did not succumb to anger, bitterness and thoughts of revenge. Rather, they have stressed more on forgiveness and using a non-violent and reconciliatory tone to achieve their long term goals. It is strange not to see any signs of hate or revenge but the complete absence of any emotional-mental bottleneck inside Suu Kyi.

When asked, “Why is that so?” she replied, “This is because I have never learned to hate them. I’ve always felt that if I had really started hating my captors, hating the SLORC [State

Law and Order Restoration Council] and the army, I would have defeated myself.”10It is this deeply rooted attitude that we see in her mother, Daw Khin Kyi, in being completely undemanding, and not asking society for any special treatment for her family after the assassination of her husband:

I encourage people to focus on deeds, rather than on people. It basically means the ability to see the person apart from the deed and to recognize that although he has done that deed, that does not mean that he is irredeemable. There are aspects of him that are acceptable.11

At the same time, stressing that it is better not to answer than to deceive, she said:

Deceiving is an exhausting activity. It’s true what Scott said, ‘O what a tangled web we weave, when first we practice to deceive!’ You lose more by deception. All the time you have ever deceived anybody will stay with you for your entire life, whereas the consequences of honesty, in the long run, are never burdensome.12

101 Suu Kyi quoted in Ibid, 41.

111 Suu Kyi quoted in Ibid., 180. Saifey - 9

Describing “inner strength” as another core quality at the center of their movement, Suu

Kyi told Clements that “It’s the spiritual steadiness that comes from the belief that what you are doing is right, even if it doesn’t bring you immediate concrete benefits.”13 Suu Kyi, being a

Buddhist at heart, stresses the importance of developing more and more awareness about conquering all her inner struggles. In her words, “I’m soldiering on. It’s a battle which will go on the whole of my life.”14

Women’s rise to Power: Norway vs. Burma

In order to clearly understand the rise of women in the political arena, a brief comparison and explanation of women’s representation along with the process of getting involved in the political system in a Scandinavian country, Norway, along with an Eastern country, Burma is presented. It is further strengthened by the data and statistics provided in the appendix where a brief comparison of women leaders from both the developing as well as the developed world is given. It makes sense to compare Burma with the Scandinavian political system since the Nordic countries have gained world-wide attention for their gender equality. Not only that, they enjoy a

121 Suu Kyi quoted in Ibid., 58.

131 Suu Kyi quoted in Ibid., 166.

141 Suu Kyi quoted in Ibid., 71. Saifey - 10 prominent place in the world of politics by putting women in leadership positions at both the executive and legislative level.

Solheim explains that the Nordic countries, comprised of Norway, Denmark, Sweden,

Finland and Iceland, are small, homogeneous societies with relatively high standards of living, a fairly common historical tradition and culture, and emphases on Protestantism, democracy, and social welfare. Looking at Nordic women in detail, there are a number of factors worth noting for this comparison. Women do more unpaid work in Nordic societies than men. They are primarily employed in the service sector while men are fairly well distributed throughout all sectors.

Women’s political participation tends to be highest in social democratic societies, where the government’s role is to equalize social and economic inequities. In Scandinavia, women find that they are judged collectively by their peers. Women in Norway began running for local office in

1901 and immediately began getting elected. By 1913 Norwegian women were able to vote nationwide.15

It is impressive to see how Nordic countries have gained international recognition in attaining gender equality. They have set a remarkable record in putting women in positions of political leadership at both the executive and legislative level. This comparison provides insight to readers about the conflicting lens under which women’s leadership capability is not only seen, but measured as well. The Scandinavian political system can be used as a role model for crossing gender barriers and encourage more meaningful leadership roles for women in other countries around the world.

A comparison between Norway and Burma is not a matter of exact opposites. Aung San

Suu Kyi writes in Letters from Burma, “In Burma there is no prejudice against girl babies. In

151 Solheim, On Top of the World, 39. 1

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fact, there is a general belief that daughters are more dutiful and loving than sons and many

Burmese parents welcome the birth of a daughter as an assurance that they will have somebody

to take care of them in their old age.” 16 The key to understanding women’s place in Burmese

society is to understand the difference between legal rights and the actual exercise of those rights

in culture and society, that is, the difference between rights defined and defended by the law and

those simply assumed by cultural practice. This is where it becomes clear how Burma differs

from Norway.

In many ways, historically and today, women in Burma hold a unique and enviable

position. At home and in business activities, women in Burmese society compared to women in

its two historically powerful neighbors, India and China, have greater legal rights (traditionally,

equal to that of men) and enjoy a high degree of tolerance and independence. Yet, on the other

hand, there is strong evidence of gender-specific cultural practices or roles that undermine this

apparent equality. This is further sanctioned by the Buddhist religion.

There are primarily two things that seem to impress people who are interested to know more

about the status of women in Burmese society. Many foreigner journalists and travelers have shared

that they were surprised to see an ordinary Burmese woman sitting at her stall in a bazaar, dressed in

the usual htamein (skirt) and jacket, her hair arranged on top of her head in the traditional manner,

often smoking a cigar and handling her trade with all the hard-headed business acumen of a man.

Or, in an agricultural family, the wife may be helping with the planting, the reaping, and the

winnowing. If her husband is a cart man, a Burmese woman may perform her share of the labor. You can

see her in business houses, signing contracts and making decisions for the firm, or find her in any of the

16 Aung San Suu Kyi, “Letters from Burma,” cited in Wintle, Perfect Hostage, 151; Ibid. 1

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professions or in parliament. It all seems quite different from the familiar Western fantasy of the

downtrodden, backward Asian woman.17

Yet, at a social occasion, one notices the extremely subservient behavior of Burmese women. It

is often found that the Burmese women cluster together on one side of the room and leave their men to

talk to each other in a group of their own. It is observed, at a meal, that the men are served first; their

wives offer them every deference within the home. On a street it is not unusual to see a man walking

ahead while his wife follows a few paces behind carrying the bundles.18

The apparent paradox of these observations is, in fact, quite an accurate indication of the rather

special place that Burmese women occupy in society. For centuries —even before recorded history,

from what we can deduce—Burmese women have accepted as their right a high measure of

independence. The Buddhist and the Hindu influences that came to this country at a somewhat later

date may have modified the social status of women, but Burmese women have always retained their

legal and economic rights.

In an interesting research work done by Daw Mya Sein, she observes that in the village system

of Burma she found vestiges of a matriarchal system which must have flourished there at one time. 19

The inheritance of certain oil wells, for instance, belonged exclusively to women; in some cases the

inheritance of the leadership of a village was through the female line. To this day there are no family

surnames in Burma and a woman keeps her own name after marriage.

17 Daw Mya Sein, “The Women of Burma: A Tradition of Hard Work and Independence,” Atlantic Monthly, February 1958, http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1958/02/the-women-of- burma/6822/.

18 Ibid.

19 Ibid. 2

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Aung San Suu Kyi, winner of the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize, has succeeded in no small way

in drawing Burma to the world’s attention. Suu Kyi is the most prominent woman in Burmese

society today and has become a symbol of strength and dignity. She acts as a world symbol for

the Burmese freedom movement. Su Kyi’s national role calls to mind the status and role of

women in Burmese society. In a candid interview with Alan Clements for his book, The Voice of

Hope, she replied to a question about women’s rights in Burma in these words, “Men do not have

rights in Burma either.”20

In a broadcast show on RFA (Radio Free Asia), following her release on November 13, 2010, Suu

Kyi answered a few questions about the political role of Burmese women. An interesting question was

asked by a member of the organization called the Women’s Rights and Women Affairs of Burma

(WRWAB) as well as the Burma Lawyers’ Council (BLC). She reminded Suu Kyi that there is very little

consideration for the role of women in Burmese politics, though they represent more than half the

population. The activist asked as to what can be done so that women’s affairs are taken into

consideration the way other ethnic groups are taken seriously in the country’s politics. Aung San Suu Kyi

replied:

It is true that there is not enough focus on the role of women in Burmese politics. I think that because there is such a lack of basic human rights in our country, and because people are more involved in getting those rights, they have not given enough attention to women’s rights. But women have become more involved in the political process of our country with each day. In our prisons there are over 400 women who are serving time for political offenses. This shows how active our women are in Burmese politics. The people will not be able to ignore the role of women because of this activism. I think that if you work actively as best you can for democracy and human rights, the role of women will be highlighted more in Burmese society.21

20 Suu Kyi quoted in Clements, Voice of Hope, 162.

21 Aung San Suu Kyi, Interview by Radio Free Asia “Look At Our Own Weakness,” January 5, 2011, http://www.rfa.org/english/women/conversation-aungSanSuuKyi/conversation-01052011105033.html. 2

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Than Than New argues in his paper “Gendered Spaces: Women in Burmese Society” that the

acceptance of existing socio-religious positions between males and females is reinforced by

spatial divisions which are devised and retained to perpetuate male dominance. 22 The spatial

dimension of gender relations in Burmese society is deconstructed to give an added appreciation

of gender inequality.

On the other hand, when one looks at the political spectrum for Burmese women, one

cannot help noticing a strong contrast in terms of women’s representation in the political power

structures. The constitution of Myanmar guarantees equality before the law regardless of race,

religion, status, or sex, but it does not explicitly prohibit discrimination against women. The

government of Myanmar has established two mechanisms to promote women’s enjoyment of

their human rights: the Maternal Welfare and Child Association and the Myanmar Women

Entrepreneurs Association. (Burma is known as Myanmar in many countries and at the UN. The

official English name was changed from "the Union of Burma" to "the Union of Myanmar" in

1989 by the country's government.) However, the leadership of these two bodies is comprised of

women who are related or married to high-ranking officers in the SPDC (State Peace and

Development Council, the ruling party) officers. Critics say that these organizations have no

independent authority or expertise in establishing equality for women. For instance, women in

Myanmar continue to have no representation at the national level. The 19-member SPDC is all

male and there are no women in the 39-member cabinet.23

22 Than Than New, “Gendered Spaces: Women in Burmese Society,” Transformations, No. 6, February 2003, http://www.transformationsjournal.org/journal/issue_06/pdf/nwe.pdf.

23 “Myanmar/Burma,” Online Women in Politics.org, accessed December 20, 2010, http://www.onlinewomeninpolitics.org/myanmar/myandocs.htm. Saifey - 15

Women’s Role in Traditional and Modern Times

One observes a degree of notable cheerful willingness in Suu Kyi’s approach to handling personal and professional dilemmas. She seems both unconventional and without any fear. Her readiness to be uncomfortable, along with a very deep sense of duty and a profound reverence for her traditional culture and religion is remarkable. It is interesting to note her sense of respect about the stereotypical roles as perceived by family and society, presenting a wonderful paradox which needs to be explored in order to understand how leaders think and act in a dichotomous situation.

Here it is important to recognize the role of women in the context of both traditional and modern times, as this is the paradox in which developing nations exist today. How have their roles changed and how have they remained unchanged? What are the reasons at the personal level that shape a particular woman’s drive to become a political leader? Is the appearance of power from their famous and influential male relatives (fathers or husbands) enough to lead or could they make it otherwise as well? To what degree is a legacy significant in the formation of leadership qualities in women, and what advantages does a legacy engender in making them visible in the political arena? Lastly, are these powerful women elected on emotional grounds or for their political savvy?

This thesis will study Aung San Suu Kyi’s example as the daughter of Burma’s national hero. It will be established that leadership style is more important than the gender of the leader in promoting peace and social justice, and that in some cases “the second sex” has to be more assertive and strong in order to be “heard” and not just be “seen.” Gro Harlem Brundtland, former Norwegian Prime Minister and an international leader, gave strength to the same thought Saifey - 16 when she said, “If you speak with authority, mean what you say, say it strongly, clearly … then people will listen, whether you are a man or a woman.”24

A Brief History of the Women’s Movement

One is not born, but rather becomes, woman.25 - Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex

Simone de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex is known as a “feminist bible.” It is an account that might discourage readers who are wary of either sacred text or personality cult. The quote cited above is Beauvoir’s most famous assertion. By this, Beauvoir means to destroy the belief which claims that women are born “feminine” (according to whatever the culture and time define it to be) but are rather constructed to be such through social indoctrination. Judith Thurman, in her article “An introduction to Simone de Beauvoir’s ‘The Second Sex’” writes:

In 1946, Simone de Beauvoir began to outline what she thought would be an autobiographical essay explaining why, when she had tried to define herself, the first sentence that came to mind was “I am a woman.”26

It seems discouraging that six decades after the original publication of The Second Sex, young women belonging to different cultures are still facing an intense internal struggle to define their true identity. It seems to emanate from the inherent and prevailing class and status driven

242 Gro Harlem Brundtland quoted in Solheim, On Top of the World, 65.

252 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, “Simone de Beauvoir,” by Shannon Mussett, accessed October 16, 2011, http://www.iep.utm.edu/beauvoir/.

262 Judith Thurman, “Introduction to Simone de Beauvoir’s ‘The Second Sex,’” The New York Times, Arts Section, Books Subsection, May 27, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/30/books/excerpt-introduction- second-sex.html?scp=2&sq=simone de beauvoir&st=cse&pagewanted=1. 2

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features of the society, which does not give equal opportunities to pursue a career of choice to

everyone. Even though, broadly speaking, opportunities for women have proliferated during past

few decades, it would not be incorrect to say that women’s empowerment is most visible in the

Western world. In the developing world they are still fighting for their fundamental human

rights. This puts young women under immense external pressure, both positive and negative, to

achieve their goals and to keep the flame of hope being acknowledged for their unique abilities

burning.

If we look at the history of the women’s movement, we will observe from the early

efforts by some of the pioneering women leaders how and at what point in time they began to

voice their sense of deprivation and desire to be socially accepted on the basis of their merit and

worthiness. In Women in the Developing World, Karen L. Kinnear provides an insight into this

dilemma and recalls the unique history of women struggling for their rights or wanting more

recognition:

In 1792, Mary Wollstonecraft, a British feminist, wrote Vindication of the Rights of Women, in which she challenged the prevailing attitudes of the day concerning human rights. Later in 1869, John Stuart Mill wrote The Subjugation of Women, in which he advocated equal opportunities for women and suggested ways to eliminate basic causes of women’s oppression. Today, even though many international documents exist to protect women and their rights, women in many areas of the world are not aware of their rights or are denied these rights by common practice, by cultural traditions, or by law. In many cases, women are not aware of the fact that they have certain rights, or of how to get access to information on how to gain their rights.27

So, in understanding some of the challenges that continue to face women in developing

nations, particularly those of the East, we can begin to tackle the second half of our introductory

question as to what is a leader.

27 Karen L. Kinnear, Women in Developing Countries: a Reference Handbook (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, LLC., 2011), 30. 2

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A Leader in Today’s World and in the Future

A leader is a servant actually. A leader whether it’s a he or a she would be great if she led for the sake of the led by suffering. A leader is sacrificial for the sake of those whom she is serving. She is not doing it for the sake of self-aggrandizement or self-glorification or in order to feather her own nest. She is someone who inspires her followers like Aung San Suu Kyi. She has said nothing for the past eleven years but remains the only real leader in Burma because she encapsulates and represents the aspirations of the people she is serving. –Archbishop Desmond Tutu28

In today’s political arena, Aung San Suu Kyi stands as a prominent and promising world

leader. And the reason is that in this one leader one sees the mirror image of world’s great

revolutionary and transformational leaders like Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther King, Jr., Mother

Teresa, Mahatma Gandhi, and the Dalai Lama. Needless to say, this world needs as much of a

moral leadership today and in the future as it did in the past. These are the courageous men and

women who continued with their cause even when the times got tough. Not only did they lead

their people by serving them but also suffered from the same pain as their people suffered. They

exhibited character and a deep sense of moral obligation to serve their nation courageously,

selflessly, without fanfare, but successfully. Revolutionary leaders like these serve, suffer, and

sacrifice for the sake of ardent and noble causes and do not let their ego grow at the stroke of

some sudden success. Most importantly, they understand what Winston Churchill once said that,

28 Desmond Tutu, Interview by Marika Griehsel, September 28, 2007, http://www.nobelprize.org/mediaplayer/index.php?id=753). 23

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“the price of greatness is responsibility.”29 Ponchitta Pierce wrote in an essay “Leading in a

Constantly Changing World”:

To lead in our constantly changing world, we will need strong, secure men and women with values and a sense of purpose—leaders who are highly disciplined and possess integrity, vision, and the courage of their convictions. World peace, economic progress, and social development will depend on the creativity, the sensitivity, and the compassion of these people.30

This is true because people will recognize and welcome these exceptional men and

women only if they will stand firmly in times of crisis and prove with their actions and not mere

words; they will be decisive when the stakes are high. They will be the ones who will not be

afraid to own up to their mistakes. Because it is human and it is harder when one is alone, these

times of crisis test one’s true leadership ability and mettle. This type of leader will be honest,

forgiving, and fearless. She will give credit to others, will understand and respect world cultures,

and will bridge the gap between poor and rich. In the same essay Pierce touches on the backbone

of the world’s dilemmas, our inclination towards divisiveness and discord. “Future political

leaders must abandon the petty divisiveness that dominates today’s politics. To be truly effective,

a leader must focus on consensus, not conflict,” she states. 31

These qualities make a great and a charismatic leader, one who leads millions by winning

their hearts and minds with her scholarship and intellect rather than the use of bullets or

29 Henrick Edburg, “25 Great Quotes on Leadership,” The Positivity Blog, July 8 2007, http://www.positivityblog.com/index.php/2007/07/06/25-great-quotes-on-leadership/.

