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encourage native gray ant populations and reduce southern fire ant abun- dance is needed.

K.M. Daane is Associate Specialist, Cen- ter for Biological Control, Division ofln- sect Biology, Department of ESPM, UC Berkeley (stationed at the Kearney Agri- cultural Center in Parlier); and 1.W. Dlott is Senior Researcher, Dlott t3 Associates Consulting, Santa Cruz. We would like to thank Paul Buxman and Dick and Karen Peterson for use of their farms; the Califor- nia Clean Growers Association for help in Commercial production of the development of grower-collaborative would create an alternative market for research; Andy Gutierrez and Charlie . The method results in Summers for helpful suggest ions; Matt the highest quality beverage. Graduate Jones, Ingrid Peterson and Glenn Yokota students Christopher Scarlata and Sally Johnson gradually riddle the bottles to for laboratory and fieldwork; and the Cali- collect the sediment in a small plas- fornia Tree Fruit Agreement, California tic cup behind the crown cap. Cling Peach Board, California Energy Commission, and Switzer Foundation En- vironmental Fellowship for funding. Feasibility of producing pear . . . References Barnett WW, Edstrom JP, Coviello RL, Zalom FG. 1993. Insect pathogen Bt controls peach twig borer on fruits and almonds. Cal Pears produce premium Ag 47(5):4-6. Daane KM, Johnson RS, Michailides TJ, et al. 1995. Nitrogen fertilization affects nec- tarine fruit yield, storage qualities, and sus- ceptibility to brown rot and insect damage. Cal Ag 49(4):13-8. Glenn T. McGourty 0 Christian E. Butzke Daane KM, Yokota GY, Dlott JW. 1993. Dormant-seasonsprays affect the mortality of peach twig borer (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) Pear growers and packers con- In Northern Europe, a sparkling alco- and its parasitoids. J Econ Entomol86:1679-85. tinue to need profitable market holic beverage is made from both Dlott JW, Altieri MA, Masumoto M. 1994. channels for fruit that is not pears and . Cider, or cidre, by Exploring the theory and practice of participa- tory research in US sustainable agriculture: A packed for fresh market or definition is fermented juice of apples case study in insect pest management. canned. Off-grade fruit that is des- or pears. These beverages are usually Agricul and Human Values I 1:126-39. ignated for the juicing market fre- between 4% and 7% alcohol and gen- Hendricks LC. 1995. Almond growers re- erally retain some , so duce pesticide use in Merced county field tri- quently gives growers and pack- als. Cal Ag 49(1):5-10. ers poor returns unless there are that they have "," much like . Rice RE, Jones RA. 1988. Timing post- significant shortages of fruit juice The British Isles and Northern bloom sprays for peach twig borer (Lepi- concentrates in the marketplace. consume large amounts of both doptera: Gelechiidae) and San Jose scale cider and (pear cider). Presently, (Homoptera: Diaspididae). J Econ Entomol Finding a use for these fruit in the 81 1293-9. creation of a higher priced, value- among consumers 21 to 30 years of age Rice RE, P. 1990. Mating disrup- in those countries (the legal drinking added premium product could tion of oriental fruit moth in the United States. age is 16 in most of Europe), cider and In: Ridgway RL, Silverstein RM, lnscoe MN greatly strengthen the perfor- perry are the most popular alcoholic (eds.). Behavior-Modifying Chemicals for In- mance of this segment of the pear sect Management. New York: Marcel Decker. beverages after beer. In the last 10 p. 193-211. market and at the same time use years, Britain has seen a steady con- Rice RR, Zalom FG, Brunner JF. 1982. the off-season production capac- sumption of cider, which makes up Monitoring peach twig borer development ity of sparkling wineries. Our ex- with degree-day. UC, Div Agricul Sci, Leaflet 10% of the beverages sold in No. 21302. periments demonstrate that an (Berger 1995). Today, the UK cider Shorey HH, Gaston LK, Gerber RG, et al. ultrapremium-quality cider can be market exceeds 100 million gallons. 1993. Disruption of foraging by Formica made from juice grade Bartlett aerata (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) through were widely enjoyed in early the use of semiochemicals and related com- pears. Pear fruit should be ripe for American society. Apple trees grew pounds. Environ Entomol22:920-4. optimum flavors and aromas. extremely well in New , and

CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE, NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1998 ' 31 a death blow in 1919 would be logical for perry and apple (Correnty 1995). cider to be readily offered as compan- ion products through similar market- Market trends and ing channels, either as a bottled prod- supply uct in 12-, 22- and 32-ounce containers In the United or in bulk ”keg” containers. States there has been According to a recent study on the a remarkable in- feasibility of creating a juicing facility crease in the con- in Mendocino County, in an average sumption of cider year there are 12,300 tons of pears over the past de- available in the Lake and Mendocino cade, growing al- Pear Growing Districts for ”other most 250% from uses” besides canning and fresh mar- Above, fruit like these frost-damaged pears that are not packed 1988 to 1994 (Berger ket, which includes juicing, drying for fresh market or canned could be crushed for making sparkling 1995). In 1995,3.7 and freezing. This tonnage is highly pear wine. Below, pear cider, or perry, is a tasty alternative to million gallons of ci- variable, ranging from a low of 7,000 strong, full-bodied craft . A primary alcoholic fermentation in stainless-steel tanks produces a pear still wine, the base for der were consumed, tons in 1990 to a high of 24,000 tons in perry. twice the amount in 1987. There is also a significant supply the previous year. of processing apples in both This number Mendocino and Sonoma counties, av- doubled again, to eraging 46,000 tons per year, ranging more than 8 million from a low of 26,500 tons in 1988 to gallons in 1997. Al- 63,000 tons in 1994. The overall supply though these num- of this cull fruit is determined prima- bers are impressive, rily by weather conditions, quality cider remains a regulations and cull fruit prices small segment (less (Hardesty 1996). Assuming that a ton than 0.2%) of the of fruit yields 160 gallons of juice, and beverage market that a case of cider contains twenty- compared to beer, at four 12-ounce bottles (2.25 gallons per 6.2 billion gallons case), Mendocino, Sonoma and Lake per year. Interest- counties could supply as much as 6 ingly, New England million cases (table 1). and British Colum- It is very clear that the North Coast bia are at the center Pear and Apple Districts could poten- the art of cider making was readily of the growth of the market for these tially supply large quantities of juice adapted. Because of its availability, beverages (Mehta 1996; Fabricant for a cider industry, on average even cider was inexpensive and was con- 1997).Progressive growers, such as more than the current US. cider con- sumed in large quantities. Historical Alyson’s Apple in New Hamp- sumption. Another positive point is records indicate that per capita con- shire, have successfully planted vari- that the apple acreage in Sonoma sumption of cider in Massachusetts in ous historical European cultivars that County was planted for the processing 1767 was 47.6 gallons. In the 19th cen- may produce visually inferior but industry and includes cultivars fa- tury, cider makers began adding rum highly flavorful fruit for cider produc- vored for cider making, such as to cider, making it considerably more tion (www.alysonsorchard.com/ , Rome Beauty and New intoxicating, resulting in social prob- fruits.htm). Town Pippin. lems arising from its abuse. Early tem- A logical market niche for alcoholic Fermentation styles perance societies focused on cideries, ciders is ”brew pubs” or micro- bringing social pressure for their pro- breweries that make their own beer, Three fermentation systems are hibition. At the same time there was a where tart and fruity ciders offer an al- used for commercial cidermaking (Pol- migration of rural cider-consuming ternative to strong, full-bodied craft lard and Beech 1957; Lea 1995, Jarvis et Americans to urban areas, where new brews. In the British tradition, brew al. 1995; Cabranes et al. 1996; Scott and immigrants from Europe brought their pubs like to offer cider on tap and in O’Reilly 1996; Duenas et al. 1997). taste for beer. This competing bever- bottles. The growth of brew pubs in Choosing a system depends on the age could be made cheaply from dry the United States was phenomenal, volume of fruit to be processed, the ingredients available year-round. This from 8 in 1985 to 417 in 1995, but level- size of the market to be served, the brought about a decline in the con- ing off in 1997. “Craft brews” made by quality of the beverage (Mangas 1996) sumption of cider in the United States, these companies make up about 5% of to be delivered and the amount of in- with Prohibition dealing the industry the total beer sold (Appell995). It vestment capital available.

