UC Merced Journal of California and Anthropology

Title and Marsh-Edge Settlements on , Harney County,

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Journal Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology, 14(1)

ISSN 0191-3557

Author Oetting, Albert C

Publication Date 1992-07-01

Peer reviewed

eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California loumal of Califomia and Great Basin Antliropology Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 110-129(1992). Lake and Marsh-Edge Settlements on Malheur Lake, Harney County, Oregon

ALBERT C. GETTING, Heritage Research Associates, Inc., 1997 Garden Ave., Eugene, OR 97403.

HALRNEI Y Basin is the northernmost internal­ islands and shorelines beginning to emerge from ly draining basin within the Great Basin and the the lake (Oefting 1990a). Cognizant that similar largest in Oregon. Although the basin is semi- processes of site erosion and exposure were oc­ arid in climate, it contains a complex hydrologic curring on privately owned lands flooded by the system of streams, rivers, marshes, and lake, HRA obtained a grant from the Oregon maintained by precipitation to the surrounding State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO) in watershed (Fig. I). Above average rainfall and 1989 to conduct a similar survey on 26 miles of snow in the early 1980s caused Malheur Lake to privately owned shoreline (Getting 1990b). flood a substantial portion of the surrounding These surveys were essentially emergency basin floor, inundating an area of more than measures with very limited goals. They were 180,000 acres. The floodwaters began to recede implemented to: (1) locate and provide basic in 1985 and continue to decline today. In doing documentation for as many newly exposed sites so, water and wave action along the changing as possible within a limited time; (2) identify, shoreline of the lake system have exposed many map, and collect artifacts likely to be stolen by archaeological sites, stripping away drowned relic collectors; and (3) locate, document, and vegetation and eroding the ground surface to cover or remove exposed human remains. Re­ reveal artifacts, assorted cultural features, and moving tools and human remains evident on the human burials. Similar natural phenomena, surface prevented their loss to vandals and at with similar archaeological results, have recently the same time made the sites less aUractive to occurred at Stillwater Marsh in Nevada (Raven these relic collectors. No subsurface testing and Elston 1988; Raymond and Parks 1990) and was conducted at any of these sites. This paper on the east shore of the Great Salt Lake (Simms introduces the reader to the recent hydrologic et al. 1991). This flood cycle has provided an events at Malheur Lake, summarizes the results excellent opportunity for archaeologists to locate of the surveys, and presents some inferences and document sites normally obscured by vege­ regarding regional chronology and land use tation and shifting surface sediments. Unfort­ prompted by the survey data. These interpre­ unately, relic collectors have taken advantage of tations should be considered working hypo­ the same opportunities. theses to be tested by continuing research in the In an effort to locate, document, and region. preserve exposed and eroded sites and human MALHEUR LAKE burials on lands around Malheur Lake admin­ istered by Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, Malheur Lake, Mud Lake, and the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service provided occupy the lower elevations of funds in 1988 and 1989 for Heritage Research (Fig. 1). Water from the Blue Mountains flows Associates, Inc. (HRA), to conduct archaeo­ into the basin and the north side of Malheur logical surveys and surface collections on Lake through the , while mnoff LAKE AND MARSH-EDGE SETTLEMENTS 111