30 Ponchitta Pierce, “Leading in a Constantly Changing World,” in The Leader of the Future 2: Visions, Strategies and Practices for the New Era, eds. Frances Hesselbein and Marshall Goldsmith, (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2006) 113-120.

31 Ibid., 118. 3

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bayonets. They are the visionaries who can look into the future in uncertain times and are able to

make decisions even when the picture is incomplete. They know how and when to take risks and

are willing to pay any price for that. In the same volume as Pierce, General Eric K. Shinseki has

an essay titled “Leaders of the Future: Growing One-Eyed Kings:”32 “They will continue to serve

with loyalty, duty, respect, selfless service, honor, integrity, and personal courage as guiding

values. These values provide the foundation on which trust is nurtured.”33

Such are the leaders of the future—they will make all the difference and will shape the

world for coming decades and beyond.

The Making of a Leader

It would be interesting to see the process of leadership formation, especially in the case of

Aung San Suu Kyi. The making of a leader can serve as encouragement for people who want to

end up in certain leadership roles in their lives. Mandela recalled the following lesson regarding

leadership from when he was a young cattle herder:

“When you want to get a herd to move in a certain direction," he said, "you stand at the back with a stick. Then a few of the more energetic cattle move to the front and the rest of the cattle follow. You are really guiding them from behind." He paused before saying with a smile, "That is how a leader should do his work."34

32 Eric K. Shinseki, “Leaders of the Future: Growing One-Eyed Kings,” in Ibid., 121-127.

33 Ibid., 127.

34 Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela quoted in Jennifer Ripka, “Nelson Mandela and His Leadership Style,” Personal Webpage, accessed October 20, 2011, http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/j/m/jmc441/NelsonMandela.htm. 3

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One good explanation of the process of making a leader comes from Solheim.35 He

explains that there are major influences on a person who becomes a leader, of which gender is

only one. There is also the basic personality or genetic character that scientists now believe is

inherent in a person at birth. There are also the experiences that we have as individuals as we

grow, and are based on gender, environment and the family structure. Finally, there is something

called the “will to power” or why a person wants to be a leader. These four influences determine

the leadership style a person employs. Figure 1.1 below is the diagrammatic explanation of this

discussion.

INDIVIDUAL LEADER

GENDER

ENVIRONMENT

FAMILY STRUCTURE

WILL TO POWER

HIERARCHICAL TYPE

EMPOWERING TYPE

SITUATIONAL TYPE

Figure 1.1 The Making of a Leader

35 Solheim, On Top of the World, 103. 3

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Source: Solheim, On Top of The World, 104.

Women Leaders in Today’s World

I think I upset people sometimes, I go into a session and it says, “A gathering of Women Leaders” and two days later when we leave, we have changed the banner, A gathering of Leaders who are Women, we are not a Category. When we place ourselves in categories we encourage other people to do this. Whatever positions we are in, we are in those positions because of what we bring to the work and not because of our gender.36 --Frances Hesselbein (President and CEO of Leader to Leader Institute)

The world has seen women’s history undergoing various stages. Still, we have witnessed

very few powerful women leaders. A few who have made valuable contribution to this world by

their sheer brilliance and charismatic efforts are Joan of Arc, Queen Elizabeth I, Queen Victoria,

Mother Teresa, Indira Gandhi, Eleanor Roosevelt, Golda Meir, Margaret Thatcher, Benazir

Bhutto, Angela Merkel, Corazon Aquino, and Gro Harlem Brandtland.

It was not until the late 1960s that there was an elected female head of state anywhere in

the world. Women have been searching for examples of exceptional women outside the ranks of

queens and courtesans and a few artists and saints, and found precious few ones. The queens, as

Beauvoir remarked, “Were neither male nor female: they were sovereigns.”37 Similar undertone

is observed by Frances Hesselbein in the above quote. The dilemma is that even after more than

half a century, women still have to give reasons that they are not a category but individuals.

In On Top of the World: Women’s Political Leadership in Scandinavia and Beyond, Bruce

O. Solheim adapted Thomas Kuhn’s idea on fundamental change to the issue of gender. 38 He

identified certain anomalies in the current dominant paradigm on gender and leadership:

36World News, “Frances Hesselbein – Women Are Not a Category,” accessed October 20, 2011, http://wn.com/Frances_Hesselbein__Women_are_not_a_category.

37 Judith Thurman, “Introduction to Simone de Beauvoir’s ‘The Second Sex.’” 34

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1. Few women have been in leadership roles, 2. The “great man theory” of management dictates that women are too emotional, too suggestible, and too indecisive to lead, and 3. Subordinates react differently to male and female leaders exhibiting the same behaviors.39

By referring to Kuhn’s theory, Solheim is pointing out the importance of overcoming

these anomalies to induce a paradigm shift to occur for women leaders. Some encouragement

seems to have emerged during the past few decades; one can see greater worldwide acceptance

for women becoming heads of states or holding important national portfolios. As early as 1901,

Fernanda Nissen made it clear that “Women must enter politics if they are to have an influence

on their lives.”40 But it is mostly the second and third anomalies in Kuhn’s theory that will take

more time by societies to overcome. Perhaps, when there are more women leaders, the old,

negative stereotypes will dissipate and a new gender partnership style for leadership will

eventually emerge.

Despite the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 which engendered freedom in the hearts of

many people formerly subjected to tyranny, women’s voices are still faintly heard in the halls of

world politics. The matter requires utmost attention because women comprise more than half of

the world population. A disheartening dimension to this is that many around the world still

consider women unfit in power wielding roles owing to their gender. However, renowned

38 Solheim, On Top of The World, 21; Kuhn is an American historian and philosopher of science who coined the term “paradigm shift.” His 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was deeply influential in both academic and popular circles.

39 Kuhn quoted in Ibid, 21.

40 Fernanda Nissen quoted in Ibid., 29. 4

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revolutionary political and philosophical figures like Mahatma Gandhi see women as having

great potential for leadership.

To call woman the weaker sex is a libel; it is man’s injustice to woman. If by strength is meant brute strength, then indeed is woman less brute [sic] than man. If by strength is meant moral power, then woman is immeasurably man’s superior. Has she not greater intuition, is she not more self-sacrificing, has she not greater power of endurance, has she not greater courage? Without her man could not be. If non-violence is the law of our being, the future is with woman. Who can make a more effective appeal to the heart than woman?41

The following chapter presents a theoretical framework built at the intersection of several

theories of leadership and leadership formation, which will be applied to Aung San Suu Kyi as a

case study. The case will be made that certain leadership characteristics must be actively

developed and that Aung San Suu Kyi’s particular styles and approaches as a leader serve her

cause particularly well.

41Mahatma Gandhi quoted in Ibid., 1. Saifey - 25

CHAPTER 2

A Theoretical Framework

This chapter will focus on the formation and behavior of transformational leaders in light of theories from experts in both psychology and leadership studies. It is important to understand what social and organizational factors apart from personal attributes make individuals great persons in their chosen fields. What are the impacts of birth order, the death of parents, career choice, religious beliefs and social recognition on the emotional well-being and accomplishments of great leaders? The next chapter will present an analysis of Aung San Suu Kyi through the lens of this framework.

The central ideas in this chapter come principally from the work of four sources. These are Arnold M. Ludwig’s The Price of Greatness: Resolving the Creativity and Madness

Controversy, Leading in a Culture of Change by Michael Fullan, The Learning Leader by

Douglas B. Reeves and Review of Leadership Theory and Competency Frameworks from the

Centre for Leadership Studies, University of Exeter. These social scientists and scholars have linked exceptional leaders’ mental capabilities with their achievements, and this chapter will make connections between the findings of these studies and the evidence from actual leaders’ lives. During the course of our discussion on eminent people and their rise to greatness, we have referred to Ludwig’s work on several occasions on account of his well-researched, informative and interesting findings. Let us explore these one by one. 4

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What is Greatness?

To understand how people become great individuals, Ludwig suggests studying the

relationship between a person’s greatness and his mental ability or disability, along with his

chosen route to reach achievement. He writes:

Paths taken to greatness reveal a lot about the kinds of opportunities society provides, the type of people who respond to them, and the kinds of activities and achievements that are awarded. As with so many other areas, Shakespeare penetrated to the heart of the issue when he observed, “Some are born to greatness, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them.”42

So, dealing with the notion of greatness, a question arises: What do people really mean

when they use words like “greatness,” “eminence,” and “genius?”

Webster’s Dictionary defines greatness as eminence, eminence as a position of

prominence or superiority, and genius as extraordinary intellectual power. One can see that

despite different connotations for the three words, their meanings sound similar.43 But how these

meanings reveal themselves in detail will change based on the society where they are being

perceived. All require cultural interpretation in order to recognize particular achievements of

individuals as great.44

Different Paths to Greatness

42Ludwig, Arnold M., The Price of Greatness: Resolving the Creativity and Madness Controversy, (New York, NY: The Gilford Press, 1995), 12.

43Ibid.

44Ibid., 12, 197 - Ludwig notes that A. L. Kroeber, in his study of great civilizations, Anthropology: Culture Patterns and Processes (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1963) claims that while genius was inherited, cultural factors kept 75-90 percent of potential genius from being realized. Saifey - 27

Ludwig studied a large sample of notable people who were born to eminent parents. In colloquial terms, he investigated those extraordinary men and women that are born with “the silver spoon in their mouth.” These are individuals who enter this world with absolute privilege and social prominence and seem to have karma working in their favor. They were born to affluent, highly literate, personally creative and professionally successful parents. They have had all the necessary resources to pursue their goals. These privileged children saw early successes in their lives and were achievers at an early age. Their poise and manner reflects self assurance and confidence. In their life dictionary, the word failure does not seem to exist and with their powerful leadership qualities they continue to gravitate towards greatness.

The notion of different routes taken by various persons to achieve eminence is important because it shows that different types of personal attributes are essential for different forms of greatness. There is no single set of external circumstances that accounts for all individuals who are perceived by their society as being great.

For those who come from eminent backgrounds, it would be unfair to consider legacy the only determinant that persuaded them to lead and it would undermine their ability and enthusiasm to serve. Even though a legacy plays a significant role in the formation of leadership qualities in a person, it is only a person’s determination and content of character that sustains her and determines if she is willing to die for her ideals. As great American leader, Martin Luther

King, Jr. has reputably said that if a leader is not ready to die for something, she is not fit to live.

But, are all great leaders born that way? Or, can leadership attributes be developed?

Many leaders are born with leadership traits. Leadership comes naturally and instinctively to them. But there has to be a cause, an idea, an inspiration to sustain them as leaders. They cannot just rest on their laurels, using only their natural gifts. They have to be visionaries with a 4

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concrete plan. The world has seen such courageous visionaries who have changed the course of

history and have set standards of superior leadership in the form of Martin Luther King Jr.,

Nelson Mandela, Mother Teressa, and Aung San Suu Kyi.

Who Defines Eminence?

In his book Hereditary Genius, Francis Galton claims that a measure of a man’s genius is

derived from his degree of eminence, which, in turn, rests on his reputation. By reputation, he

means “the opinion of contemporaries, revised by posterity…based upon a favorable appraisal of

a man’s character and natural abilities.”45 Natural ability represents those qualities of intellect

and disposition “which urge and qualify a man to perform acts that lead to reputation.”46 An

individual with this natural ability pursues his goals zealously and perseveres until all obstacles

are overcome. Genius, as defined by Galton, cannot be thwarted.47

While the reputation of an individual is an important determinant of greatness, there are

several internal qualities that are also essential, including leadership, creativity, and productivity.

Societies play the role of judge in order to qualify a person as eminent. Talent, intelligence,

shrewdness, self-control and being deserving of fame are some other determinants of great

genius, but social recognition and acceptance is the key element of greatness or eminence. So, it

could be said that there are no geniuses of whom we have not heard.

45Francis Galton, Hereditary Genius, quoted in Ludwig, Price of Greatness, 17.

46Ibid.

47Ibid., 18. 4

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Elites and Masses: Power Wielding Attributes

Higher social status is more likely to lead to eminent status than less privileged

backgrounds. Comparing people who are born into nobility with individuals who are born into

absolute adversity leads one to wonder, what are those natural and unnatural factors that

differentiate these two groups?

The word elite is defined in the Merriam-Webster dictionary as, “a group of persons who

by virtue of position or education exercise power or influence.”48 This word has often been used

in such a negative way that a person might be reluctant to identify herself with its true meanings.

Moreover, elites fulfill certain distinct functions in society. This group of powerful individuals

occupies the top positions of fame, power, and wealth in every culture. They act as trend setters,

leaders, role models, spokesmen, and pioneers, exercising full authority and control within their

fields.

To what extent does an elite upbringing lead to great leadership formation and are there

any points at which it is not necessary to come from an elite background? It is interesting to see

that despite the fact that Suu Kyi belonged to the elite class, her ability to identify with common

people from all classes of society is remarkable. This leaves one to think that upbringing and

personal experiences also play a significant role in shaping one’s self. “I was taught by my

mother that I owed this duty to my people,” said Suu Kyi on an occasion. 49 Another outstanding

example is Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., who came from an elite group of African-Americans but

felt strongly about the racial discrimination and suppression of the rights of blacks. Those painful

48Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online, s.v. “Elite,” accessed on October 10, 2011, http://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/elite.

49 Suu Kyi quoted in Clements, Voice of Hope, 199. 5

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experiences left deep scars on his heart and mind and compelled him to shape the future of his

and his fellow African-Americans, ultimately making him one of the greatest revolutionary

leaders of the world.

History records that the majority of those who do end up rising to the top come from

elite or somewhat well-to-do backgrounds. They can afford to do their risky work because they

have the means to thrive. Those that are working to pull themselves up or get by usually do not

have the means to risk their livelihoods. Education can be a leveling mechanism that provides

opportunities to those who cannot rise and achieve. However, money to support the time to think

is something many people cannot afford. In many parts of the developed world this is handled

by paying people to do the thinking about the issues; “think tanks” bring together those who have

education and allow them time to think and discuss ideas and issues. In the developing world this

responsibility continues to fall to the elite class.

While the history of the concept of elitism goes back to the time of Plato, it was in the

early 20th century that it appeared in social science through the works of two Italian scholars,

Vilfredo Pareto and Gaetano Mosca.50 Pareto’s law of universal inequality held that in any area

of human activity, whether in the arts, science, politics, business, or other endeavor, the highest

achievers formed the elite, which possessed special psychological qualities.51 The remainder

comprised the masses.

While agreeing with Pareto that the elite possessed special personal qualities, Mosca

stressed the importance of organizational and social factors as the basis for the ruling class.

50 Ludwig, Price of Greatness, 19.

51 Ibid. 5

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Ludwig suggests that the stratification of a society implies a hierarchy of power, with those at the

very top in their fields wielding the greatest influence and those at the bottom the least.52 Ludwig

concludes his findings on the dynamics of greatness in these words:

The designation of greatness is not solely determined by an individual’s accomplishments… [G]reatness is an uncommon phenomenon, limited only to a select few in each field. But, it also represents a dynamic process, like a grain of sand that seeds a pearl, because of its cumulative nature. The better known people are, the better known they are likely to become. In many instances, they may become so prominent and revered that their reputations live on well after their deaths.53

Aung San Suu Kyi could be well described by the above and exemplifies another dimension of

greatness. An eminent personality’s sacrifices for, and empowerment of, the masses ensures a

lasting esteem. With their lives being the true embodiment of their people’s suffering, they are

certain to be remembered long after their death. It can be concluded that eminence is, therefore, a

representation of an interaction between the person, his or her works, his or her field, and his or

her audience. 54

Developmental Theory of Eminence Early Childhood’s Influence on Decision-making If individuals are, to an extent, a product of their past experiences, the critical information

about the choice of their careers should be identified and framed with an understanding of their

early years. However, it is irrelevant whether their early career choices zero in on their eventual

destinations or if they only do so after pursuing a zigzag course of development.

52 Ibid., 9, 197.

53 Ibid., 22.

54 Ibid., 23. 5

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Sometimes, how adults are influenced as children is obvious, but more often it is obscure.

It can be difficult to isolate particular factors that lead individuals to particular achievements.

