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Black Community Building in the Virginia Tidewater, 1865 to the Post-1954 Era

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Black Community Building in the Virginia Tidewater, 1865 to the Post-1954 Era No Longer Lost at Sea: Black Community Building In the Virginia Tidewater, 1865 to the post-1954 Era Hollis Earl Pruitt Gloucester County, Virginia Bachelor of Arts, University of Arkansas at Little Rock 1979 Master of Arts, University of Tennessee at Knoxville 1991 A Dissertation presented to the Graduate Faculty of the College of William and Mary in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy American Studies Program The College of William and Mary May 2013 UMI Number: 3574204 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Di!ss0?t&iori Publishing UMI 3574204 Published by ProQuest LLC 2013. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Copyright © 2013 by Hollis Earl Pruitt APPROVAL PAGE This dissertation is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Approved^ the Committee, March, 2013 Professor Michael L. Blakey, National Endowment for the Humanities College of William and Mary ‘ Professor Grey Gundaker Duane A. and Virginia S. Dittman Professor of American Studies and Anthropology College of William and Mary /?Q6jx (^<^k\ V y ro fesso r Kimberly Phillips Dean of Brooklyn Colleges School of Humanities and Social Sciences (J Professor M. Lynn WWiProfessor eiss Associate Professor of English and American Studies College of William and Mary COMPLIANCE PAGE Research approved by Protection of Human Subjects Committee Protocol number(s): PHSC-2013-03-15-8608-mlblak Date(s) of approval: 04-22-2013 ABSTRACT PAGE ...the early people of Gloucester County were English gentlemen and ladies... Many of these fine old families continued wealthy for generations, until about seventy years ago, when a terrible war, known as the War between the States,... deprived them and their present day descendents of their property and wealth, as well as their Negro slaves who were freed at the time of this war.(Gray 66) All across the post-Civil War South, the newly freed African Diaspora struggled to find ways to maintain their families and to develop communities. Having been systematically denied education, property ownership, political participation and participation in both the social and economic life of the society built largely upon their labor and hardships, and those of their ancestors, for most of the "Freedmen," the first fruits of Liberty were uncertainty and impoverishment. This study will examine how blacks in Gloucester County responded to the challenges of freedom in different ways and through institutions. At the outbreak of the Civil War, Gloucester County, Virginia, was home to a large population of enslaved Africans and a number of free blacks and free mulattoes. In the aftermath of the War, these groups formed a number of vibrant and, initially, highly successful communities. The collective and individual agencies that led to creation of social, economic, religious and educational institutions as infrastructure for community development will be explored. The study will utilize an interdisciplinary approach to the creation and evolution of churches, schools and cemeteries to trace the impact of such institutions within the history of blacks in the County. Sources will include legal documents, census data, church histories, literary texts, newspaper articles, oral histories, photos and site examinations. Currently, beyond documents largely generated by the heirs of the Planter Class, there are only minimal records or studies pertaining to the socio­ cultural processes that guided the formation of Gloucester County's African American communities. The enslaved communities had few institutions through which to stamp their identities upon the region they occupied, in which they labored and died. Dead slaves were buried with little ceremony and no markers. Hence, in areas like Gloucester County, where colonial churches, and their elaborate and ornate cemeteries, commemorate the slave owning community, and where restored plantation "Big Houses" are placed on the "National Register of Historic Sites," or hidden from scrutiny by private ownership, little marks the antebellum presence of the African Diaspora. Thus, the long march of time has eroded the histories of the institutions and individuals that were the chief agents for the growth of Gloucester's African American communities, but did not obliterate them. This research will focus on a small segment of the African American Diaspora as it moves to establish and stabilize itself in the aftermath of the American Civil War. Thus, by the very nature of Diasporas, it is study of the confluences of agency and accommodation, cooperation and resistance, and of perseverance as well as change and as elements of an overarching survival strategy. Gloucester County's African American communities established churches, cemeteries, domestic burial fields and schools. These institutions and sites became and, in many instances, remain sources of documentary, literary, historical and material evidence of the former richness and continuing importance of Gloucester County’ African American past. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Acknowledgements ii Introduction 1 Chapter I. Faith of Our Fathers 17 Chapter II. Tree of Knowledge 83 Chapter III. No Longer Lost at Sea 153 Chapter IV. Sunrise- Sunset 223 Conclusion 247 Works Cited 253 Vita 272 i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am sincerely grateful for the guidance of the members of my committee, Dr. Michael Blakey, Chair, Dr. Grey Gundaker, Dr. Kimberly L. Phillips, and Dr. Lynn Weiss. I thank them for being generous with their knowledge, trust, and patience with my “fits and starts” as the project evolved. The materials and data required to complete a study such as this are not situated conveniently in libraries and academic achieves. Much of it exists in living memories, in family documents, local publications and local records. Thus, in planning and conducting this research, I benefited from the insight and guidance of many local sources and respondents to whom I am profoundly indebted. I am especially indebted to the late Deacon John Perrin, who helped me to better understand the complex and rich nature of the history of Gloucester County’s black community and the need for research such as I attempted to undertake. I am also thankful for the guidance of numerous others: the late Elder Hollis Corbin Sr., Elder Charlie and Mrs. Miriam Carter, Barbara Howard, Reverend William Foxwell, Mary Smith-Gordon, Dr. John Bluford III, Hamilton Williams, and Bernard Robins. Robin M. Fisher and Christy L. Gabler of the Gloucester County Circuit Court Clerk’s Office Records Room provided invaluable assistance in my search for deeds and other records. While I cannot list everyone who encouraged and assisted me over the course of this project, I must acknowledge Elsa Verbyla, Editor of the Gloucester-Mathews Gazette-Journal, for her tireless assistance in finding or identifying sources that brought greater clarity and more humanity into elements of the research. Finally, I have no words for the appreciation and love I have for family, friends and colleagues who not only tolerated but supported me as, at times, interviews, books, records and sites became the central focuses of my time and attention. I am particularly grateful for my wife, Lynn, and my youngest daughter, Shanzia, for remaining good-natured and loving as I turned the spaces of our home into an unmapped, cluttered wilderness of books, papers, and notes. Introduction: the nation may forget; it may shut its eyes to the past and frown upon any who may do otherwise, but the colored people of this country are bound to keep fresh a memory of the past till justice shall be done them in the present”: Frederick Douglass, April 16,1888. In 1860 Gloucester County had a total population of 10,956. 703 free blacks and 5,736 enslaved Africans made up 59% of the county’s population. In 1950, blacks made only 31% of the County population Historical( Census Browser). However, numbers alone do not tell a community’s story. This thesis explores the transitions made by the formerly enslaved and historically free black population of Gloucester County from the conclusion of the Civil War to the posl-Brown versus Topeka era. Though census data from 1860 indicates that the enslaved and Free People of Color population constituted 59% of the total population of the County, minimal physical evidence of their presence and history in the County exists. The only widely known narrative relating to history of this large and diverse group is TheHoney -pod Tree, the 1958 autobiography of Thomas Calhoun Walker: bom a slave, a Hampton Institute graduate, protegee of Booker T. Washington, and the County’s first black lawyer. However, The Honey-pod Tree was published in 1958, five years after Walker’s death and after the death of Florence L. Lattimore, to whom Walker narrated the text. Thus, for almost 150 years the history of the then majority of the County’s population has long been, and continues to be, dominated by and constrained within a single narrative published under circumstances which allowed no challenge to either the author or the editor/transcriber. 1 No Longer Lost at Sea endeavors to address the effective absence of black voices and the subsequent need to discover ways to recover and reconstruct historically relevant black alternative or counter- narratives in order broaden consideration and analysis of the more traditional versions of the County’s narrative. The research seeks to discover and document the long overlooked or neglected histories of blacks, enslaved and historically free, in broader history of the County by examining the roles of churches, schools and cemeteries and burial fields as critical infrastructure of community development and establishment of group and individual identity.
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