Harney Basin ,.-- Oregon

Fig. 1. The hydrologic system of Harney Basin. from provides water to the streams and the , southern part of the basin through several which enters the south side of the lake. Both 112 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY rivers support extensive freshwater marshes elsewhere and, except in very dry periods, there along their lower courses. Through a series of are generally areas of open water. Hardstem low thresholds, water flows from Malheur Lake bulrush marshes predominate, except in the into Mud Lake and then into Harney Lake, the deeper open water zones. The eastem ecolog­ ultimate sump of the basin. Water levels in ical region is the most alkaline portion of the these lakes fluctuate seasonally in response to lake and contains the most open water (Dueb­ inflow from the rivers, direct precipitation, and bert 1969:10). Sago pondweed thrives in this evapotranspiration. unit. The edges are marshy, but are composed In general, such fluctuating conditions are of salt-tolerant plants common to shallow water, beneficial and necessary for the maintenance of such as Baltic msh. marsh water chemistry and productivity. Con­ Abnormally high precipitation and heavy trary to common intuition, wet years and high snowpacks from 1981 to 1984 provided in­ water levels are more destmctive to the lake and creased water to this closed-basin system. its wetlands than are dry years, since high water Water levels rose and flooded all of the Malheur drowns both the marshes and the adjacent ter­ Lake ecological units. Water continued to flow restrial areas, while periods of low water only in and the three lakes (Malheur, Mud, and Har­ constrict marsh extent and allow a variety of ney) coalesced, forming a single body of water plants to gain temporary footholds on the expos­ 33 miles (53 km.) long and as much as 12 miles ed recessional mudflats. Oxygen exchanges and (19.5 km.) wide. The level of Malheur Lake replenishment of certain other elements neces­ peaked at a historic record high of 4,102.68 ft. sary to maintain the soils essential to the growth in 1985, having risen about eight feet. Since of marsh plants can only occur when marsh bot­ the basin floor is very flat, the lake more than toms are periodically dry (Duebbert 1969:20). doubled in surface area, drowning most of the In times of low to moderate water levels, land near the lake within Malheur National Malheur Lake forms a complex series of fresh­ Wildlife Refuge and flooding thousands of acres water-to-alkaline marsh habitats, supporting a of private land beyond the Refuge boundaries. wide variety of plant and animal life (Duebbert During the surveys the surface of the lake was 1969). Three distinct ecological units can be about 4,097 ft. and water still covered large identified (Fig. 2). The westernmost unit gener­ areas of land on the northem and eastern ally has very shallow water and often consists of shores. many small ponds separated by low undulations It must be remembered that the config­ in the topography. Water is usually less alka­ urations of the islands and shorelines of the lake line than in the lake to the east. Emergent change as the water level changes. Despite the vegetation is primarily hardstem bulmsh extent of the lake in 1988 and 1989, its depth (Scirpus acutus), burreed (Sparganium eury- was no greater than 2.45 m, and, in many carpum), cattail (Typha latifolia), and Baltic areas, was less than 60 cm. This shallowness msh (Juncus balticus) (Duebbert 1969:8). Sub- makes the position of the shoreline dynamic, mergent plants, especially pondweeds (Potamo- since small changes in lake level may result in geton pectinatus and P. pusillus), are common extensive shoreline shifts. During periods of in the water. The central ecological unit low water many of the sites presenfly located on occupies the lowest part of the basin and "islands" will become "mainland" sites receives the flow of both the Donner und situated on low topographic rises surrounded by Blitzen and Silvies rivers (Duebbert 1969:9). shallow ponds and extensive marshes. Figures The water is deeper and more permanent than 2 and 3 depict the configuration of Malheur LAKE AND MARSH-EDGE SETTLEMENTS 113

Fig. 2. Ecological units of Malheur Lake (after Duebbert 1969).