Entire biographies are written to explain how early childhood influences later life choices and

decision-making processes. Fortunately, when we try to identify the important early influences

on children who later become eminent, we have recourse to an important developmental theory

of eminence developed by Robert Albert. This theory offers a useful framework for organizing

information about the early lives of extraordinary people.55

The theory holds that the special talents and gifts of children serve as “organizers” for

their behaviors, which shape their personal development and their immediate social

environments. In other words, these children “serve” their talent, just as their talent comes to

serve them. They want to do well and be special in the eyes of their parents, teachers and peers.

And, as their unique abilities gain them special attention and praise, they tend to seek out

opportunities to exhibit them.

In Aung San Suu Kyi’s childhood there is evidence that she strived to be an obedient and

high-achieving child. Perhaps there is a connection between these struggles of her early years

and her willingness to engage in the struggles of the present for Burma. Her adherence to her

elders’ expectations and her current sense of duty may not be entirely dissimilar.

Parents’, Mentors’ and Institutions’ Role

If parents recognize that their children are gifted and special, and are able to do so, they

provide the necessary financial resources and make sacrifices to ensure that these gifts develop

and thrive. Gifted youths, in turn, attract mentors who offer guidance and direct them to the best

experiences and institutions. The institutions themselves encourage these youths to display their

55 Ibid., 32, 201. 5

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abilities and reward them. In other words, their world reinforces their talents and enables them to

grow.

It is important to note that the most important influences operating on these children are

not only those that help but also those that hinder the expression of their talents. Such potential

early influences include family backgrounds, certain parental characteristics, traumatic

experiences, physical health, natural talents and endowments, and educational experiences. The

details of Aung San Suu Kyi’s early years abound with useful information about these influences

on her.

Parents

It comes as no surprise that a vast majority of eminent persons come from families where

fathers are in high-sounding and key professions.56 The parents’ social status clearly bears upon

the career choices of their offspring. It is not only parents’ conformity that is passed on, but also

their own aesthetic interests.

The Impact of the Death of Parent and Loved Ones

Another important dimension of the developmental theories of eminence is that they

signal certain traumatic childhood events, such as the loss of a parent and loved ones that

sometimes serve as the basis for later achievement or mental illness. An event like this happening

at a time when individuals are most helpless, vulnerable, and impressionable, can have a

devastating impact, psychologically scarring them for life.

Reports of high rates of early parental loss among the eminent are plentiful. One

researcher reported that about 30 percent of poets he studied lost their fathers before the age of

15. Another discovered that 15 percent of her sample of scientists lost a parent before the age of

56 Ibid., 247. Saifey - 34

10. But, it is unproven that these rates of early parental loss are statistically significant when compared to the rates for the full population.57

In her study of 24 consecutive British prime ministers, Lucille Iremonger noted that 15 had lost at least one parent before the age of 15. This meant a rate of 63 percent, compared to an estimated 17 percent for the general population. On further study of this phenomenally high rate of orphaned prime ministers, Iremonger observed what she thought to be a characteristic set of attributes among them, which she called the “Phaethon Complex.” These attributes consisted of an insatiable need for attention, an isolation and reserve, an abnormal degree of sensitivity, depression, superstitiousness, austerity and aggressiveness, an overreaction to bereavement, and an intense devotion to one’s own children.58

Still to be discovered is the impact of early parental loss on later mental illness and creative achievement. Surprisingly, the results of statistical analysis does not support the common belief that the lifetime mental difficulties of eminent persons are due to the loss of a parent during childhood. Some like Bertrand Russell, the British philosopher, mathematician, and social activist, were born into wealth, and did not lose material advantages and educational opportunities after his parent’s deaths when he was only three. Russell’s grandmother took his guardianship seriously. Despite a strong support system, his life was blighted by serious depression. On the other hand, some children with strong family support somehow manage to survive the early deaths of their parents without any apparent, lasting detrimental effects on their mental health or creative achievements, like Eleanor Roosevelt. She lived under her

575 Ibid., 36.

585 Ibid., 35, 202. 56

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grandmother’s guardianship after losing both parents before the age of ten. She eventually turned

out to be a strong-willed, stubborn woman who dedicated herself to serving others and solving

social problems.59

Ludwig concluded that although there is no evidence for the impact of early parental loss

on lifetime achievement, one must acknowledge that children whose parents die early or under

unfavorable circumstances are likely to remain haunted by their loss, despite adequate family

support and financial resources.60 In Suu Kyi’s case, there is strong evidence for her strong

emotional bond with her father’s memory after his early death. Despite never experiencing a

normal fatherhood, or maybe because of its absence, she inherited her father’s values and life

principles devotedly and ardently.

Social Behavior

Another factor that plays an important role is social behavior, which affects how people

adjust to or are accepted by a society in a particular profession. This behavior includes one’s

temperament, interpersonal skills, and personal abilities. These factors, which alone can place

individuals into top positions in their profession, could be devastating in other contexts. For

example, there are professions that require inter-personal skills and public trust and therefore

59 Ibid., 39.

60 Ibid. 6

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draw more sociable and stable people like politicians, and religious clerics, unlike writers and

poets who may be moody or want to work alone.61

Educational Process

Mentors can play the most crucial part in the educational process. The tradition of

mentoring goes back to antiquity. Esteemed men and women, in different disciplines, take

younger apprentices under their wings and share their wisdom and knowledge with them. They

offer their support and encouragement to young aspiring men and women and help them to

advance in their careers.

Ludwig points out almost one quarter of eminent people had some sort of identifiable

personal mentors.62 Sigmund Freud served as a mentor of sorts for Carl Jung and a group of other

notable psychoanalysts. Louis Sullivan served as mentor and teacher to Frank Lloyd Wright. On

a more general level, almost half of all Nobel laureates in science since 1925 studied under

Nobel laureates themselves, suggesting a selection process that tends to link masters with

masters-to-be.63

Career Choice

61 Ibid.

62 Ibid., 54.

63 Ibid., 53, 206. 6

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When the lives and achievements of eminent people are examined, one must ask whether

their career choices are suitable. They seem almost destined for those roles and professions.

Their work activities seem to be natural extensions of their personal attributes and abilities. It is

hard to determine why people are pulled towards certain professions.64 In different societies and

at different times in history, people pursued their goals because of their birthright, divine

inspiration, health, physical attributes, geography, socioeconomic factors, religion, gender, race,

or necessity. It is only recently that choice has played such an important role. In today’s world,

people are more self-aware due to media revolution and proliferation of information that has

opened up a world full of choices for them. This choice is more about finding the right match

among personal attributes, individual’s aspirations, and available resources.

Relationship to Political and Religious Authorities

From birth, all people must deal with authority figures, usually parents, and when

working for others with employers and supervisors. For those who maintain a respectful

relationship with their parents and other authorities that could be a gratifying and rewarding

experience. For others who have troubled and confrontational experiences with authorities, it is a

difficult and challenging ordeal. Temperament and the necessity to advance socially or

professionally play an important part in determining the nature of a person’s affiliation with

authority figures. Suu Kyi did not need to please the military junta as would a less privileged

Burmese, allowing her to act in a way not all Burmese felt possible.

Aung San Suu Kyi’s relationship to spiritual authority stands in contrast to her open

defiance of Burma’s authoritative rulers, which reaffirms the fact that besides relationships to

overt or political authority figures, attachment with a country’s religious figures is an important

64 Ibid., 54. 6

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tactic. The public expression of religious beliefs and practices reflect the social support expected

by a person for their views. In societies where the majority belongs to practicing persons of faith,

those who are openly atheists or agnostics certainly risk social abandonment.

One might assume that professions with higher percentages of irreligious persons should

be more likely to tolerate nonconformity, favor scientific proof over accepted belief, and foster

solitary activity, whereas professions with higher percentages of religious persons should be

those which emphasize conformity, traditional beliefs, and which foster group activity. But other

than some proof that eminent people tend to be irreligious, little information has been

systematically gathered about the religious views of eminent persons within different

professions.65 For all her reverence for tradition and culture, Aung San Suu Kyi made several

fateful choices to be non-conformist, from the public decision to defy the reigning powers in

Burma to the private decision to marry a non-Burmese man.

Intimate Relations: Marital Situation

The decision to marry a certain spouse reflects the values of a person and offers a glimpse

of the world in which these people live when they are not engaged in work. Ludwig writes that

some authors believe that as a rule, certain types of people not only gravitate towards certain

kinds of professions, but they gravitate towards certain kinds of spouses and construct family

lives that fit them as well.

Mostly, it is noted that women who marry eminent men have to take a back seat to their

work, while men who marry eminent women have to allow them time and freedom to pursue

their work, giving them what Virginia Wolfe said they needed: financial security and a “room of

65 Ibid., 68. 6

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one’s’ own.” 66 Unless marriage lets them do what they feel compelled to do, it will not last. This

explains why sometimes men and women who are both eminent have difficulty maintaining a

marriage.

With a few exceptions, individuals tend to marry persons with similar or complementary

interests who are most likely to suit their practical and professional needs. Michael Aris and Suu

Kyi are excellent examples of this. Without Aris’ support, it is unlikely that Suu Kyi would have

succeeded as well as she did.

A Leader Developed Makes a Leader Possible

Children of eminent people certainly have many advantages. They are usually financially

secure, they travel and meet exciting people, they are raised in an exciting household, and are

exposed to all the major issues of the day. They learn about art, music, and culture and have the

benefits of getting a fine education. Most important, they have mothers or fathers whose

accomplishments they can be proud of. Suu Kyi’s mother, Khin Kyi’s role as an involved mother

and a career woman is interesting to consider in light of this view. They both alone would not

have had the same effect that both together had on their daughter.

Children of eminent parents also suffer. There is no evidence that eminent persons are

less caring or loving than other parents, but they have other responsibilities and interests that

command their attention. Sometimes people misconstrue them as being callous or careless.

Because of their all-consuming commitment to their work, these parents may show a lack of

emotional engagement, sometimes inadvertently, causing their children to vie for their attention

and approval. This, in turn, returns us to the question of career choice and whether the great

efforts eminent people put into their work are meant to fill needs-internal or external-to

66 Ibid., 75-76. 6

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themselves. Sometimes these children have unsuccessfully pursued careers similar to those of

their eminent parents.67 So, in many obvious ways though it is a blessing to be born to eminent

parents, in more subtle ways it can be a terrible burden as well. It is, therefore, worth looking in

detail into Suu Kyi’s relationship to her mother and father prior to her emergence as an eminent

person herself. This relates to the analysis of mentorships in order to understand how Suu Kyi

has managed these emotional burdens so well.

In order to understand what a woman leader in a developing country needs to do to be

successful, it is necessary to adapt multiple approaches as is done in the following leadership

framework. This model connects two important aspects of leadership: formation and action. We

have already explored the formation section of the framework, where the developmental theory

of eminence finds connections between nature and nurture and helps us in understanding how an

individual’s core qualities and personal experiences manifest themselves.

The second half of this framework involves understanding the actions taken by a leader,

both those relating to her followers as well as her opposition. Both subsets of action are

described using Daniel Goleman’s typology of leadership. In the next chapter, the case study

argues Aung San Suu Kyi is a “servant” and an “emergent leader,” with an “affiliative” style of

leadership in building consensus with her followers. With her opposition, the framework

identifies her as a “transformative” leader with a “coaching” leadership style.

Leadership Frameworks

If we are to understand a leader, we need to understand her history and her present

context, as well as understanding leadership in and of itself. While the previous section of this

67 Ibid., 77-78. 67

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chapter worked to understand how childhood may influence the development of particular

leadership qualities, this section lays out frameworks for understanding leadership in action.

Leadership requires asserting a vision, accomplishing a mission, and, where necessary

and appropriate, exerting authority and making responsible decisions. Leadership is about

change--how to justify it, implement it, and maintain it.68 Leadership is needed for problems that

do not have easy answers. The big problems of everyday life are complex and rife with

paradoxes and dilemmas. We expect our leaders to provide answers and solutions to them.

Sometimes, we put leaders in such untenable positions, or our systems produce leaders who try

to carry the day with populist, one-sided solutions that are as clear as they are oversimplified.69

Homer-Dixon makes the observation that:

We demand that [leaders] solve, or at least manage, a multitude of inter-connected problems that can develop into crisis without warning; we require them to navigate an increasingly turbulent reality that is, in key aspects, literally incomprehensible to the human mind; we buffet them on every side with bolder, more powerful special interests that challenge every innovative policy idea; we submerge them in often unhelpful and distracting information; and we force them to decide and act at an ever faster pace.70

Heifetz accuses us of looking for the wrong kind of leadership when the going gets

tough:

In a crisis…we call for someone with answers, decision, strength, and a map of the future, someone who knows where we ought to be going—in short someone who can make hard problems simple… Instead of looking for saviors, we should be calling for

68 Douglas B. Reeves, The Learning Leader: How to Focus School Improvement for Better Results, (Alexandria, VA: Association for Super Vision and Curriculum Development, 2006), 158.

69 Michael Fullan, Leading in a Culture of Change: Being Effective in Complex Times, (New York: Jossey-Bass, 2001), 2.

70 Homer-Dixon quoted in Ibid., 2, 142. 7

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leadership that will challenge us to face problems for which there are no simple, painless solutions—problems that require us to learn new ways.”71

We know what a leader has to do, but how do we want leaders to go about discharging

these responsibilities? That is the question that leadership frameworks try to answer.

The Dimensions of Leadership

In The Learning Leader, Douglas B. Reeves encourages leaders to have a laser-like focus

on their most important actions and roles, without distorting their biographies through historical

misrepresentation or other platitudinous blabber. While mentioning some historical leadership

frameworks along with an understanding of the dimensions of leadership, Reeves’ work serves as

a great source to understand the demands of leadership without confusing essential leadership

abilities. His writing tries to strike a balance, because “We have much to learn from the great,

not-so-great, and disastrous leaders of the past.”72

While explaining how leaders are also confined to limited boundaries in exercising their

leadership qualities and inherent strengths, Reeves explains that the demands of leadership

almost invariably exceed the capacity of a single person to meet the needs at hand. “Even the

most successful and iconic leaders of the past century—Churchill, [Franklin D.] Roosevelt,

Mandela, Thatcher, [Mahatma Gandhi], and King—were not complete leaders.”73

71 Heifetz quoted in Ibid., 3, 142.

72 Reeves, The Learning Leader, 12.

73 Ibid., 32. 7

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To illustrate this, Reeves breaks leadership into several types: communicative, analytical,

relational, and systems. Winston Churchill and Martin Luther King, Jr. will be remembered in

history as the two most successful “communicative leaders” of the 20th century but their

performances as either “analytical” or “relational” leaders were undistinguished. Whereas,

Mandela and Mahatma Gandhi were deeply “reflective” leaders, seeing their own place in the

context of the struggles of the millions, but neither showed distinction in “systems” leadership.74

Embracing faux composite historical models in which the leader is simultaneously a great

communicator, analyst, and a master of reflection gives birth to unrealistic expectations of

communities, colleagues, and leaders themselves. “Even the best of the lot frequently think of

themselves as a failure because of their inability to attend three events simultaneously.”75 This is

a useful point to remember when later reading Suu Kyi’s own protestations as to her

ordinariness, which, in fact, indicates her great potential, skill, and instinct as a leader.

Reeves’ balanced argument provides insight into the roles of both eminence and

limitations in great leaders. It strengthens the idea that great leaders are not mythological

composites who exhibit every dimension of leadership. Instead they have self-confidence and a

spirit to serve their people, and without any hubris, acknowledge their deficiencies and surround

themselves with other exceptional leaders who bring complementary strengths to their

organizations.

Daniel Goleman’s Leadership Styles

74 Ibid., 58, 56, 38, 32, 48, 43.

75 Ibid., 32. 7

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Before delving further into the complexities of leadership, it is worthwhile to consider

Goleman’s findings about leadership in order to get a clear understanding of different types of

leadership styles. Goleman analyzed a database from a random sample of 3,871 executives from

a consulting firm. He examined the relationship between leadership style, organizational

climate, and financial performance, identifying six leadership styles.76

1. Coercive – the leader demands compliance. (“Do what I tell you.”) 2. Authoritative – the leader mobilizes people toward a vision. (“Come with me.”) 3. Affiliative – the leader creates harmony, builds emotional bonds. (“People come first.”) 4. Democratic – the leader forges consensus through participation. (“What do you think?”) 5. Pacesetting – the leader sets high standards for performance. (“Do as I do, now.”) 6. Coaching -- the leader develops people for the future. (“Try this.”)

Michael Fullan in Leading in a Culture of Change, notes that two of the six styles

negatively affect the environment and, in turn, performance. These are the coercive style (people

resent and resist) and the pacesetting style (people get overwhelmed and burn out). All four other

styles had a positive impact on the environment and performance.77 In the next chapter, we will

examine the leadership style of Aung San Suu Kyi, who emerges as a balanced blend of an

affiliative, democratic, authoritative and a coaching leader for her people.

