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Valuation Methods

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Valuation Methods 30. August 2016 The Metzler Valuation Guide For valuating financial instruments, Metzler Research uses standard and widely accepted methods of funda- mental analysis such as DCF analysis, peer group Jürgen Pieper analysis, sum-of-the-parts analysis or relative value analysis. Quantitative and technical analyses can also be Head of Research included in the evaluation as well as intermarket analysis and behavioral finance approaches. The Metzler Valuation Guide describes the valuation principles and methods applied by Metzler Research. Guido Hoymann Discounted Cash Flow Model Head of Equity Research Dividend Discount Model Eugen Keller Peer group analysis Head of FI/FX Research Sum-of-the-parts analysis Intermarket analysis Relative value analysis Technical analysis Behavioral finance . Information for professional clients and eligible counterparties – not to be passed on to private clients 1 Contents Guide Discounted Cash Flow Model 3 Dividend Discount Model 9 Peer group analysis 13 Sum-of-the-parts analysis 15 Intermarket analysis 16 Relative value analysis 17 Technical analysis 18 Behavioral finance 19 Appendix Recommended literature 20 Information for professional clients and eligible counterparties – not to be passed on to private clients 2 Guide Discounted Cash Flow Model Since we consider the Discounted Cash Flow Model to be the most basic and most wide-spread valuation tool around, all fundamentals also relevant for the other models will be explained in this chapter, e.g. Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) or cost of equity (COE). Discounted Cash Flow, WACC, CAPM, COE The DCF valuation method With our Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) valuation method we derive the enterprise value after taking into account a company’s long-term cash flows after investments used in order to generate this cash. These cash flows are then discounted to their present value (i.e. what they should be worth today) by the capital’s hurdle rate – the minimum return required by investors for taking the risk of financing a company’s business activities. Think of this as what you would want to get paid for taking money out of your pocket and giving it to someone to do with it what he wants for several years. Logically, the riskier the business into which the company is investing, the higher the return an investor will require. In this, the DCF Model differs from so-called accounting valuation methods such as price/earnings, enterprise value/sales, EBITDA, EBIT, price/book, PEG, etc. which only deal with the current earnings of a company or its earnings during a limited future time horizon – and not with the means by which a company finances its growth or the riskiness of its business. Definition of cash flow and Cash flow, the latter two words of the term Discounted Cash Flow, free cash flow designates financial cash flow which is not the same as that given in the company’s financial statement. The relevant cash flow is free cash flow and it is, theoretically, the cash that is generated by investing in the business and which is available to be distributed to all contributors of capital, i.e. debt and equity investors. Free cash flow is calculated as follows: Operating profit (EBIT) - Taxes on EBIT = Net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT) + Depreciation of fixed assets + Amortisation of goodwill = Gross cash flow - Capital expenditure (capex) - Increase in working capital (WC) = Free cash flow EBIT is the starting point of free cash flow because, as it is before interest expense, it is the profit that is available to both debt and equity Information for professional clients and eligible counterparties – not to be passed on to private clients 3 Guide investors. We then tax EBIT at our company’s effective tax rate, because the tax man always gets his due before the equity investor. Taxing EBIT also removes the tax shield involved in debt financing, i.e. we make the advantages given to financing one way or the other, debt or equity, irrelevant. After adding back the non-cash charges of depreciation of fixed assets and amortisation of goodwill, we come to our gross cash flow number, which is not yet free, because the cost of producing cash flow generation is not free and someone has to pay for it. This payment is encapsulated in the terms capital expenditure, or capex, and working capital. Capital expenditure is the money invested in fixed assets such as equipment and buildings, etc. Working capital (WC) is the cash investment needed to run a company’s daily business and it varies according to industry and seasonality. To derive WC, we add together the current assets of accounts receivable and inventories and subtract the current liability of accounts payable. Then, when we have subtracted capex and WC from gross cash flow, we have free cash flow. Discounting the cash flow In a second step we have a closer look at the word discounted in DCF. As stated above, the DCF method helps to value a company based on its long-term cash flows. Therefore, we predict streams of free cash flows, not just for the next few years, but for the entire life of the company. In the DCF method, this is modeled by calculating free cash flows for a forecast period, at Metzler seven years, and then combining the rest of the company’s free cash flow into a period called the terminal value (also called "residual value"). Does the length of the forecast period matter? Yes and no. Usually the number of years chosen are determined by what the analyst thinks is the company’s competitive advantage period (CAP) or the period of time during which the company can generate returns substantially above its cost of capital (i.e. the company is in a high-growth phase) before the company comes to a period of "normalized" growth at the end of the forecast period. Normalized growth occurs when the company has reached a point of equilibrium, i.e. it slows down, as it has grown strong enough for its base effect growth rate to be largely irrelevant and/or new competition in the industry has driven down the velocity at which the company can grow after the forecast period. Close care and attention must be paid to the terminal value because of its consider-able weight in determining the enterprise value. The terminal value is the guiding force behind the resulting valuation of a DCF analysis as it sometimes makes up to 90% of the entire enterprise value calculated. Therefore, for all intensive purposes the length of the forecast period is of minor importance. Information for professional clients and eligible counterparties – not to be passed on to private clients 4 Guide WACC – the Weighted Average Cost of The free cash flows we have determined for the forecast period are Capital discounted by a rate called the Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC) – and by using the present value (PV) formula as follows. FCF DCF (i.e. PV of free cash flow) , whereby (1 WACC) N FCF = Free cash flow WACC = Weighted Average Cost of Capital N = Periodicity or time period. CAPM – Capital Asset Pricing Model By using the WACC we take into account the capital structure of the company, its cost, and the riskiness of the investment of capital in the company. The theory behind the WACC comes from the so-called Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM). According to Barron’s Dictionary of Finance and Investment Terms, CAPM is "a sophisticated model of the relationship between expected risk and expected return. The model is grounded in the theory that investors demand higher returns for higher risks". Further "the CAPM postulates that the opportunity cost of equity is equal to the return on risk-free securities, plus the company’s systematic risk (Beta or "ß"), multiplied by the market price of risk (market risk premium);" states Tom Copeland in "Valuation: Measuring and Managing the Value of Companies". COE – cost of equity Hence the cost of equity equation (Ke) according to CAPM is: Ke = Rf + (Rm-Rf) x ß, whereby Rf = Risk-free rate of return Rm-Rf = Equity market risk premium ß = Beta or the systematic risk of the equity. But the CAPM is not a complete equation for our purposes as we must also take into account the debt used by the companies to finance their activities. Therefore, to construct WACC, we also tack on an equation which enables us to calculate the cost of debt (Kd): Kd = Yield to maturity on long-term financial debt x (1 - effective tax rate) To tie it all together, we weight the two equations with the proportion of debt and equity in the company’s capital structure: D For debt : D E E For equity : , whereby D E Information for professional clients and eligible counterparties – not to be passed on to private clients 5 Guide D = Book value of all interest-bearing i.e. financial debt (a good approximation for market value, plus easy to get) E = Market value of equity, i.e. total shares outstanding x current share price. Thus, the Weighted Average Cost of Capital is: D E WACC * K * K D E d D E e The WACC equation is not a complicated one, but the inputs are the tricky part. The input for the Beta is the most complicated. As the other inputs are relatively straight-forward, we will cover them quickly before moving on to Beta. The risk-free rate of return and In addition to Beta, the cost of equity (Ke) has two other inputs: the risk- the market risk premium free rate of return (Rf) and the equity market risk premium (Rm-Rf ).
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