Lake during the summers of 1988 and 1989. tract consisted of a 200 m. corridor along the The lake has continued to decline since that existing water's edge. The shorelines and time. islands were completely examined by archaeo­ logists maintaining transect intervals of 15 m. THE SURVEYS AND THEIR FIIVDINGS In all, 73 archaeological sites were visited The surveys conducted for Malheur Na­ and recorded (Fig. 3) (Oetfing 1990a, 1990b). tional Wildlife Reftige in 1988 and 1989 in­ Only four of these localities had been previously spected 28 islands and two small sections of the recorded during widespread archaeological re­ southem shoreline. Most of the new islands had connaissances conducted on the refuge in the been completely submerged and were simply 1970s (Newman et al. 1974). Twenty-five sites low rises with eroded ground surfaces just above were located on islands. The other 48 sites the lake level. Three islands had elevated were recorded on the mainland, 15 on the south central terraces that had remained above the shore and 33 on the north shore. floodwaters, set off by 1 to 3-m. high eroded The recorded sites range in size from less cutbanks. Twenty-four of the islands were than 200 m.^ to as much as 80,000 m.-. Differ­ along the northwest shore of Malheur Lake and ences in size and artifact density suggest that the others were in the eastern part of the lake. some functional differences may distinguish the The SHPO-funded survey of private lands exam­ various sites. Many of the smaller sites ined 26 miles of the 1989 main shoreline, (< 10,000 m.') had low density artifact scatters divided into three tracts on the south shore and (averaging less than 5-10 items/m.-) and rela­ two on the north shore. Each mainland survey tively few formed tools (10-100), suggesting 114 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Fig. 3. Archaeological sites recorded (triangles) during the 1988 and 1989 shoreline and island surveys. short-term limited activity locales. Several of another site nearby (Newman et al. 1974). the moderate-to-large sites (especially those Three artifact features were found on northwest > 30,000 m.^) had very dense artifact scatters shore islands, two containing 30 or more (peak densities in excess of 100 items/m.') and notched net weights and a third consisting of a hundreds to thousands of tools from a wide tool cache of bone tools and several finely range of artifact classes, suggesting longer term flaked projectile points, possibly the bundled use and occupation. contents of a flintknapper's kit. Three probable house floors were observed Many of the sites had been exposed and in a high cutbank at an island site near the eroded by the receding waters within the pre­ northwest shore. Each floor was 4 m. to 5 m. ceding year and spectacular arrays of artifacts long and between 30 cm. and 1 m. below the were recovered at several of these localities. top of the cutbank. A charcoal-filled hearth, The density and variety of artifacts at newly with an associated activity surface, was found in exposed and undisturbed sites was amazing and the cutbank at a site off the east shore. Char­ beyond the collective experience of the ar­ coal samples were collected from each of these chaeologists on the survey. The differences features but the Fish and Wildlife Service has between these sites and those also recently not allocated funds for radiocarbon analysis. A exposed, but already vandalized by relic col­ badly eroded circular depression, possibly the lectors, were equally amazing and extremely remains of a housepit, was observed at one site disheartening, demonstrating the speed with on an island off the northwest shore. Several which valuable scientific and contextual house depressions were recorded in the 1970s at evidence could be destroyed. The 1988 survey LAKE AND MARSH-EDGE SETTLEMENTS 115 team recorded three sites vandalized earlier in drills, and other formed bifaces. Rare or the year on the easternmost island in the lake. "unusual" artifacts, including net weights, bone Only six tools meeting the criteria for collection tools, and ornaments, were also collected when were found at these sites. In contrast, two encountered. Most of the complete and frag­ undisturbed sites of similar size were found on mentary pestle/mauls were collected, but in a newly exposed island nearby and 211 tools general, only complete manos were retrieved. were collected. Large implements, such as metates and hopper Twenty-seven partially exposed, but intact. mortar bases, were located and mapped, but Native American burials were located and docu­ were not collected. Thus, the proportions of mented during the survey. Through an agre­ collected specimens do not reflect the pro­ ement with the , these re­ portions of tool classes actually present in the mains were later collected, along with another field. 20 burials subsequently exposed by the lake, and Some of the collected artifacts are extensive osteological analyses were conducted uncommon in the Great Basin, but have ana­ on these individuals (Hemphill 1992a, 1992b, logues around the periphery of this region. The 1992c). All of the remains have been reinterred bifacial blades are exceptionally large and finely on the refuge. finished formed bifaces, ranging in length from A total of 2,131 artifacts was collected 11 cm. to over 36 cm. (Fig. 4). Thirty-six of during the combined surveys (Getting 1990a, these bifaces are made of obsidian, five are 1990b). This total included 695 projectile chert, and two are basalt. Large obsidian points, 43 finely finished bifacial blades, 640 blades were considered wealth or treasure by other bifacial tools, 135 notched net weights, ethnographic northwest California groups such two girdled net weights, 181 manos, 62 pestle/ as the Yurok and Karok (Rust 1905; Kroeber mauls, 27 bone implements, three pipe bowls, 1925). Similar large blades have been found and several beads and other ornaments (selected associated with burials in southwestern Oregon artifacts are illustrated in Figs. 4-7). An addi­ (Cressman 1933; Hughes 1990) and occasionally tional 32 points were observed and classified, have been found in archaeological contexts but were not collected by request of the property along the (Strong 1960) and in owner (Getting 1990b: 120). Over 75% of the the Klamath area (Sampson 1985). Some of the flaked stone tools were made of obsidian, Malheur Lake bifacial blades were found at sites 12.5% were chert, and 11.5% were basalt. The containing burials, but none were found in ground stone tools were generally coarse­ association with human remains. grained or vesicular basalt, but a few specimens The ground stone milling tools found at the were made from coarse granitic stones. Malheur Lake sites, particularly the manos and It should be reiterated that the collected pestle/mauls, were well-finished, shaped tools artifacts were recovered from the surface and that required time, skill, and effort to manu­ are not representative samples of the overall tool facture (Fig. 5). One of the collected pestle/ assemblages observed at these sites. One goal mauls (Fig. 5a) was decorated with incised of the surveys was to selectively remove arti­ lines. Decorations on milling implements have facts considered particularly desirable by relic not been reported for traditional prehistoric or collectors, preempting their loss and reducing ethnographic Great Basin groups, but have been the appeal of these sites. All projectile points documented among the Klamath and from sites were collected, along with most of the complete along the Columbia River (Barrett 1910; Strong and some partial specimens of bifacial blades. et al. 1930; Carlson 1959). 116 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Fig. 4. Bifacial blades collected at Malheur Lake (a is 36.05 cm. in length; a-d are obsidian, e is basalt). LAKE AND MARSH-EDGE SETTLEMENTS 117