The Complexities of Leadership

Fullan unlocks the mysteries surrounding the complex situations faced by leaders. He

gives understanding and insight rather than prescribes actions to solve the dilemmas in leading

change. (Likewise, Goleman’s analysis helps us understand that different leadership styles must

76 Goleman, D., “Leadership that Gets Results,” Harvard Business Review 78, (March-April 2000): 82- 83.

77 Fullan, Leading in a Culture of Change, 35. 7

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be learned and used in different situations, but what to do in a given situation is not altogether

clear.)

If a person is dealing with a crisis-ridden situation, a more coercive stance may be

necessary at the beginning. In cases of persistent failure, dramatic, assertive leadership and

external intervention may be necessary. In the long run, effectiveness depends on developing

internal commitment in which the ideas and the intrinsic motivation of the vast majority of

organizational members is activated. Along the way, authoritative ideas, democratic

empowerment, affiliative bonds, and coaching will all be needed.78

An Effective Framework for Leadership

The convergence of theories, knowledge bases, ideas, and strategies that help us confront

problems provides no easy answers. This convergence creates a new mindset—a framework for

thinking about and leading complex change more powerful than ever before. Leaders can

increase their effectiveness if they continually work on the five components of leadership—

pursue moral purpose, understand the change process, develop relationships, foster knowledge

building, and strive for coherence—with energy, enthusiasm and hopefulness. If leaders do so,

the rewards and benefits can be enormous. Figure 2.0, below, summarizes the framework.

78 Ibid., 46. Saifey - 46

LeadersENTHUSIASM

Followers

Results

E NERGY HOPE

Figure 2.0 A Framework for Leadership

Source: Fullan, Leading in a Culture of Change, 4.

Leaders and Followers

More good things happen; Fewer bad things happen 78

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The discussion so far has dwelt on the inherent and acquired factors that make promising

individuals stand out as being somehow different and “leading” the rest of the people. This

allows us to shift focus to two other critical aspects: the importance of the leader’s relationship

with his or her followers, and interdependency of roles. The emphasis here is not on the hero or

solo leader, but the team leader; not the leader always out in front, but the leader who also has

the capacity to follow; not the master, but the servant.

Servant Leadership

The notion of “servant leadership” emphasizes the leader’s duty to serve his or her

followers. Leadership thus arises out of a desire to serve the people rather than a desire to lead.

Robert Greenleaf, founder of the Center for Servant Leadership, describes it as follows:

The servant-leader is servant first… It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. He or she is sharply different from the person who is leader first, perhaps because of the need to assuage an unusual power drive or to acquire material possessions. For such it will be a later choice to serve – after leadership is established. The leader-first and the servant-first are two extreme types. Between them there are shadings and blends that are part of the infinite variety of human nature. 79

The difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant-first leader to make sure

that other people’s highest priority needs are being served. The best test is whether those served

grow as persons; do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous,

more likely themselves to become servants? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in

society; will they benefit, or, at least, will they not be further deprived?80

79 Robert Greenleaf quoted in Centre for Leadership Studies, University of Exeter, Review of Leadership Theory and Competency Frameworks, by R. Bolden, J. Gosling, A. Marturano, and P. Dennison (Exeter: Centre for Leadership Studies, University of Exeter, June 2003), http://centres.exeter.ac.uk/cls/documents/mgmt_standards.pdf, 12.

80 Ibid. 8

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In an interview in 1984, Nobel Peace Laureate Desmond Tutu talked about what, in his opinion,

makes a good leader. A servant leader must carry the burden of responsibility internally while inspiring

people. He cited the Dali Lama, Nelson Mandela, Mother Theresa, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Aung San

Suu Kyi as great examples of servant leaders. Tutu places a particular emphasis on what can be called

the notion of moral burden–that leadership demands some sacrifice and suffering.81

While “suffering” and “burden” are words often used to describe the challenges of leaders in

the spiritual realm, Tutu seems to imply that the obligation and responsibility of keeping others in mind

is critical in being a servant leader. The more formal definitions stemming from the work of Greenleaf

and the Center for Servant Leadership point to the importance and changeability of the relationship

between leader and follower.

Dispersed Leadership

The importance of social relations in the leadership contract, the need for a leader to be

accepted by their followers, and a realization that no one individual is the ideal leader in all

circumstances have all given rise to a new school of leadership thought. Referred to as

“informal,” “emergent” or “dispersed” leadership, this approach argues for a less formalized

model of leadership where the leaders’ role is dissociated from organizational hierarchy. It is

proposed that individuals at all levels in an organization and in all roles (not simply those with an

overt management dimension) can exert leadership influence over their colleagues and thus

influence the overall leadership of an organization.

Ronald Heifetz distinguishes between the exercise of “leadership” and the exercise of

“authority” – thus dissociating leadership from formal organizational power roles, while Raelin

81 Desmond Tutu, Interview by Marika Griehsel, September 28, 2007, http://www.nobelprize.org/mediaplayer/index.php?id=753). 8

Saifey - 49

talks of developing “leaderful” organizations through concurrent, collective and compassionate

leadership. 82 The key to this is understanding the distinction between the notions of “leader” and

“leadership.” Leadership is regarded as a process of sense-making and direction-giving within a

group. The leader can only be identified on the basis of her relationship with others in the social

group who are behaving as followers. In this manner, it is quite possible to conceive of the leader

as emergent rather than predefined. This role can only be understood through examining the

relationships within the group (rather than by focusing on the leader’s personal characteristics or

traits). Aung San Suu Kyi serves as an ideal example of an emergent leader because she has

created an organization, the NLD (National League for Democracy), in which no single person

bears the burden of ideal performance. Indeed, rather than gaining followers, such a person is

making more leaders for the freedom struggle in for Burma.

Transactional and Transformational Leadership

One of the distinct differences between a democratic leader and a dictator is that a

democratic leader identifies with the sentiments and aspirations of the people and becomes their

voice, whereas, a dictator relies upon being a feared, rather than effective, leader. How can one

be their voice when one is simultaneously cutting out their tongues? One cannot lead by

enslavement or imprisonment; one needs to set the people free, not oneself. Ironically, for years

Aung San Suu Kyi has led the people of Burma towards freedom most often by being behind

bars.

James MacGregor Burns was the first to put forward the concept of “transforming

leadership.” To Burns, transforming leadership “is a relationship of mutual stimulation and

82 Bolden et al, Review of Leadership Theory, 17. 8

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elevation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents.”83

Burns goes on defining it by suggesting that transforming leadership “occurs when one or more

persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher

levels of motivation and morality.”84

Burns illustrates a humanistic psychology in his writing by proposing that the

transforming leader shapes, alters, and elevates the motives, values, and goals of a follower,

achieving significant change in the process. He proposes that there is a special power entailed in

transforming leadership with leaders “armed with principles [that] may ultimately transform both

leaders and followers into persons who jointly adhere to …values.” 85 Burns sees the power of

transformational leadership as more noble and different from charismatic leadership, which he

terms “heroic” leadership, such as executive or business leadership.

Bernard Bass developed Burns’ concept of transforming leadership in Leadership and

Performance Beyond Expectations into “transformational leadership” where the leader

transforms followers.86 The direction of influence to Bass is thus one-way, unlike Burns, who

sees it as potentially a two-way process. Bass, however, deals with the transformational style of

executive leadership that incorporates social change, a factor missing from Burns’ work. For

Bass, transformational leaders:

83 Burns quoted in Ibid., 14.

84 Ibid.

85 Ibid., 15.

86 Bass quoted in Bolden et al, Review of Leadership Theory, 15. 8

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• expand a follower’s portfolio of needs • transform a follower’s self-interest • increase the confidence of followers • elevate a followers’ expectations • heighten the value of the leader’s intended outcomes for the follower • encourage behavioral change • motivate others to higher levels of personal achievement.

Bass and B.J. Avioli suggests in Improving Organizational Effectiveness through

Transformational Leadership that, “Transformational leadership is closer to the prototype of

leadership that people have in mind when they describe their ideal leader, and it is more likely to

provide a role model with which subordinates want to identify.” 87 N. Tichy and M. Devanna in

their book Transformational Leadership, build further on the work of Burns and Bass in

organizational and work contexts. They describe the hybrid nature of transformational leadership

as not charismatic, but rather a behavioral process capable of being learned.88 If in the coming

chapters, we are to properly analyze Suu Kyi’s leadership within this lens and paradigm, then, we

need to first understand where she might have learned her leadership style. Armed with this

information, not only can we further understand her present work, but also consider how this

could be replicated by others.

Transactional leadership has been the traditional model of leadership with its roots from

an organizational or business perspective firmly focused on the “bottom line”. Stephen Covey

suggests that transformational leadership focuses on the “top line” and contrasts the two, as set

forth in the table number 2.1.

87 Bass and Avolio quoted in Bolden et al, Review of Leadership Theory, 16.

88 Tichy and Devanna quoted in Ibid., 15. 8

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Transactional Leadership Transformational Leadership

• Builds on man’s need to get a job done and • Builds on a man’s need for meaning make a living • Is preoccupied with power and position, • Is preoccupied with purposes and values, politics and perks morals, and ethics • Is mired in daily affairs • Transcends daily affairs • Is short-term and hard data orientated • Is oriented toward long-term goals without compromising human values and principles • Focuses on tactical issues • Focuses more on missions and strategies • Relies on human relations to lubricate human • Releases human potential by identifying and interactions developing new talent • Follows and fulfils role expectations by • Designs and redesigns jobs to make them striving to work effectively within current meaningful and challenging systems • Supports structures and systems that • Aligns internal structures and systems to reinforce the bottom line, maximize efficiency, reinforce overarching values and goals and guarantee short-term profits

Table 2.1: Comparison of Transactional and Transformational Leadership

Source: Bolden, et al, Review of Leadership Theory, 15.

The above table makes clear that:

The goal of transformational leadership is to “transform” people and organizations in a literal sense – to change them in mind and heart; enlarge vision, insight, and understanding; clarify purposes; make behavior congruent with beliefs, principles, or values; and bring about changes that are permanent, self-perpetuating, and momentum building.89

89 Ibid., 16. 9

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Both kinds of leadership are important and useful. Transactional leadership has remained the

organizational model for many people and organizations who have not moved into, or

encouraged, the transformational role needed to meet the challenges of our changing times.

Hooper and J. Potter extend the notion of transformational leadership to identify seven key

competencies of “transcendent leaders,” i.e., those able to engage the emotional support of their

followers and thus effectively surpass change. These include:

1. Setting direction 2. Setting an example 3. Communication 4. Alignment 5. Bringing out the best in people 6. Being a change agent 7. Providing decision in a crisis and on the ambiguous. 90

Suu Kyi, a transformational leader, first exhibited the above characteristics when she stepped

into the leadership vacuum left by her father’s death and presented the junta--transactional

leaders--with her determined and stern stance for democracy.

90 Hooper and Potter quoted in Ibid., 17. Saifey - 54

CHAPTER 3

A Case Study of Aung San Suu Kyi

This chapter will analyze the leadership of Aung San Suu Kyi as a case study through the framework discussed at length in the previous chapter. The purposes of this case study is to examine the applicability of this framework for women leaders in developing countries and help make clear the connections between an individual’s core qualities and personal experiences in shaping their leadership actions.

A Note on Suu Kyi’s Fame

It is important to emphasize that Aung San Suu Kyi is an elected leader of Burma. In the free and fair elections of Burma in 1990, she was chosen by the people of Burma by a heavy mandate, but she was denied that status when she was incarcerated by Burma’s military rulers.

As a result, the world community holds Aung San Suu Kyi in highest esteem. In recognition of her tremendous and heroic contribution to gain freedom and democracy for her country, she has been honored with numerous prestigious awards and accolades. It is the result of these that she is fairly well known.

It is worthwhile to mention here the contribution of her husband, Michael Aris, to her efforts, as he stood shoulder to shoulder with his wife during many struggling years. While Suu

Kyi was passing her detentions years quietly, Michael Aris networked tirelessly voicing the cause of his wife. In 1991 his efforts bore wondrous fruit. That year, her Oxford College, St Hugh’s, made her an Honorary Fellow. Later she was awarded the Rafto Prize, along with Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought. On the morning of October 14th, 1991, the Nobel Peace Prize

Committee announced Aung San Suu Kyi winner of that most prestigious award. Michael Aris issued a press statement stating that: Saifey - 55

I am informed…that my dear wife Suu has been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Many will now for the first time learn of her courageous leadership of the non-violent struggle for the restoration of human rights in her country. I believe her role will come to serve as an inspiration to a great number of people in the world today.91

The award was received by her son Alexander, who gave the acceptance speech on behalf of his mother. She expressed her deep gratitude and sentiments to the committee, in these words: “Let us hope and pray that from today the wounds start to heal and that in the years to come the 1991

Nobel Prize for Peace will be seen as a historic step towards the achievement of true peace in

Burma.”92

Since, winning the Nobel Peace Prize, Aung San Suu Kyi has received scores of other accolades, none of which she has been able to accept in person. Amongst many, the most notable is the Presidential Medal of Freedom, bestowed upon her by U.S. President Bill Clinton in the year 2000.

Notable media organizations like Time, the BBC, and the New Statesman are just some examples of those who have been conducting polls of their readers, listeners and viewers, the results of which are always in her favor. Pop and rock music groups like U-2, R.E.M., and

Coldplay have dedicated songs to her. Top solo performers such as Bono, Sir Paul McCartney and Damien Rice have paid tribute to her. Recently, a film based on her life story, The Lady, was released as a mark of respect of Suu Kyi’s service to her people.

Looking at the life of Aung San Suu Kyi, one obvious question comes to the mind: what kind of leader is she? It is important to establish whether she is a transactional leader or a transformational one as discussed in the previous chapter, because one must understand whether

919 Michael Aris quoted in Wintle, Perfect Hostage, 350.

929 Aung San Suu Kyi, Freedom from Fear, (London: Penguin Books Ltd, 1995), 238. Saifey - 56 her work is for the long-term change of Burmese reality or short-term gains. This thesis sees her as a transformational leader. Also, now that she has been released from detention, it is important to consider possible changes in her style. It is generally observed from the recurring trends in societies that they have a tendency to turn to iconic individuals when the chips are down and neglect them when times are rolling. Could that come to be true for Aung San Suu Kyi?

Adopting this framework, this case study seeks to explore Aung San Suu Kyi’s leadership qualities stemming from her legacy and to what extent they are from her upbringing and life experiences.

PART A: FORMATION OF A LEADER

Is Aung San Suu Kyi a Born Leader?

Many of the tremendous leadership qualities that we see in Aung San Suu Kyi likely come from her eminent parents. After all, her father was a national hero and her mother a successful diplomat. But it was Aung San Suu Kyi’s particular path that defined her approach to leading her people in the midst of crisis. Her birth alone did not define her.

To what extent was she born a great leader and to what extent were her leadership attributes developed over time? Robert Albert’s developmental theory of eminence explains this nature vs. nurture argument in the early years of great individuals, as discussed at length in the previous chapter. By looking at the life story of Aung San Suu Kyi through the lens of various stages in the developmental theory of eminence, we will try to establish a link between how early childhood experiences influenced her later life choices and the decision-making processes of her mind.

Social Status 9

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Aung San Suu Kyi’s childhood was not extraordinary; she was as playful and curious

about exploring new things as any child. But, one cannot overlook the natural status that she

inherited as the daughter of Burma’s political martyr. Nationalism and patriotism ran through her

upbringing by her mother, Daw Khin Kyi. 93 This had a huge impact, especially on the kind of

role she chose to play later in life, influencing Burma’s political history with the ink of her pen

and the truth of her tongue. And it is in this light that the world sees her struggles. No matter how

much Suu Kyi, with her inherent modesty and simplicity, denies her exceptional position, history

speaks for it pretty clearly. Justin Wintle writes in Perfect Hostage, “Suu Kyi’s childhood was

one of privilege and expectation.”94 After arriving at her new home in New Delhi, “For the first

time Suu Kyi experienced luxury.”95 Despite her undeniable social status, Khin Kyi made every

effort to raise her children on the principles of simplicity and grace.

The qualities examined in this study recommend Aung San Suu Kyi as a leader to her

people much more so than any specific social status. Her particular point and entry into history is

critical to understanding the way the Burmese people have endowed her with an eminent status.

It is not a result of her elite social status alone.

Parents

Khin Kyi was a dominating parent, both on a personal level as well as in her daughter’s

choice of profession, and therefore, shaped and influenced her life. As a mother, Daw Khin Kyi

93 Daw: A Burmese honorific applied to an older woman. For example, Aung San Suu Kyi is sometimes referred to as Daw Saw (Wintle, Perfect Hostage, 164).

94 Ibid., 158.

95 Ibid. 9

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played an instrumental role in shaping Suu Kyi’s personality, perhaps seen more so because of

her widowhood:

In a better world they would have grown old together, watching their children come of age and pursuing their individual life paths. But for Daw Khin Kyi and Aung San, fate or human malevolence, or the national dialect – call it what you will – determined otherwise.96

Alas, Suu Kyi’s father, Aung San, was assassinated when Suu Kyi was only 2 years old.