32 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE, VOLUME 52, NUMBER 6 The champagne method (rne'tkod TABLE 1. Potential cider production if cull fruit is used from pear and apple in Mendocino, ckampenoise in France) involves mak- Sonoma and Lake counties ing a still wine from pears or apples, Historic Range Fruit Juice Cider then adding yeast, nutrients and sugar tons gal cases for the secondary fermentation (tirage), Pears High 24,000 3,840,000 1,706,666 bottling and capping, and allowing Low 7,000 1,120,000 497,777 Average 12,300 1,968,000 874.666 time for the bottles to become carbon- ated, about 3 weeks. During this time Apples High 63,500 10,l60,000 4,515,555 Low 26,500 4,240,000 1,884,444 the yeast consumes all of the added Average 46,200 7,392,000 3,285,333 sugar, turning it into equal amounts of alcohol and carbon dioxide gas, which Pears + apples High 87,500 14,000,000 6,222,221 Low 33,500 5,360,000 2,382,221 provides the natural carbonation. At Averaae 58.500 9.360.000 4.159.999 this point the cider is riddled (remuage), which involves gradually aged for several months before it is gated (Semanchek and Golden 1996). inverting and turning the bottles to sold. This method, which is widely It was found that cell numbers are re- collect the yeast sediment in a small used by small cideries in Britain and duced to an undetectable level in fer- plastic cup behind the crown cap, a France, results in a high-quality bever- menting cider after 3 days at 68°F process of slow movement over sev- age that has a small amount of yeast in (20°C). Although the acidity of fer- eral weeks if done by hand. Modern the bottom of the bottle. This method menting cider is not significantly dif- sparkling wineries use automatic rid- involves a minimal amount of equip- ferent from that of nonfermenting ci- dling machines to achieve the same re- ment and labor, and would be very der, the combined effects of pH, SOz, sult within a few days. The cider is appropriate for a small "boutique" carbon dioxide and appear to then disgorged (de'gorgernent)by cidery. be an effective means of destroying quickly removing the cap to blow out The charmat method is used to pro- this pathogen without . the sediment. For small lots of cider, duce carbonated beverages cheaply. Nevertheless, we recommend that this can be done by hand. For larger There are several variations, but most the production of perry or hard cider lots it is done by machine, which involve making a still wine from pears should always comply with Good freezes the bottle neck and disgorges or apples and then either artificially Manufacturing Practices for fresh the yeast sediment mechanically. The carbonating the cider under cool tem- nonfermenting , as outlined product is then topped and capped peratures and pressure with bottled by the University of New Hampshire again. If additional sugar, or COz gas, or adding yeast and sugar, Cooperative Extension (Lord and other flavorings are desired, they are transferring the wine to a pressure Violette 1997). added in the process known as dosage tank where the yeast's secondary fer- and the bottles are then capped. Small mentation naturally carbonates the 1995 Experiments amounts of sulfur dioxide (SO,) are beverage. The cider is then sterile fil- It was our goal to determine also added to prevent oxidation and to tered or chemically preserved and whether Bartlett pears can make an ac- assure microbial stability of the perry. bottled. This method is used mostly ceptable cider with either the cham- This process results in the highest for large volumes of beverage that pagne method or the rural method of quality beverage, but it is expensive to need to be produced at the lowest cost. sparkling wine production, and to produce. Although the process is compare the sensory properties of ci- highly mechanized in modern spar- Health issues ders made from Bartlett, Bosc and kling wine houses, it can be done with The Centers for Disease Control Winter Nelis cultivars. a minimal amount of equipment for a and Prevention have recently issued Bartlett and Winter Nelis pears, "boutique" cidery producing 3,000 consumer warnings regarding out- about half a ton each, were taken from cases or less per year. Intensive labor breaks of Esckerickia coli 0157:H7 in- controlled atmosphere storage and replaces machinery. fections and cryptosporidiosis associ- crushed on March 9,1995. The Winter The (me'tkod ated with drinking unpasteurized Nelis fruit was in good condition, but rurale in France) involves making a apple cider (JAMA 1997). E. coli is a the Bartlett fruit required culling due still wine from pears or apples, adding bacterium that normally grows in the to some spoilage. The fruit was run yeast and sugar, bottling and capping, human gastrointestinal tract, but the through a hammer mill and the juice and then allowing the cjder to carbon- pathogenic 0157:H7 strain can cause extracted with a hydraulic press. The ate naturally. In the industry, hemolytic uremic syndrome. Apples juice was then transferred to 160- this is known as the "bottle condi- and pears can become contaminated gallon stainless steel tanks and trans- tioned method" when used to carbon- under unfortunate circumstances by ported to the winery for fermentation. ate beer. It requires very careful mea- manure from cattle or deer. The sur- The Winter Nelis juice was treated surement of yeast and sugar so that vival of E. coli 0157:H7 within the with 100 mg/L SOz to kill spoilage "bottle bombs" are not created by complex ecology (Swaffield et al. 1997) yeast and bacteria. The Bartlett juice overpressurization. The cider is then of cider fermentation has been investi- was treated with 150 mg/L SOz,be-

CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE, NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1998 33 cation would improve it. Others found it very refreshing, light and clean tasting. Bosc Perry. Second place overall. Very pleasant pear fragrance, with a caramel-flavored background. Pleas- ant but not excessive tartness. Soft rounded mouth feel, more body than the Bartlett cider. Would probably be better if made from fresh juice. Winter Nelis Perry. Third place overall, but first place for two of the panel. The French members of the panel claimed that this was the closest to the perry that they remembered in France. The cider was well structured and tannic, with almost olive flavors, strong pear fragrance, slightly reduced The charmat method is an inexpensive way of producing pear cider. The still pear wine is transferred into a small pressure tank where the yeast's secondary fermentation natu- in odor. Americans found this one the rally carbonates the Perry. To offer cider on tap, it could be shipped in small bulk con- least appealing. tainers like these. The remainder of the cider was dis- gorged by machine. Half of the bottles cause more damage was evident in the Fermentation proceeded fairly had an additional 7.5 g/L of sugar fruit before crushing. Bosc fruit was quickly, and the ciders were ready for added to increase sweetness. No addi- not available, so single concentrate bottling and secondary fermentation tional sugar was added to the other juice was obtained from Naumes Con- 10 to 14 days after primary fermenta- bottles. The cider was cellared again in centrates in Marysville and fermented. tion. At that time the varietal ciders the winery's cask room and retasted 4 No SO2was added, because the juice were placed in 750 mL sparkling wine months later. The different ciders held was sterilized during the concentrate bottles and the following materials up well, but some refermentation oc- process. The juices were inoculated were added: 10 g/L sucrose, 100 mg/L curred, particularly in the Winter Nelis, with bayanus yeast diammonium phosphate and 200 mg/L to which no preservatives had been (Lalvin EC-1118). The juice was ana- bentonite as a riddling aid. Bottles added. No agreement was reached lyzed for soluble solids, acidity and were then transferred to the cask room among the tasting group as to whether SO2content (table 2). of the winery (ambient temperature additional sugar improved the flavor The winemakers decided, based on about 60°F [15"C]), and allowed to go of the ciders. Most felt that both the their experiences with juice fer- through secondary fermentation. The dry and the slightly sweet styles were mentations, to adjust the pear juice ciders were sampled following rid- quite acceptable and refreshing. Some with the following additions at the dling by hand (removing the yeast and of the Bartlett and Bosc cider had time of yeast inoculation: 3 g/L of tar- bentonite deposits) (table 3). turned a shade of light pink to purple, taric to acidify the juice, 100 mg/ most likely due to some enzymatic L diammonium phosphate (yeast nu- Sensory evaluation oxidation of phenolic compounds. trient), 50 mg/L pectolytic enzyme to Samples of the three were clarify the juice and 2 g/L of . tasted at the same time by a panel con- 1996 Experiments Acidification of the fermenting juice is sisting of two winemakers, two vine- Based on the positive results from considered necessary to improve fla- yard managers and the authors. Ciders the 1995 vintage, we tried to deter- vor (juices low in acidity taste flat) and were cooled to about 40°F (4°C) for mine whether secondary fermentation to preserve and stabilize the resulting tasting. The following comments and and carbon dioxide priming of still wine or cider. The Bartlett pears were ratings were given. wine in keg containers could produce quite ripe when crushed, so the acidity Bartlett Perry. First place overall, an acceptable product, and to establish had diminished greatly compared to preferred by four of six tasters. Slight how blending of apple cider and other the Winter Nelis and Bosc fruits, oxidation noted, probably due to over- pear cultivars affects flavor and con- which were relatively firm when ripe fruit that was crushed. Very at- sumer preference. crushed. The fruit are partly me- tractive appearance, in the color range Cornice, Bosc and Bartlett pears tabolized by the plant during ripening, of pale yellow to straw. The cider has were taken from cold storage, crushed resulting in a lack of tartness in over- a pleasant pear fragrance, soft and pressed separately in the same ripe pears or apples. Tannins were rounded mouth feel and a slight bitter- manner as the 1995 vintage and then added to give the ciders a more astrin- ness in the final taste. The cider also transferred to 60-gallon plastic food- gent structure and higher complexity tasted a little flat to some of the panel, grade barrels for fermentation. All in taste. and they felt that slightly more acidifi- fruit was firm, green and in excellent

34 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE, VOLUME 52, NUMBER 6 condition, requiring minimal sorting TABLE 2. Pear juice analysis and culling. Also crushed was a mix of Winter Nelis Bartlett Bosc ’’ and ’’ apples Soluble solids (Brix) 15.7 11.4 13.5 for the purpose of blending with the Titratable acidity (g/L) 0.9 1.7 6.6 PH 4.54 4.21 3.35 different pear juices. The following Free/total SO, (mg/L) 23/54 4/44 NA materials were added to the pear (apple) juices prior to fermentation: 40 TABLE 3. Analysis of finished pear ciders (40) mg/L SO2,3 (0.5) g/L tartaric Winter Nelis Bartlett Bosc Titratable acidity (g/L) 6.3 5.7 6.6 acid, 50 (50) mg/L pectolytic enzymes, 3.18 3.24 3.40 20 (20) mg/L tannins and 0.2 (0.2) g/L Fyhanol (% by vol) 6.0 7.9 6.5 Pressure @ 14.5% (MPa) 0.25 0.22 0.20 active dried yeast, Sacckaromyces Residual sugar (g/L) 1-2