(i-1

. ^ ^ (

^^^--T^

• .•,ic

•-•'>>

v.^

•• >•.?

Fig. 5. Pestle-mauls (a, b) and manos (c-0 (all are vesicular basalt). 118 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Fig. 6. Selection of projectile points: a-b, crescents; c-d. Great Basin Stemmed; e-f, Malheur Stemmed; g-h, Humboldt series; i-k. Northern Side-notched; l-t, Elko series; u-hh, Rosegate series; ii-ll. Desert Side-notched (a, c, and y are chert, all others obsidian).

A shaped bone artifact decorated with decoration to ethnographic "head scratchers" or incised triangular designs (Fig. 7j) was also "sweat scrapers" used by the Klamath (Spier collected. It is very similar in size, shape, and 1930:69-70; Sampson 1985:397) and north- LAKE AND MARSH-EDGE SETTLEMENTS 119

Fig. 7. Basalt notched net weights (a-h), basalt girdled net weight (i), and bone head scratcher (j). western California groups (Loud 1918:383). CHRONOLOGY Head scratchers used by the Northern Paiute in the northern Great Basin were generally made of Chronology in the Malheur Lake area has wood and were not decorated (Kelly 1932:162; been based primarily on the analysis of time- Stewart 1941:410-411). sensitive projectile point types, but 10 radiocar- 120 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY bon ages obtained from the recovered burials points occur between 4,500 B.P. and 1,400 now provide better documentation of the last B.P. Beck's (1984) chronology for the Steens 2,000 years. Six hundred forty-three points Moun-tain region demonstrated a very similar (Fig. 6) were assigned to commonly defined pattern. A reexamination of dated Elko points classes in the typological system used in the in the Fort Rock Valley caves found that 80% central, western, and northern Great Basin of the Elko specimens occurred in levels dated (Thomas 1981; Wilde 1985; Holmer 1986; Get­ to 4,550 B.P. or younger (Getting 1992). All ting 1989, 1990a). Many of these point types Elko points associated with radiocarbon ages in can be used as time markers. The remaining 84 Harney Basin are less than 3,300 years old points did not fit in this typology and were (Jenkins and Connolly 1990; Musil 1992). better identified with point types defined for the When considering the population of Elko series Columbia River Plateau (Dumond and Minor points in the region, it seems reasonable to 1983) or defined strictly for Harney Basin (e.g.. assume that the majority of those points were Fig. 6e and f; Getting 1990a). produced and used after 5,000 B.P. The efficacy of using projectile point types Previous archaeological research in Harney as time markers has been much debated in re­ Basin (Aikens and Greenspan 1988:39-40) has cent literature (Flenniken and Raymond 1986; suggested that, while projectile points char­ Thomas 1986a, 1986b; Flenniken and Wilke acteristic of all temporal periods in the 1989; Bettinger et al. 1991; Wilke and Flen­ Holocene have been found, the majority of niken 1991; Inoway and O'Connell 1992; Get­ human activity (based on point frequencies) ting 1992). The use of broad-necked, corner- appears to have been in the later Holocene—the notched Elko series points has been a particular Late Archaic of the last 1,500 or 2,000 years. issue, since they appear by 7,000 B.P. in some Analysis of the relative numbers of temporally areas and continue until 1,000 B.P. (Thomas diagnostic projectile points found in various 1981). In the northern Great Basin, Elko points portions of Harney Basin and nearby areas sug­ have been stratigraphically associated with pre- gested to Aikens (1988:20-21) that the Malheur Mazama deposits and 7,000-year-old radio­ Lake area and the Donner und Blitzen river/ carbon ages at caves in Fort Rock Valley marsh system to the south had supported only (Bedwell 1973; Aikens 1982; Flenniken and sparse occupation prior to 1,500 years ago, but Wilke 1989; Getting 1992), Dirty Shame these areas witnessed much greater use and Rockshelter in (Aikens et occupation after that time, during the Late al. 1977; Hanes 1988), and Skull Creek Dunes Archaic period. in (Wilde 1985). A cultural The projectile points observed and collected chronology developed several years ago for the during the Malheur Lake surveys support this region restricted Elko series points to the period general impression of chronological duration from 7,000 to 5,000 B.P. (Fagan 1974:97), but and occupational intensity. However, this inter­ it is clear that this is incorrect. pretation must be approached with some cau­ Research in the region and elsewhere in the tion, since extraneous taphonomic factors affect­ Great Basin, however, indicates that the major­ ing the surface distribution of projectile points ity of Elko series points were in use after 5,000 may be involved. The classified points included B.P. Wilde's (1985:141-148; see also Aikens specimens from time-sensitive classes that span and Greenspan 1988:41) synthesis of radio­ the Holocene (Table 1 and Fig. 6). However, carbon-dated occurrences of point types clearly Early and Middle Holocene point types (Great shows that the vast majority of dated Elko Basin Stemmed [11,000 B.P. to 8,000 B.P.] and LAKE AND MARSH-EDGE SETTLEMENTS 121