Suu Kyi’s mother helped develop her inner strengths tremendously. She furnished her

children with a model of selflessness and respect for others, which was of paramount importance

for her. One of the important and lifelong friends of Khin Kyi’s family were the Gore-Booths. In

the memoirs of Lord Gore-Booth, British ambassador to Burma from 1953-1956 and a friend of

Suu Kyi’s family, Khin Kyi is referred to as, “a quiet lady of few words but of great depth and

strength of character.”97 Despite the vacuum of a father’s presence in Suu Kyi’s life, Khin Kyi

regularly evoked memories of her husband as a paragon of greatness to be followed by her

children.

Daw Khin Kyi was an exceptionally responsible and forceful mother, as well as having

been a caring nurse and a guerilla fighter in her early life. She instilled unshakable moral and

spiritual principles in her children and molded much of Suu Kyi’s character and intelligence. It

was not just inner development or self-management that Daw Khin Kyi was paying attention to;

she put similar effort into taking care of Suu Kyi’s outer appearance and etiquette. Khin Kyi took

special care to dress her presentably but not pompously.98It reflects on the framework’s social

status component. It is interesting to note how outwardly undemanding Khin Kyi was by not

96Ibid., 142.

97 Lord Gore-Booth quoted in Ibid., 169. Saifey - 59 asking society for any special treatment for herself or her children after the assassination of her husband. It must have been a challenging time for her, as she was providing both a sense of security and the emotional care that every child needs, and doing so alone. She wanted to raise her children as selfless and dignified human beings and not as privileged children of Burma’s martyred national hero. She provided them with only the necessary things needed for life, acknowledging the fact that adversity is the true school of learning.

The Impact of the Death of Loved Ones

Suu Kyi paid a price for being the daughter of Bogyoke, bearing the loss of two influential and close males at an early age.99 The deep trauma of these separations caused a profound and lasting pain. She was only two when her father was assassinated by elements of the military regime. Then, she witnessed the drowning of her favorite brother and best friend, Aung

San Lin, who was only eight years old at the time.100 She was only seven then. The loss of her brother was all the more profound because she was unable to form the same bond with her oldest brother Aung San Oo.101

Suu Kyi was not alone in her pain or loss; these were family losses. For Khin Kyi, Suu’s

“ceaselessly responsible mother,” public duty was more important than personal suffering,

989 Ibid.,158.

999 A Burmese honorific meaning “Great Leader” or “General.”

1001 Ibid., 160.

1011 Ibid. 1

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although there was plenty of it in her life.102 Khin Kyi had given birth to a fourth child in

September 1946, a second girl, but sadly the baby passed away within a few days of her birth. It

is unfair to assume that the earlier loss of her husband and daughter accustomed Khin Kyi to

having someone as dear as a son taken away. Her initial reaction was to change her residence in

order to lessen the grief. But for Suu Kyi the shift of home did not help, and the memories of her

drowned brother continued to haunt Suu Kyi wherever she was in Burma, or later in Delhi or

Oxford.

Deep Father-Daughter Bond

In a telephone conversation, Alan Clements described the deep emotional bond between

Suu Kyi and her father.103 Even though she has only a few vague memories of him, they are

strong ones. Clements recalled his first meeting with Suu Kyi in 1995, right after her first release

from detention. There, mounted on the wall, was a large batik portrait of her father, dominating

the living room, almost six by six feet square. Such a presence begs the question, “What if?”

Had Aung San not been assassinated, but continued at the helm through and after independence, which came on 4th January 1948, it is probable that Burma’s history might have taken a different course. If there was one man capable of knocking sense into antagonistic, warring heads, it was Aung San.104

102 Ibid., 161

103 Phone interview, October 21, 2011. Saifey - 61

Suu Kyi, being her parent’s daughter, was endowed with the values of being a good human being, a great politician, a visionary, and a warrior. With these rules guiding her heart and mind, she continues to complete the unfinished quest for independence initiated by her father.

Her aim is to struggle for the well-being of the Burmese people and to channel all hopes and aspirations in that direction and not on herself. This is shown when she says, “When I honor my father, I honor all those who stand for the political integrity of Burma.”105 While Suu Kyi did not come to her present position directly or intentionally, there is a notable humility, modesty, and poetic touch reflected in her straightforward words.

Mentors and Education

Due to her liking for reading and writing, Suu Kyi did well at school. Wintle explains that like her two brothers, Daw Suu’s schooling began at St Francis Convent.106 She began learning

English there, which was considered necessary by Burma’s elite class, but she was transferred for her secondary education to the more prestigious Methodist English High School, one of the best schools in Burma. This school accommodated children from both Christian and non-Christian backgrounds, such as Muslims, Buddhists, Chinese Daoist or Indian Hindus. Here, Suu Kyi and

Rangoon’s elite earned an education much superior to that provided by struggling public schools.

Apart from the closeness of the school to Khin Kyi’s office, it was a smart choice to send

Suu Kyi to the Methodist English School because, being the Bogyoke’s daughter, it was difficult

1041 Wintle, Perfect Hostage, 149.

1051 Suu Kyi quoted in Clements, Voice of Hope, 25.

1061 Wintle, Perfect Hostage, 156. Saifey - 62 to avoid constant public scrutiny. The school’s multi-ethnic composition and the presence of many high-profile Burmese children helped Suu Kyi in avoiding her parents’ high profile. Khin

Kyi believed in the principles of diligence and merit and instilled the same in her daughter. She never expected any deferential treatment for Suu Kyi at school on account of her legacy.

It was only two years before her graduation that Suu Kyi’s education at Methodist School was cut off because of her mother’s appointment as Burma’s ambassador to India in 1960. It was natural and instinctive for Khin Kyi to keep Suu Kyi by her side while moving to Delhi. At fifteen Suu Kyi was still too young to live on her own. So began an almost three decade sojourn for Suu Kyi outside her motherland.

The first eighteen months were spent by Suu Kyi at a Catholic school in New Delhi, the

Convent of Jesus and Mary, in order to complete her secondary education. Later, she enrolled at

Lady Shri Ram College, affiliated with the Delhi University, to study political science. This college is to this day regarded as India’s finest institute of higher education for women. Suu Kyi spent almost two years in this college.

During her stay in India, Daw Khin Kyi paid special attention to her daughter’s education and grooming. She had lost two children, and her son would only come to visit them for the holidays; Suu Kyi was the twinkle of her mother’s eye. She made sure that Suu Kyi was kept constantly busy in different chores. Whether it was horse riding lessons, a class on flower arrangement, or piano lessons encouraging her peculiar penchant for the fine subtleties of Bach and Mozart, Khin Kyi wanted the best for her daughter.

Introduction to Mahatma Gandhi’s Philosophy and Politics

It was at Lady Shri Ram College that Suu Kyi was introduced to the philosophy and politics of

Mahatama Gandhi. His guiding spirit and his model of ahimsa (non-violence), passive resistance, civil 1

Saifey - 63

disobedience and Satyagraha (force born out of truth) against the authoritarian and oppressive regime

cast strong impressions on Suu Kyi.

In a speech in 1990, published in Freedom from Fear, Suu Kyi remembered Mahatma Gandhi

as, “the great apostle of non-violence.”107 Her continuing struggle for a free and a democratic Burma is

similar in nature to the movement initiated by Mahatma Gandhi. Both follow the path of non-violence

in the face of violent and aggressive forces. Because of the similar challenges of authoritarian rule, Suu

Kyi is sometimes referred to as Burma’s Gandhi.

Suu Kyi had a great affection for her father and was deeply inspired by the political philosophy

of Gandhi and modernist view of Nehru. In Freedom from Fear, she referred to Nehru, quoting

Mahatama Gandhi, with words she thought could well be applied to Aung San, her father: “The

essence of his teaching was fearlessness and truth, and action allied to these, always keeping the

welfare of the masses in view.”108

The courage and endurance reflected in this lady emanates from her firm belief in the

principles of moralistic and ethical practice of politics. Suu Kyi’s example shows that one can advance

one’s quest for spiritual and worldly endeavors despite all setbacks and trials.

Other Mentorships

Khin Kyi’s small but rich diaspora of multi-ethnic friends played an important part in Suu

Kyi’s life. Out of many familiar faces that Suu Kyi had known from her Rangoon days, it was a

107 Suu Kyi, Freedom from Fear, 22.

108 Aung San Suu Kyi, “Freedom from Fear Speech,” Third World Traveler, accessed February 21, 2011, http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Burma/FreedomFromFearSpeech.html. Saifey - 64 couple from England, Sir Paul and Lady Gore-Booth, who really played an important role in Suu

Kyi’s future.

Daw Khin Kyi had known the Gore-Booth family since Sir Paul was ambassador to

Burma between 1953 and 1956, and Sir Paul had become quite close to the family of Daw Khin

Kyi. They became the British guardians of Daw Suu when in 1964 she was admitted to St.

Hugh’s College, Oxford to study politics, philosophy and economics. They graciously offered

Suu Kyi, then 19-years-old, a home during her stay in England. Daw Khin Kyi could not bear to be separated, even temporarily, from her beloved daughter but she succumbed to the prospects of her daughter’s bright future.

Khin Kyi was a woman of faith and did not want to let go of her Buddhist connection in this new land of Hindu gods and Muslim faith. During her ambassadorial years in India, Khin

Kyi feared that her daughter might lose her religious identity in a non-Buddhist country, which turned out to be only partially true. She would host numerous religious figures of all faiths at her dining table. She was especially welcoming towards U Rewata Dhamma, a Burmese monk. He played an important role later as Suu Kyi’s Buddhist mentor. Another notable Buddhist guru in her life has been Hsayadaw U Pandita.

Suu Kyi has had important mentor relationships and continues to do so. Although, she is quiet about the presence of revered monks and mentors in her life, from the conversations she has had with Alan Clements, it is evident how the teachings of mentors such as U Ki Maung and

U Tin U have played important roles in her development and ability to cope with challenges. Her relationship to Buddhism is vital to understanding her leadership.

Alan Clements pointed out how mysteriously quiet Suu Kyi has been about the presence of these remarkable men of faith in her life. Aung San Suu Kyi adopted an astonishing inner Saifey - 65 resilience and unfathomable mind control under the guidance of these notable mentors and monks.109 U Kyi Maung has been the most influential Buddhist guru in her life. The teachings of these religious men made her see opportunity, not hardness, in the face of adversity. In 1994, after her house arrest in Rangoon, she became more involved in the practice of meditation and mind control. Wintle says that, “‘Contemplation’ gradually became an integral component of Suu

Kyi’s formidable mental armory, in part explaining her startling ability to remain apparently unperturbed by the severest setbacks.”110

Suu Kyi, being a practicing and pragmatic Buddhist, uses self-observation, mindfulness and meditation as a shield to protect her mind from the stirring storms of this world, and this helped in keeping her inner calm and peace of mind intact amidst great crisis. Without such mentorship and guidance, it is possible that Aung San Suu Kyi would not have been able to be successful in her choice of career.

Career Choice

Was Suu Kyi’s decision to come back to Burma and play her role in politics her choice or something thrust upon her by her legacy or sense of duty and service to her people? She answers that in these words: “My sense of duty was very closely linked to my love for my father. I could not separate it from the love for my country, and therefore, from the sense of responsibility toward my people.”111 It is difficult, at least in the case of Suu Kyi, to identify where legacy ends

1091 Interview by author, October 21, 2011.

1101 Wintle, Perfect Hostage, 168.

1111 Suu Kyi quoted in Ibid., 249. Saifey - 66 and individuality begins, but it is worth arguing that without her particular mix of individual experiences in her personal formation, she would not have been able to take on her historical role.

Suu Kyi’s choice to study politics was influenced by her mother, who saw great potential in her daughter for becoming a promising politician and a public servant. Her mother made sure to sow in her the seeds of the spirit of leadership with a profound sense of duty and of courage.

Khin Kyi kept her under close observation until Suu Kyi was ready to make her own decisions in life.

In Freedom from Fear Suu Kyi describes how her early childhood interests were more centered on playing in her mother’s garden than on anything unusual for her age. She does not consider herself special. Gustaaf Houtman, in Mental Culture in Burmese Crisis Politics: Aung

San Suu Kyi and the National League for Democracy, quotes U Kyi Maung replying to Alan

Clements in an interview as, “There is nothing saintly in Suu. She would readily admit that as a child she was afraid of the dark and ghosts and that she has no exceptional courage in her, only that her sense of duty drives her.”112

At one time, she developed an intense desire to become a writer. After her initial introduction to the world of classic authors like Sherlock Holmes, she actually wanted to become a detective fiction writer.113 This helps one to see where Suu Kyi gets her stellar self-expression.

1121 Alan Clements, quoted in Gustaaf Houtman, Mental Culture in Burmese Crisis Politics: Aung San Suu Kyi and the National League for Democracy (Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, 1999), 369.

1131 Wintle, Perfect Hostage, 155. Saifey - 67

She is known for her wise and careful choice and use of words while addressing both her opposition and her followers.

Suu’s Ambition to Become a Soldier

Writing was not Suu Kyi’s only dream. In those days it was considered honorable to be a part of the army, an institution which was founded by her father. Suu Kyi has described how much she wished to enter the army when she was only eleven, as she thought it was the best way to serve one’s own country and countrymen. Talking about her childhood ambition to become a soldier, she said, “Everyone referred to my father as Bogyoke, which means General, so I wanted to be a general too because I thought this was the best way to serve one’s country, just like my father had done.”114

When Burma saw its tragic transition from democracy to an oppressive dictatorship, Suu

Kyi had to shun that dream but she has never stopped expressing her great affection and deep sense of respect for the army. She formally entered Burmese politics on August 8, 1988, a day known in recent Burmese history as the “Four 8s.” During the famous 8.8.88 uprising when the

Burmese citizens flooded the streets of Burma in a countrywide pro-democracy demonstration, she addressed a mass meeting held at the Western Gate of the Shwedagon Pagoda:115

The present armed forces of Burma were created and nurtured by my father… There are paper’s written in my father’s own hand where he lays out in detail how the army should be organized and built up. So what objectives did my father have for the armed forces? Let me read to you one of them: “The armed forces are meant for this nation and this people, and it should be such a force having the honor and respect of the people. If instead the armed forces should come to be hated by the people, then the aims with which this army has been built up would have been in vain.”

1141 Suu Kyi quoted in Ibid.

1151 The pagoda is an essential spiritual and gathering place in Rangoon. Saifey - 68

Suu Kyi continued:

Let me speak frankly. I feel strong attachment for the armed forces. Not only were they built up by my father, as a child I was cared for by his soldiers… I am grateful for this love and affection. I would therefore wish not to see any splits and struggles between the army which my father built up and the people who love my father so much.116 Such were the hopes of Aung San Suu Kyi regarding the Burma Army.

Social Behavior

People-centric professions like the one in which Suu Kyi is involved demand a higher degree of sensitivity towards peoples’ problems and exceptional inter personal skills. That is why in her first speech after being released from detention last year Suu Kyi called out to “hear the voice of the people.”117 As Howard Zinn, the great American author and human rights advocate, reminds us, “At many of the key moments in history some of the bravest and most effective political acts were the sounds of the human voice itself.”118 Aung San Suu Kyi is the medium by which the people of Burma can be heard.

Relationship to Authority: Religious and Political

Aung San Suu Kyi’s relationship to authority is a nuanced one. While she places ultimate authority in the people and has deep respect for the guidance of Buddhist religious authorities, her desire to please authority does not extend to Burma’s ruling junta. Wintle quotes Aung San

Suu Kyi addressing a rally at the Sule pagoda on July 10th, 1989: “What I mean by defying

1161 Suu Kyi quoted in Judy Hasday, Aung San Suu Kyi Activist for Democracy In Myanmar, (New York: Infobase Publishing), 72-74.

1171 Ian MacKinnon, “Aung San Suu Kyi Calls for Unity as She Calls to Hear the Voice of the People,” Telegraph, November 14, 2010, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/burmamyanmar/8132246/Aung-San-Suu-Kyi-calls-for- unity-as-she-calls-to-hear-the-voice-of-the-people.html.

1181 Howard Zinn quoted in Clements, Voice of Hope, 7. Saifey - 69 authority is non-acceptance of unlawful orders meant to suppress the people. There’s nothing violent about it. It’s no more violent than is necessary in banging the keys of a typewriter.” 119

As this cause shows, it is clear that she draws her inner strength and calm from Buddhist teachings and her practice of meditation. In a society which is largely influenced by Buddhist teachings, she reflects and anchors the age-old, traditional and cherished norms of Buddhism and is revered by the people on that account.

Marital Situation and Children

Wintle writes that if Daw Khin Kyi had known that her decision of sending her daughter for higher education in England would eventually result in her daughter’s marriage to an

Englishman, she would probably have changed her mind.120 But, it is known to us through later developments in Aung San Suu Kyi’s life that Michael Aris became an important and beloved part of Daw Khin Kyi’s family and was able to become quite close to his mother-in-law.

Following her older brother’s footsteps, Suu Kyi left for England in 1964. She was excited to explore new horizons of education and a new culture at Oxford. It was the first time she had stepped out into a new world alone. However, the Gore-Booth family provided a home- like environment for Suu Kyi. On school breaks, if Suu Kyi did not go back to India, she accepted the Gore-Booths’ hospitality. It was during one of her visits to their home that she met

Michael Vaillancourt Aris.

1191 Suu Kyi quoted in Wintle, Perfect Hostage, 317.

1201 Ibid., 171. Saifey - 70

Michael Aris was a family friend of the Gore-Booths. He was studying modern history with particular interest in Tibet and the Buddhist Himalayan kingdoms of Bhutan and Nepal.

With some initial hesitation on Suu Kyi’s side, and to the surprise of many, both developed deep feelings for each other. Wintle writes, “Her avowals that she would only ever marry a Burmese began to melt.”121 Suu Kyi’s reluctance is understandable, as in Burmese tradition it was taboo for a Burmese girl to marry a foreigner.

She continued traveling to many countries like France, Lebanon, Holland and Germany.

She graduated from Oxford in 1967 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in philosophy, politics and economics only to continue with post graduate studies in New York City at New York University.

Michael and Suu Kyi remained in touch through written correspondence expressing emotional and romantic attachment with each other, even though they were a continent away. She decided to postpone her post graduate studies due to some personal reasons and applied to work for the

United Nations (UN) on the recommendation of her dear friend, Ma Than E. Those were exciting times to work for the UN, being a Burmese national at the same time that the UN had a Burmese secretary-general. Suu Kyi worked for the UN for three years.122 There she experienced good exposure to the real political and diplomatic world.

After three years, Suu Kyi felt ready to start a family. Michael and Suu Kyi had maintained close contact with each other through letters and frequent telephone calls. Michael had completed his studies at Durham University and had accepted a position as a tutor to the

Royal family in Bhutan. Suu Kyi visited her mother in Burma, and she and Michael became

1211 Ibid., 197.

1221 Hasday, Aung San Suu Kyi, 54-55. Saifey - 71 engaged to be married in 1970. Suu Kyi made that decision after getting Michael’s promise and understanding that if ever times arose when Suu Kyi’s country needed her, he would support her in making her own decisions.

In a Buddhist ceremony at the Gore-Booths home in London, on January 1st, 1972,

Michael and Suu Kyi married. From there they left for Bhutan and stayed there happily for one year. Both returned to London when Michael started working on his doctorate degree at London

University. Later, along with their new born son Alexander, they moved to Oxford in the spring of 1973 when Michael became a junior research fellow at St. John’s College and accepted a teaching appointment in Tibetan and Himalayan studies at Oxford University. Suu Kyi loved her new role as a mother and a wife.

After the arrival of their second son, Kim in 1977, Suu Kyi found herself a true housewife and mother, managing everything as best as she could. But after a while she felt pulled to continue her writing career and also learn the Japanese language. She wanted to know more about her father’s early attempts to secure Burma’s independence and had been fascinated to learn about his special ties with the Japanese.123

In 1985, she left for Kyoto along with Kim in order to finish her research about her father’s role in World War II and his close ties with Japan. She was offered a scholarship at the

University of Kyoto. Michael had accepted a fellowship at the Indian Institute of Advanced

Studies in Simla and left for there with Alex. In 1987, the family was reunited when, after finishing her research, Suu Kyi came to the Indian Institute as a visiting research scholar.

The Aris-Kyi Family

1231 Wintle, Perfect Hostage, 62. Saifey - 72

There was total freedom in the choice and pursuit of one’s interests in the Aris-Kyi family. At the same time, both Suu Kyi and Michael maintained a happy marriage. Both exposed their sons to international and Burmese traditions. In 1986, at Khin Kyi’s home in Rangoon, both

Alex and Kim participated in the traditional Buddhist ceremony of initiation into monkhood.124

Suu Kyi also remained close to her family. In 1987, Suu Kyi visited her mother who was undergoing cataract surgery in London.

Later, in September 1987, Suu Kyi and her family moved back to London where Suu Kyi started writing her doctoral thesis on Burmese literature at the London School of Oriental and

African Studies. Michael continued his academic life at Oxford. It was the night of March 31st,

1988 when the peaceful silence at Aris-Kyi home was broken by a phone call from Burma. Daw

Khin Kyi had suffered a severe stroke. Two days later, Suu Kyi was by her mother’s bedside in

Rangoon.

Why did Suu Kyi make the sacrifices she did, and why did Aris let her make them?

Would she have been able to take such life-risking decisions if her husband was not such an ardent advocate of her beliefs and struggle? It is interesting to study Suu Kyi’s engagement year’s correspondence with Michael, when she wrote almost 187 letters to him over an eight- month period. 125 She was going through difficult times, contemplating how her family, friends and the people of Burma would react to her marriage to a foreigner. She feared isolation and rejection by her people, as her marriage might signal defiance to her Burmese heritage and overshadow her immense love for the country. Perhaps the best authentic source that speaks

1241 Ibid., 63.

1251 Ibid., 59. Saifey - 73 about Suu Kyi’s lifelong commitment to her country and her fears of rejection from her people is

Michael Aris’ introduction to Suu Kyi’s 1995 volume Freedom from Fear: “She constantly reminded me that one day she would have to return to Burma, that she counted on my support at that time, not as her due but as her favor.”

As Suu Kyi had written to Aris:

I only ask one thing, that should my people need me, you would help me to do my duty by them… Would you mind very much should such a situation ever arise? How probable it is I do not know, but the possibility is there… Sometimes I am beset by fears that circumstances and national considerations might tear us apart just when we are so happy with each other that separation would be a torment.126

It was a heroic sacrifice on the part of Michael Aris to have not only given his wife a blank check on her lifelong devotion to her cause, but also his steadfast support in all her struggles after her later imprisonment in Burma. His due share in Suu Kyi’s struggle to bring freedom to Burma is undeniable. His support must have given Suu Kyi, already burdened, as well as blessed, with her unique status as the daughter of a national hero, more confidence and courage to lead her people in this crisis situation.

The above exchange between Suu Kyi and Aris shows how she had sown the seeds of her resolve to enter the political struggle of her country, so it came as no surprise when the time came to fulfill his promise to support her. Suu Kyi, who had never lost her sense of identity and values, had to now use her sense of commitment and her reasoning powers for a bigger cause.

Michael was there that night when the sad news of her mother’s illness made Suu Kyi’s re- engagement with Burma unavoidable. And he supported her with a strange premonition that their lives would be changed forever.

1261 Suu Kyi, Freedom from Fear, xix. Saifey - 74

PART B: BEHAVIOR AS A LEADER

Suu Kyi as a Leader: Return to Burma, 1988

“A great presence may mold an age, even as he is molded by it.”127 --Thomas Caryle, On Heroes, Hero Worship, and the Heroic in History

It is inspiring to see how great men and women can chose paths of struggle, aware of the possible trials and tribulations. At the same time that history changes them, they change history.

Aung San Suu Kyi is an individual of intrinsic strength and exhibits inspiring leadership qualities. Her choice to return to Burma emanated from her sense of duty to the people of Burma and was deeply bonded with her love for her father. Despite knowing all risks involved and consequences of making that choice, she returned to Burma where she emerged as a true leader.

This part of the chapter will focus on Suu Kyi’s choice to return to her homeland and her final decision to enter the cauldron that is Burmese politics. She chose to fight against the military junta despite being comparatively defenseless and vulnerable. It is interesting to see the results of this struggle between the armed and the unarmed. We have already discussed the immediate reason for her return to Burma, but it is important to narrate the later events that helped Suu Kyi make up her mind to step into the Burmese political field and begin the fight for the freedom of Burma, which she called “the second independence struggle.”128

By April 1988, Aung San Suu Kyi, a dutiful wife and a mother, entered into a new phase of her life as the daughter of Bogyoke Aung San. A moment she had always seemed to know

1271 Thomas Caryle, One Heroes, Hero Worship, and the Heroic in History, quoted in Ludwig, The Price of Greatness, iv.

1281 Hasday, Aung San Suu Kyi, 75. Saifey - 75 would come had actually arrived through the sad news of her mother’s illness. She was ready to play a crucial role in Burma’s national crisis, and life for the Aris family was changed forever by her decision.

Let us briefly look at the series of events that took place in the early months of 1988, which was a historic year for Burma. Students were on the streets calling for a radical change in the political system. The authorities were using lethal force as their usual weapon against the non violent voice of the protesters. Dissidents were incarcerated for openly voicing their deep concerns and demands.

A catalytic event occurred on July 23rd, 1988 when General Ne Win, who had ruled the country for the last 26 years after taking power in the military coup, gave an unexpected speech.

He addressed a specially convened congress of his party, BSPP (Burma Socialist Programme

Party). His speech responded to the vocal and visible nationwide disapproval of the regime’s policies, which was due to the unsatisfactory living conditions of the people. Accepting the responsibility of the country’s unrest and recent bloody events, General Ne Win tendered his resignation from the party and also recommended holding a referendum on Burma’s political future.

Suu Kyi was a bit reluctant in the beginning to raise her concerns about the violence in

Rangoon, as she was focused primarily on her mother’s health. After three months had passed and Khin Kyi showed no signs of improvement, Suu Kyi shifted her to the more comfortable and familiar surroundings of home in order to give her peace and comfort during her last days.

On July 27th, just four days after General Ne Win’s surprising resignation, General Sein

Lwin, nicknamed the “Butcher of Burma,” succeeded Ne Win as the head of BSPP. 129 General

1291 Ibid., 70. Saifey - 76

Lwin’s appointment was received with nationwide rage and condemnation. Burmese citizens held him responsible for the deaths of several innocent demonstrators in the bloody riots of

March. Adding fuel to the fire, the BSPP rejected Ne Win’s suggestion of holding a referendum on whether the people of Burma preferred to continue with a one –party system of government or wanted to change to a multi-party democracy.

Suu Kyi’s Relation to Her Followers

In a letter she wrote to Michael Aris in 1989, Suu Kyi reiterated her stance stating, “In spite of all the difficulties I feel that what I am doing is worthwhile-- the people of Burma deserve better than this mess of inefficiency, corruption and misuse of power.”130 Talking with

Clements, she explained why she chose to risk everything in order to join, and ultimately lead, the struggle being waged by the Burmese people whom she described as, “large numbers of men and women who daily risk their lives for the sake of principles and rights that will guarantee… a…dignified existence.”131

Formation of the NLD

In interviews that she gave during the 8.8.88 uprising, Suu Kyi made it clear that her decision to join politics in Burma was very much based on her sense of duty as the daughter of

Bogyoke Aung San. On August 24, Suu Kyi appeared in front of the Rangoon General Hospital to announce that she would be addressing a rally at the Shwedgon Pagoda two days later.

Accompanied by Michael Aris and their two sons, she addressed an estimated crowd of more

1301 Suu Kyi quoted in Wintle, Perfect Hostage, 308.

1311 Suu Kyu quoted in Clements, The Voice of Hope, 15. Saifey - 77 than half a million people on the steps of the sacred pagoda.132 She presented a three point agenda for the future of Burma: the absolute necessity for non violence, a return to human rights, and democracy for Burma. She patiently answered those who questioned her devotion and love to her country and her decision to choose to be a part of the democracy movement at that critical moment: “The present crisis is the concern of the entire nation. I could not as my father’s daughter remain indifferent to all that was going on. This national crisis could in fact be called the second struggle for national independence.”133

Within a few weeks, Burma saw a sudden change in its political scene: a coup d’ etat on

September 18th, 1988. Suu Kyi and her close associates knew that the SLORC (the State Law and Order Restoration Council), the new controlling party established by General Saw Maung, would never allow free and fair elections in Burma. Determined to force the SLORC to make good on the promise of holding elections, Suu Kyi decided to form an organization to uphold the democratic banner. On September 24th, 1988 the National League for Democracy, NLD, was founded by U Tin Oo, U Kyi Maung, and Suu Kyi and was registered with the SLORC election committee. Suu Kyi explained her decision to students and youth in the Taung Gyi NLD Office on February 13th, 1989:

There are many kinds of struggle. Demonstrating in the road is just one kind of struggle. After the September 18 coup d’etat, we have had to change our tactics, our method of struggle. That is why we have formed the organization the NLD, to carry on our democratic movement.134

1321 Hasday, Aung San Suu Kyi, 74-75.

1331 Suu Kyi quoted in Ibid., 75.

1341 Suu Kyi quoted in Aung Saw Oo, “Aung San Suu Kyi” (Thailand: Chiang Mai University, 1992), 7. Saifey - 78

She continued:

We are ready to disband our league if it will be in the interest of the democratic movement. We are ready to stand in front and protect democracy if that is what will lead the movement to success.135

Suu Kyi began campaigning around Burma, talking about need for reform in Burma’s government and for the country to become a free and democratic nation.

Orison Swett Marden, quoted in Yale Hirsch’s The Capitalist Spirit: How Each and

Every One of Us Can Make a Giant Difference in our Fast-Changing World, said: “Success is not measured by what you accomplish, but by the opposition you have encountered, and the courage with which you have maintained the struggle against overwhelming odds.”136 In trying to bring freedom to the people of Burma, Suu Kyi came dangerously close to being hurt. Yet she has remained undaunted and unafraid for her own safety. Suu Kyi has kept spreading the word in the world that the junta is still repressing its people, even more so after her release. In The Voice of Hope, she told Alan Clements in 1995, “Nothing has changed since my release… Let the world know that we are still prisoners in our own country.”137

Burma’s story of revolution looks like a life-transforming metaphor, but the flame is still flickering in totalitarian darkness. Aung San Suu Kyi’s “call to action” reveals her unshakable resolve and spirit to take action not just for the freedom of Burma and her leadership, but for the

1351 Suu Kyi quoted in Ibid.

1361 Orison Swett Marden, quoted in Yale Hirsch, The Capitalist Spirit: How Each and Every One of Us Can Make a Giant Difference in our Fast-Changing World (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, 2010), 267.

1371 Suu Kyi quoted in Clements, Voice of Hope, 7. 1

Saifey - 79

victory of truth over evil and for the firm belief in hope. “Feel always free,” Aung San Suu Kyi

encouraged everyone while talking to Alan Clements stating, “Nobody can detain [your] minds,

though they can detain [your] body…master your mind [and] nobody can abuse you. We need to

remember this … Feel always free.”138

Aung San Suu Kyi: Burma’s Mandela?

One sees a remarkable resemblance in the journey of freedom taken up by these two great

leaders of their countries. Aung San Suu Kyi, who is sometimes referred to as Burma’s Mandela,

is deeply inspired by the historical and heroic leadership style of Nelson Mandela. She draws

immense inner strength and conviction from his example as he says:

I have walked that long road to freedom. I have tried not to falter; I have made missteps along the way. But I have discovered the secret that after climbing a great hill, one only finds that there are many more hills to climb. I have taken a moment here to rest, to steal a view of the glorious vista that surrounds me, to look back on the distance I have come. But I can rest only for a moment, for with freedom comes responsibilities, and I dare not linger, for my long walk is not yet ended. 139

While looking at the history of some of these great leaders, the question arises whether

they lead by more than example during their imprisonment. Did their isolation provide them an

opportunity, rather than being an obstruction, to lead and thus serve their people during later

years? To study this, we can compare Suu Kyi’s struggles with those of Nelson Mandela.

Another great leader, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, in his foreword to Suu Kyi’s Freedom from

138 Suu Kyi quoted in Ibid., 11.

139 Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom: The Autobiography of Nelson Mandela (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1994), accessed October 8, 2011, http://archives.obs-us.com/obs/english/books/Mandela/last.html. 1

Saifey - 80

Fear, compares her struggle for freedom with Mandela’s, on the occasion of her release from six

years house arrest in 1995:

Freedom, justice and goodness have yet again been vindicated as they were vindicated on the release of Nelson Mandela, whose example of compromise and reconciliation Suu Kyi declared had inspired her: this remarkable woman said that she bore no one malice; she nursed no grudges against those who had treated her so unjustly; she had no bitterness; and she was ready to work for the healing of her motherland, which had suffered so grievously.140 He added, “In revealing this extraordinary magnanimity she was emulating Nelson Mandela,

who has left the world awed by his singular lack of bitterness, his magnanimity and his

willingness to forgive those who ill-treated him.”141

Aung San Suu Kyi has almost always called for dialogue and reconciliation after her

release from detention. Her firm stance stands for the greater good of humanity and not being

intransigent by demanding all or nothing. One cannot help noticing this remarkable resilience in

such leaders that even when behind bars, they felt free. “Feel always free,” Aung San Suu Kyi

encourages everyone who dares to enter the revolution.142

As history records, Mandela’s reputation grew as he became the most significant black

leader in South Africa. He became a potent symbol of resistance as the anti-apartheid movement

gathered strength. He consistently refused to compromise his political position to obtain his

freedom. As George Bizos, Mandela's longtime lawyer and friend, and a constant visitor during

the prison years, remarked, “One thing that he didn't do was to express a feeling of despair,

140 Desmond Tutu quoted in Suu Kyi, Freedom from Fear, xv.

141 Desmond Tutu quoted in Ibid.

142 Clements, The Voice of Hope, 11. 1

Saifey - 81

because that would have been counterproductive to the people that remained relatively free,

whom he wanted to continue the struggle.”143

Like Suu Kyi, Mandela also believed that he had a role to play in his country’s freedom fight.

During the prison years, both of these leaders suffered a painful degree of emotional harassment. For

example, the death of Mandela’s mother and Suu Kyi’s husband brought a tremendous emotional pain

to them. George Bizos talks about Mandela’s state of mind at his mother’s death: “He knew that he

would not be allowed to go to his mother's funeral. They almost invariably refused. It was absolutely

devastating for him. Not only for him, [but] for all other prisoners when a loved one was not given

permission.”144

When Michael was dying of cancer in England, it was painful for Suu Kyi to not to be able to be

with her dear husband in his last hours. Robin Christopher, who knew both Suu Kyi and Michael Aris

well, tells how distressed Suu Kyi was when the regime refused to allow Dr. Aris to spend his last days in

Rangoon. He wrote:

Suu said it was an agonizing decision for her not to go to be with him. She had discussed it all with him by telephone and he was insistent that she should stay in Burma. It was a joint decision… If she left the country she knew that many of those who had made great sacrifices for her would die in a new crackdown by the regime. She could not leave them. And Michael did not want her to do so.145

This speaks volumes about the incredible spirit to serve while enduring a tremendous self-

sacrifice. These leaders almost look like a sacrificial lamb on the altar, willing to give away everything for

143 George Bizos, “The Long Walk of Nelson Mandela,” Frontline, accessed October 8, 2011, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/mandela/prison/bizos.html.

144George Bizos quoted in Ibid.

145 Michael Aris quoted in Wintle, Perfect Hostage, 395. 1

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their cause. This will be discussed in the concluding chapter where a summary of key leadership

attributes will be given.

We also need to consider the tremendous isolation and loneliness that Mandela and Suu Kyi

must have felt under detention. Both were kept in the dark about what was happening in the outside

world. Neither knew about what was happening with their children and spouses. The silence was

deafening for them. All they could do was just hope that things would settle for good one day. It is

incredible to see these great leaders’ resolve and commitment for their cause in the face of unending

trepidations and tribulations. They remained as adamant and resilient as ever. It seems as if they saw

isolation as an opportunity for introspection and to learn from past mistakes, cultivate wisdom, and

develop patience. Ultimately, they emerged as more resolute and powerful leaders, much better

equipped to lead their people in their cause. As Mandela puts it:

It was during those long and lonely years that my hunger for the freedom of my own people became a hunger for the freedom of all people, white and black. I knew as well as I knew anything that the oppressor must be liberated just as surely as the oppressed. A man who takes away another man's freedom is a prisoner of hatred; he is locked behind the bars of prejudice and narrow-mindedness. I am not truly free if I am taking away someone else's freedom, just as surely as I am not free when my freedom is taken from me. The oppressed and the oppressor alike are robbed of their humanity.146

It is Suu Kyi’s devotion to non violent revolution and inspirational model of how to peacefully

engage complexity and tyranny that makes her a role model for leaders in today’s world.

Her Relation to Her Opposition

It’s interesting to note how Burma, with its traditional and non-violent ideals, has been

suffering from inexpressible atrocities for the last 150 years. All the serenity and incredible

calmness that one experiences in Burma’s temples and pagodas seems superficial when

146 Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom: The Autobiography of Nelson Mandela, accessed October 8, 2011, http://archives.obs-us.com/obs/english/books/Mandela/last.html. 1

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contrasted with the grisly bloodshed and brutal violence of the fear-driven regime. Deeply

embedded in Suu Kyi’s motives is the pursuit of freedom from the regime’s unremitting

domination over the Burmese people. She returned to Burma ready and bent upon winning

freedom for her people at any cost.

Like the whole country, Suu Kyi was exultant to hear this news of holding a referendum

for deciding the future of Burma by General Ne Win. It seemed as if Burma had moved, if only

an inch, nearer to freedom and democracy. Michael Aris captured Suu Kyi’s feelings at this

moment when he wrote, “I think it was at this moment more than any other that Suu made up her

mind to step forward.”147 However, it would be misleading to consider this to be the most

prominent catalyst to enter politics, when actually for the fifteen weeks since her arrival in

Rangoon she had been shaping her mind to join the democratic movement.

8.8.88

It was only after General Sein Lwin’s refusal to allow the people of Burma to have a say

in their governance that the demonstrations by enraged citizens escalated to a grand scale in the

streets of Rangoon:

On August 8, 1988, a day known in recent Burmese history as the “Four 8s,” a nationwide strike was called that included students, civilians, doctors, monks and civil servants. Convinced that the resignation of Ne Win meant that Burma would finally be liberated from one-party rule, crowds surged into the streets in euphoria of countrywide prodemocracy demonstration.148

General Sein Lwin responded to these protests from Rangoon by deploying even more armed

troops across Rangoon’s various townships and even into the countryside. The protestors were

147 Michael Aris quoted in Clements, Freedom from Fear, xviii.

148 Hasday, Aung San Suu Kyi, 70. Saifey - 84 non-violent; one student described that the demonstrators sang songs to the soldiers saying they only wanted freedom and democracy.149 The soldiers opened fire on the unarmed protestors, including men, women and children, and the massacre continued for four days, reportedly littering the roads and streets of Burma with dead bodies. Although there were no official numbers to confirm the number of causalities in the four- day massacre, the estimates were between 3,000 and 10,000 dead.

The massacre was reported on television stations and radio networks all over the world.

Sein Lwin had to resign immediately after this horrific and violent event, only to be replaced by

Dr. Maung Maung, Burma’s Attorney-General and the only civilian to have achieved prominence within Ne Win’s regime. According to Wintle, at least Burma now had a President who knew how to read and write. The events of this fateful day, 8.8.88, and the ensuing massacre unified the citizen of Burma even more, as can be seen in later events.

On December 27th, 1988, politics were set aside with the death of Khin Kyi, the wife of

Burma’s hero. The initial surprising cooperation and respect of SLORC at Khin Kyi’s funeral was immediately followed by more brutal thug tactics. SLORC cleared the streets of demonstrators using gunfire and arrested targeted dissenters in the middle of the night, all the while continuing to publicly promise to hold free and fair elections. Many believed that Ne Win, who had resigned from leadership but who had considered himself the only heir to Aung San, was the man behind all these thug tactics.

House Arrest and Election Results

1491 Ibid., 71. Saifey - 85

On the morning of July 20th, 1989, Suu Kyi, the then General Secretary of the NLD, was officially put under house arrest without being formally charged with anything. Several of her close associates were also arrested and were imprisoned at the Insein Prison.

NLD party leader and Suu Kyi’s long time mentor, U Kyi Maung, issued a statement after

Suu Kyi’s arrest, saying, “Aung San Suu Kyi’s detention clearly shows that there are absolutely no democratic rights or basic human rights in Burma under the SLORC.”150 He was arrested shortly afterwards and imprisoned. Even her family was not spared mental torture and harassment. The SLORC played every tactic to dissuade Suu Kyi from trying to build the road to democracy.

Michael was detained at an unidentified location for 21 days. On September 2nd, 1989 when he reached England with his sons, he was informed by the Burmese embassy that they were no longer entitled to Burmese citizenship and that their passports were not valid for travel to Burma anymore. So began a six years separation of Suu Kyi from her family and the rest of the world.151

It was under these extraordinary circumstances that Suu Kyi and Michael Aris reaffirmed and strengthened their bond. During these six years of detention, Suu Kyi passed the hours of total isolation by keeping a very orderly and regimented timetable. She would start each day early with meditation. She would listen to the radio, especially the BBC World Service, the Voice of America, and the Democratic Voice of Burma. She also listened to music, played piano, and

1501 U Kyi Maung quoted in Hasday, Aung San Suu Kyi, 82.

1511 Ibid. 1

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read lots of biographies, from Nehru to Mother Teresa. Sometimes, she would write to Michael

and the boys.

Suu Kyi waited restlessly for elections in May 1990. The SLORC did carry them out as

promised, but they were very unhappy with the results. The NLD party won 392 seats out of the

447 National Assembly seats, about 80% of the overall vote. The SLORC only received about 25

percent of the vote and won a mere 10 seats. As Wintle writes, “It was not just a landslide, it was

a nationwide earthquake. Suu Kyi’s league had triumphed,” and that, too, under the most arduous

conditions.152

Not surprisingly, the SLORC rejected the results, because that would have ousted them

from power. All relevant NLD members who had not escaped thus far were arrested and

imprisoned. The results of the elections were denied, and Aung San Suu Kyi remained under

house arrest. Had the NLD, as Wintle reasons, not won the elections or if the margin of victory

had not been so huge, it is possible that the military junta would have set Suu Kyi free. However,

the sheer mandate given to her party angered the generals who incarcerated her even more

sternly.

Life in Detention

By maintaining Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest, the SLORC actually iconicized her

rather than removing her from public life. Internationally, she became a famous prisoner of

conscience and at home “a political Madonna—the focus of a people’s hunger for temporal

salvation, and a symbol of a nation’s enduring disrepair.”153

152Wintle, Perfect Hostage, 339.

153 Ibid., 329. 1

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In one of Wintle’s chapters, “Famously Alone,” he recalls Suu Kyi expressing those

difficult and isolated years in these words: “When I was under house arrest, here on my own, I

would come down at night and walk around and look up at his photograph and feel very close to

him, I would say to him then: ‘It’s you and me, Father, against them.”154

The sense of duty instilled in her by her mother and the strength of her father’s legend

helped Suu Kyi weather these challenging years and reinforced her determination to fight

endlessly for her cause. “As long as even one person remains in Burma who is not going to give

up, then I am not going to leave that person and abandon the cause for my own peace of mind,”

she said.155

In 1995, Suu Kyi was released from house arrest only to be imprisoned again in 1996 by

SLORC. She continued to speak out against the military dictatorship and to call for the 1990

election results to be upheld. In 1997, SLORC changed its name to the State Peace and

Development Council, SPDC, in an attempt to soften its image to the outside world. Another

important reason was to attract seven billions of dollars foreign aid and investments. Suu Kyi has

been very outspoken against these foreign investments by international companies. The

government of Myanmar wants to build a thriving tourism industry and has tried to make Burma

a tourist destination, but Suu Kyi has made appeals for foreign tourists to boycott travel to

Burma.156

154 Suu Kyi quoted in Ibid., 354.

155 Suu Kyi quoted in Ibid., 397.

156 Hasday, Aung San Suu Kyi, 98. 1

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Suu Kyi has cheerfully paid for her beliefs in unrelenting work in the struggle for

democracy. On March 27th, 1999, after her husband’s death, she mourned this loss alone by

working even more relentlessly, throwing herself completely into winning a cause in which her

husband and her children had equally paid a price. She pulled strength from sources such as

Mahatma Gandhi, who once said:

When I despair, I remember that all through history the ways of truth and love have always won. There have been tyrants, and murderers, and for a time they can seem invincible, but in the end they always fall. Think of it--always.157

Her Release and a Year After

As they say, a strong will finds a way. A breakthrough came when Suu Kyi was released

from house detention on May 6th, 2002 for a short while. She said:

The fact is that people in our country do want change. And that it is better for us to be on good terms than to be on bad terms. I would like to give the regime the benefit of the doubt, and I would like to believe that they genuinely want to do what is good for the country. And they see that reconciliation is the best thing possible that can be done.158

However, reconciliation was still a way off. On May 23rd, 2003, while on a month-long

tour in the North, a confrontation erupted with a pro-junta crowd. Clashes resulted in killings and

Suu Kyi being placed under protective custody until her release in November, 2010.

To date, it has been more than a year since Aung San Suu Kyi’s release from house

arrest. A new government has started to engage certain members of its opposition in dialogue

about the future course of Burma. The nominally civilian government has opened a tentative

yet visible dialogue with Aung San Suu Kyi. She has called for balance from both individuals

and nations. Would it be far-fetched to say that some ice has melted in the relations between

157Mahatma Gandhi quoted in Clements, Voice of Hope, 10.

158 Suu Kyi quoted in Hasday, Aung San Suu Kyi, 100-101. 1

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Suu Kyi and the junta, or is it merely a mirage? Some observers think that this is the best time

in decades to advance democratic reform. Recently Aung San Suu Kyi wrote in The Economist:

I have more faith in resolution than in prediction. I would like to see 2012 as the year when international and national organizations and governments and peoples resolve to work towards a more safely and happily balanced world.159

159 Aung San Suu Kyi, “A Sense of Balance,” Economist: The World in 2012, 83. Saifey - 90

CHAPTER 4

Conclusion and Suggestions for Future Study

Now that we have studied and learned from the essential leadership traits evidenced in the life of Burma’s leader, Aung San Suu Kyi, let us summarize those leadership attributes that best serve leaders both at personal and professional levels. These are also the qualities that best serve women leaders in developing countries. What conclusions can be drawn from what we know?

How can we develop and instill these leadership traits in women aspiring to be future leaders?

In looking at the implications of this study for future research, this analysis suggests the possibility of identifying the type of leader that Suu Kyi continues to become. It is important to move beyond what has occurred and can be defined to also identify emergent possibilities.

Identifying how those around her share in this emergence will be critical to understanding her continuing work for Burma. First, let us learn briefly from a philosophical point of view on women in politics and the gist of our understanding of it.

Know Thyself

Most of the major political philosophers from Plato onwards have devoted attention to women in politics. Most of these works are devoted to arguments either defending or attacking women’s subject status. Many people are not surprised to hear that women are less active and influential in politics because it seems so “natural” for this to be the case. Embedded in this perspective is a kind of working political theory that women’s studies scholars spend much time probing and criticizing. This theory, which has been argued by many influential theorists back to the time of Aristotle, is that man is by nature a political animal while woman is not. Others argue that women are so wrapped up in their duties as wives and mothers that they have no time or 1

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attention left for politics.160 This statement must be investigated as an empirical question. The

real problem arises when this statement is asserted not as an observation of something that might

be but as something that ought to be.

Plato's Republic is a rare exception to Western philosophy's long history of sexist

denigration of women, and some have even argued that Plato's willingness to open up the best

education and the highest jobs to women shows a kind of feminism. Other readers disagree. They

point to Plato's indifference to the needs of actual women in his own city. Similarly, Socrates'

offers illiberal reasons for educating and empowering women.161

The task of the philosopher is to refine and eventually extract the irrational soul from its

bondage, hence the need for moral development, and then to connect with the rational soul in

order to become a complete person, manifesting the higher spiritual essence of the person while

in the physical body. True rationalism is therefore not simply an intellectual process, but a shift

in perception and a shift in the nature of the person. The rational soul perceives the world in a

spiritual manner – it sees the Platonic Forms – or the essence of what things are. To know the

world in this way requires that one first know oneself as a soul, hence the requirement to “know

thyself,” i.e. for one to know who she truly is.

In a nutshell, one cannot be a leader if one does not heed the call to know thyself. And

when one cannot lead one cannot serve her people. Awareness of one’s self and one’s mission in

life is important, because only a self-aware soul can pour light into others’ hearts and minds by

160 Virginia Sapiro, Women, Political Action, and Political Participation (Washington, D.C.: American Political Science Association, 1988), 2.

161 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, s.v. “Plato’s Ethics and Politics in The Republic,” accessed November 9, 2011, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-ethics-politics/. 1

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awakening their sense of empathy that human beings are endowed with by nature. This transfer

of information has to be further supported by constant compassion and kindness (metta), since

the ultimate purpose of imparting knowledge is to love humankind by serving them and to take

them out of their sufferings and miseries.

If a leader fails in knowing herself, she cannot really lead her people. If she does not

know who she is or what her ultimate goal or her responsibility towards people is, then every

effort she puts forth is futile. If she is just dancing with her words and not her feet, then

ultimately her efforts become illogical and result in failure. She will not be able to impart any

sensible and meaningful knowledge or information to her followers.

In practical terms, it is crucial for a leader to know her own measures. Know her

limitations. Know what she can and cannot do. Know her place especially in relation to her

followers. Know the limits of her wisdom. Know her own faults. Know her own soul. Know that

she is a human and a mortal. And know that it is a difficult but attainable task.162

In turn, followers will learn by the example of their leaders and will share more of a

sacred teacher-disciple relationship. There are different stages of mentorship that need to be

explored in order to develop the corresponding leadership attributes. Later, some “doable”

suggestions will be given as how to develop these leadership qualities in those who want to serve

as leaders. Before that, let us briefly walk through some of the key leadership attributes

necessary for any transformational leader.

Summary of Key Leadership Attributes

Key Personal Traits

162 Eliza Gregory Wilkins, “‘Know Thyself’ in Greek and Latin Literature” (Menasha, WI: George Banta Publishing Company, 1917), vi-vii. 1

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The following are some of the key personal leadership traits that are mandatory to be a

leader:

1. Vision: A leader must have a clear vision for her people, situation and the circumstances

she wishes to change.

2. Belief: A leader must be a firm believer in her cause and must believe that her dream will

be realized in time.

3. Courage or Fearlessness: As Churchill reputably said, “Courage is what it takes to stand

up and speak; courage is also what it takes to sit down and listen.”163 A true leader is willing to

do both as the situation requires.

4. Confidence: A leader must exhibit calm confidence in all situations.

5. Ability to Motivate and Inspire: A leader must set an inspirational example to lead her

people and constantly motivate the group she is leading.

6. Understanding of the Group She is Leading: A leader needs to understand and relate to

the group she is leading. If she does not know her people well, then she is following the

wind.

7. Ability to Clearly Articulate the Crowd’s Message: A leader not only identifies her

group’s problems but articulates their message clearly and, in turn, gains a response from

them in the form of their ardent support for her.

8. Resolve: A leader must not be fickle. She must know who she is, and what she stands for

and must defend her cause with resolve.

163 Winston Churchill quoted in “Courage,” Winston-Churchill-Leadership, accessed November 9, 2011, http://www.winston-churchill-leadership.com/trait-courage.html. 1

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9. Able to Delegate Responsibility: A leader must assign critical leadership roles to the

group and thus make each member of the group into a leader.

10. Ability to Make Decisions: One of the key attributes of a great leader is that she is a

decision maker even when the picture is incomplete. She will follow her instincts and

experience and will make timely decisions.

11. Ability to Forgive: As Martin Luther King Jr. said, “Forgiveness is not an occasional act,

it is a permanent attitude.”164 Since the ultimate objective of a leader is to serve her people

with love and kindness, she cannot serve them with any grudge or revenge-driven ideas. She

must be forgiving.

12. Humility: A leader is great only when she is great in humility. She gets her grace and

wisdom by being humble and down to earth.

13. Persistence: A true leader is willing to undertake a struggle and persist at it. She does not

give up hope and effort in the face of failure or defeat, but keeps trying till she meets victory.

14. Vigilance: A leader must be vigilant at all times. She should be able to identify negative

tendencies in the people she works with and in her opposition camp.

15. Patience: A leader must not be impatient and hasty in her actions and decisions. Patience

is imperative to achieve success.

16. Compassion: To be compassionate is one of the core qualities of a true leader. She can

empathize with her followers only when she has love and compassion for them.

164 Martin Luther King, Jr. quoted in “Inspiration,” The Forgiveness Foundation, accessed November 10, 2011, http://www.forgivenessfoundation.org/inspiration/quotes/. Saifey - 95

17. Willingness to Own Up to Her Mistakes: A true leader is never afraid to admit to her

own mistakes. Rather, she learns from past mistakes and emerges as stronger and more

powerful leader.

18. Endowment with Impeccable Character: As it is said that a woman’s character makes

her fate, a true leader is a person of great character and integrity and she guards these

qualities.

19. Knowledge of When to Submit: A true leader is humble. She knows when to submit to

the will of her people out of respect and love for their opinion and wishes.

20. A Seeking of Constant Self-Improvement: A true leader seeks constant self-

improvement and does not let go of any opportunity to improve her strengths and address her

weaknesses.

21. Positive Attitude: Staying positive despite all the negativity or unfavorable situations

around her sustains her as a great leader.

22. Personal Responsibility for Her Actions: A true leader takes full responsibility for all

her actions, and is prepared to meet any consequences.

23. Knowledge of Herself and the Cause She is Defending: Most importantly, a true leader

knows herself and the cause she is expounding and fighting for.

Now, let us explore some of the key leadership traits at a professional level that are fundamental for leading.

Key Professional Traits

1. Ability to Listen: A leader must be a good and patient listener. She can have a strong

bond with those she is leading only if she can identify with their problems. This identification Saifey - 96 should be reflected by her conviction and care. She must spend time with them and relate to them on a personal level.

2. Ability to Think and Make Strategy: A leader must be a great thinker. She must out- think all her critics with her superior scholarship and drive. She strategizes intelligently and uses all the principles of tactics and strategies in laying out her plans to achieve her ultimate goal.

3. Creativity: A leader positions herself in a place in organization or group where she evaluates her options and lets people know that she is willing to help and contribute with her creativity and instincts.

4. Passion with Planning: Passion must be governed by a plan. And, a great leader will be a passionate planner.

5. Progressiveness: A leader is progressive, seeing progress happen in small stages without pause in stepping towards her ultimate goal.

6. Timely Initiative: A leader must take sound and timely decisions, as timing is of the essence.

7. Willingness to Give Respect and Credit to Others: A true leader never hesitates in giving due credit to her followers. She is respectful of their views and is always appreciative and encouraging of their efforts.

8. Willingness to Take Risks: A great leader always knows how to take calculated risks.

Taking risks is one of the key qualities in accomplishing one’s goals.

9. Tendency to Build, Not Break: A key leader leads on the principles of building bonds between people and not breaking them into fragments. She believes in consensus, not conflict, and practices the same in leading her people. 1

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10. Collaborative Nature: The most effective type of leader is a collaborative leader. Such a

leader creates plans acceptable to most and takes small steps to achieve her goals. She works

within the group and serves as a negotiator. She is a collaborator and leads by building

consensus and not conflict.

11. Ability to Solve Problems: A leader solves problems using solutions that maintain her

clear vision for her people.

12. Leadership by Serving: Finally, a leader grounded with all the above qualities leads her

people by serving them. She crosses all barriers to reach out to her followers in order to know

their sufferings and help them to remove these difficulties with the balm of her words and

support of her actions.

After learning these fundamental leadership attributes, it is imperative to develop them in

aspiring candidates for leadership. Let us find out ways and means to instill these intrinsic

leadership qualities in future women leaders.

How to Develop These Attributes in Future Leaders: Your Responsibility

You must be the change you wish to see in the world. Mahatama Gandhi165

Now comes the most challenging part, and it can be summed up in one word: responsibility. We

need to prod the world to give more chances and resources to women who have the intense drive

and merit to become leaders. It is hoped that a broader movement can emerge to cross and battle

the gender barriers inflicted by those societies that are less tolerant of women’s emancipation in

leadership roles. We need to collectively push the world for more educational and empowering

165Mahatma Gandhi quoted in Nicholas D. Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn, Half The Sky (New York, NY: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2010 ), 233. 1

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opportunities in terms of providing more resources for women around the world. Only then they

can cross these traditional and stereotypical barriers and ideals.

How can we develop these key leadership attributes in women? Time is ripe for a new

emancipation movement to empower women and girls around the world. Here lies a collective

responsibility for politicians, human rights activists, non-governmental organization workers,

journalists, teachers, members of civil communities, members of judiciary, leading entrepreneurs

of countries, and most of all women themselves, whatever role they are playing. They all must

strive to build broad coalitions across liberal and conservative lines.

It must be remembered that empowering women does not by any means mean ignoring

men. It is a noble quest to give power to the powerless by employing an activism of the human

voice. Here, it is important to understand the importance of men’s role in not only mentally

accepting the value of empowering women, but also letting them break that glass ceiling.

Sojourner Truth, a well-known antislavery speaker of the nineteenth century, in her famous

speech, “Ain’t I a Woman?” eloquently said:

If the first woman God ever made was strong enough to turn the world upside down all alone, these women together ought to be able to turn it back, and get it right side up again! And now they is asking to do it, the men better let them.166

Lastly, we must ask what methods can be used to develop leadership qualities, as there

are many. They include mentorship, coaching, training, encouraging formal educational

opportunities, and arranging women’s gatherings. The goal of any of these methods must be

imparting and building knowledge, information, and responsibility to motivate them towards

realizing their dreams. It is imperative to understand the culture of the group of individuals we

166 Sojourner Truth, “Ain't I a Woman?” Speech, Women’s Convention, Akron OH, December 1851, accessed October 21, 2011, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/sojtruth-woman.asp. Saifey - 99 are preparing to be leaders. It is impossible to empower women without knowing their culture and traditions. To be culturally conscious, techniques can include conversing, chatting, and citing parables from historical examples and tales. Encouraging women’s gatherings in a culturally acceptable and comfortable environment will help them in taking initiative and coming forward to learn while being inside their comfort zone.

In many cultures there are aspects that are similar. Understanding the culture is an essential responsibility of mentors. Otherwise, they will not be able to share the knowledge compatibly with their students. There are many commonalities that connect women from all around the world. For example, women worldwide are to one extent or another expected to be submissive and undemanding. In this manner, they are often denied their basic legal and social rights. They are economically dependent on their men. They are supposed to respect the set norms of the society and never deviate from them. So, it is important to bring them out of their shell and listen to their stories by conversing with them. One good way is to gather them over food. Many women do the cooking, laundry, and childcare, and so culturally assembling them on such an occasion makes any meeting more widely culturally acceptable.

In teaching and imparting knowledge to pupils, the mentoring leader’s attitude and care plays a crucial role. She must teach with compassion in her heart that is reflected in her words.

Compassion is one of the basic tenets of teaching and brings out elements of love and passion in followers. It pushes them to do good for people in general with kindness deeply seeded in their heart. People must be encouraged to question and compare. Part of the teacher’s duty is to work on moral and character development. A teacher or a mentor listens to people’s stories, patiently, and understands and identifies with their problems. She respects and honors their opinions and instills the true essence of service in her pupils. Saifey - 100

The concept of serving is fundamental to the leadership role. Good leadership involves serving the organization or group and the people within it. Ineffective leaders tend to invert this principle and consider merely that the leader must be served by the people. This faulty idea fosters the notion that leadership is an opportunity to take, acquire personal status, advantage, gain, etc., at the expense of others, which is grossly wrong. Leadership is instead an opportunity to give, to serve the organization, and crucially, the people.

These mentors and teachers must honor and respect their students, even if they have conflicting views. It is crucial that they make connections with them. Effective communication is a fine art which must be instilled. It is equally important to share leadership and distribute tasks among group members depending on the situation and individual strengths. One becomes a better leader by involving more people in the leadership process.

Practical Implications

Daw Aung San Suu Kyi’s story is an exceptional story which is representative of the possibilities for women’s political leadership. It can be applicable for aspiring young women in leadership roles around the world and serves as an inspiration for those who want to lead by setting example.

Opportunities should be given to young women who show extraordinary characteristics and potential to become leaders but do not have the social status often associated with leadership, especially in the developing countries. More encouragement must be provided for women who want to run for office and want people to elect them on the basis of their talents and leadership styles. This research tends to provide an understanding of the psychology of women who intend to enter or are already in unconventional roles and want to move beyond the limits of gender for Saifey - 101 both men and women. If it is the style of leadership that is more important, then men could learn the characteristics that women exhibit and use them to develop greater social justice and peace in the world.

It is hoped that the leadership characteristic and qualities identified by this research can be taught, coached, and mentored by women in significant leadership positions. Opportunities should be provided to young women who show extraordinary characteristics and potential to become leaders, but do not have the social status often associated with leadership. It is hoped that this thesis will inspire further in depth studies of other political women in Eastern societies.

In writing this thesis, I have sought to understand the hearts of those great men and women who have played transformational historical roles in this world by learning from their knowledge, wisdom and experience. In my quest to identify the inherent qualities that these people have either cultivated with time or have found in their genes, I have come across many questions that remain unanswered. The exercise of going through the life narrative of Aung San

Suu Kyi has surely opened new vistas of understanding of how one becomes a great leader and sustains oneself in that position through difficult times. There are still many dark corners that need to be explored and illuminated in studying leadership skills and traits. Perhaps the best way to do that is to encourage more research and study on the lives of the eminent figures of the world in order to learn from their narratives directly how they attained their goals. Using examples, parables, and stories of these public figures can enlighten people in a way that relates to their culture.

The main idea of analyzing and writing about the struggles of Aung San Suu Kyi was to be able to find some answers to the following important questions: Saifey - 102

1. What are the reasons at the personal level which shape a woman’s drive to become a

political leader?

2. What borders are crossed by woman politicians and what resources are utilized in order

to cross them?

3. How do woman leaders learn to play the game of politics and strike a balance between

the written and unwritten rules of this game?

4. Why do men vote for women and elect them to office in the East, when the traditional

norm is to subjugate them and not to be ruled by them?

5. To what extent does an elite upbringing lead to great leadership formation and are there

any points at which it is not necessary to come from an elite background?

6. To what degree is a legacy significant in the formation of leadership qualities in women

and what advantages does it engender in making them visible in the political arena?

7. To what extent is the role of prominent male relatives (i.e. husbands and fathers)

important in these women’s lives? Is the appearance of power from famous and

influential male relatives necessary to lead or could she make it on her own as well?

8. Are these powerful women elected on emotional grounds or for their political savvy?

In embarking on this journey into the life of Aung San Suu Kyi, I tried to answer some of these questions, but there are a few left to be answered through future study. For example, when I look at various prominent women leaders from the East, I find it a strange paradox that men vote for these women and elect them to office, when the traditional norm is to subjugate them and not be ruled by them. Surprisingly, Eastern societies are more traditional than those in the Western world, yet they have more women heads of governments than the West with the exception of a few like the Nordic countries. It is a strange dichotomy, a riddle hard to solve. Saifey - 103

Are these women leaders able to wield the power given to them by their people or are they mere puppet voices sitting in the parliament with the actual power exercised by their close male relatives? Here, one cannot ignore an important common observation, which is that these women may not be elected for their political savvy and merit but on emotional grounds (on the basis of “sympathy votes” or because they are considered a vulnerable and weak gender).

Another interesting aspect is the legacy conundrum. It is noteworthy that most of the prominent leaders are actually the sons and daughters of famous people. This leads one to wonder about their merit and credibility to hold these influential positions. Credibility is no doubt sometimes gained or lost on account of their legacy and grassroots connections, but what about merit? Does the tradition of legacy limit the chances for capable men and women from the middle class to emerge as leaders and gain higher positions? This brings us to other unsolved questions, such as to what extent an elite upbringing leads to great leadership formation, and are there any times at which it is not necessary to come from an elite background?

This thesis has endeavored to answer some of these questions by focusing on the life of

Aung San Suu Kyi. She serves as a paragon of women political leadership through her life struggles and achievements. Hers is the prime example that represents how the powerless and vulnerable can overcome any travails and tribulations that may come into their paths and serve humanity with their strong will and spiritual strength. Aung San Suu Kyi’s story of continuous struggles serves as an ideal model for women worldwide seeking social and political recognition and respect. Saifey - 104

APPENDIX

Tables and Figures Saifey - 105

Comparison of Woman National Leaders

Country Ye Year of % Development Status of Tit % Women in ar Enfranchisement Wo Country le Cabinet s me (1991) in n in Of Leg fic isla e tur e (19 91) Aquino, Corazon Philippines 19 1939 9.8 Developing P 4.0 86 - 92 Bhutto, Benazir Pakistan 19 1947 10. Developing P 0.0 88 5 M - 90 19 93 - 96 Gandhi, Indira India 19 1950 8.8 Developing P 6.2 66 M - 77 19 80 - 84 Brandtland, Gro Harlem Norway 19 1913 36. Advanced P 47.4 Saifey - 106

81 0 M - 19 86 - 89 19 90 - 96 Finnbogadottir, Vigdis Iceland 19 1915 22. Advanced P 9.1 80 1 - 96 Thatcher, Margaret England 19 1918 6.4 Advanced P 0.0 79 M - 90

Source: Solheim, On Top of the World, 112-114. Saifey - 107

Women’s Representation in Norwegian Political Assemblies

Year % Local % County % National % Cabinet 1901 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 1945 3.4 Na 5.0 7.0 1973 14.8 5.4 16.0 20.0 1981 22.8 28.8 26.0 24.0 1987 31.2 40.6 36.0 44.0 1991 28.5 38.6 36.0 47.0

Source: Marit Tovsen. Women in Politics in Norway. Seminar paper for Women from Eastern Europe, Denmark, 19 August 1992, mimeograph, 5. (As cited in Solheim, On Top of the World, 40).

Percentage of Women in Nordic Government Assemblies, 1994

Parliament County Councils Municipal Councils Denmark 34 29 26 Finland 39 Na 30 Iceland 24 Na 22 Norway 39 39 29 Sweden 33 43 34

Source: Nordic Council of Ministers. Women and Men in the Nordic Countries: Facts and Figures 1994, Copenhagen, Denmark: Nord 1994:3, 34 (As cited in Solheim, On Top of the World, 41). Saifey - 108

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