Table 1 FREQUENCIES OF PROJECTILE POINTS IN SURVEYED AREAS AROUND MALHEUR LAKE

Projectile Point Type'

Area DSN SSN CT RGS ECN EE ESN GSS HCB WL NSN GBS GBT Totals

Northwest 7 7 6 241 42 62 14 5 7 9 17 16 2 435

North 1 1 18 4 5 - - - . - - - 29

South 2 3 1 59 5 11 - 2 3 3 4 2 - 95

East 15 6 9 41 4 1 - 1 112 3 - 84

Totals 25 16 17 359 55 79 14 8 11 13 23 21 2 643

Types: DSN = Desert Side-notched; SSN = Small Side-notched; CT = Cottonwood Triangular; RGS = Rosegate series; ECN = Elko Comer-notched; EE = Elko Eared; ESN = Elko Side-notched; GSS = Gatecliff Split Stem; HCB = Humboldt Concave Base; WL = Willow Leaf; NSN = Northem Side-notched; GBS = Great Basin Stemmed; GBT = Great Basin Transverse. Northern Side-notched [7,000 B.P. to 4,000 the collections were made on eroded surface B.P.]) constitute less than 12% of the collection. contexts, both the high numbers of Rosegate Broad-necked Elko series points account for series points and the radiocarbon ages may be about 23% of the total assemblage. While some misleading; the result of erosion affecting and of these specimens may predate 5,000 B.P., the exposing only the upper levels of buried sites. majority probably were used between about No subsurface investigations have been con­ 5,000 and 1,000 B.P. They were found at most ducted at these sites, so it is possible that earlier of the sites recorded during the surveys, and this cultural components remain buried. Therefore, distribution suggests that general use of the the full extent of Early and Middle Holocene region began during this period. Over half occupation of the region may be understated at (359; 55.8%) of the collected points are narrow- present. It is also possible that the configura­ necked Rosegate series specimens, common tions of the lake and marshes in these earlier after 2,000 B.P. Finally, small triangular periods were so different that earlier shorelines Desert series point styles, present in the Great were not encountered during the present Basin only in the last 800 to 1,000 years, surveys. comprise about 9% of the collection. The apparent increase in human use of the Rosegate specimens were found at nearly region after 5,000 B.P., however, may be cor­ every site recorded and most of the sites had related with the re-expansion, or re-estab­ point assemblages dominated by Rosegate series lishment, of the Harney Basin wetlands systems points. Their predominance in the Malheur at the beginning of the Medithermal. Paleo­ Lake collections indicates intensive and wide­ environmental research at Diamond Pond, about spread use of the lake region in the last 2,000 20 km. south of Malheur Lake, has reconstmct- years, as suggested by Aikens and Greenspan ed local climatic trends for the last 6,000 years (1988). Ten radiocarbon ages obtained from the (Wigand 1985, 1987). The period between burials reinforce this view. Nine are less than 6,000 and 5,400 B.P. was warm and dry, corre­ 1,100 years old, ranging from 160 B.P, to lating well with Antev's (1948) Altithermal and 1,070 B.P., the tenth is 1,830 B.P. (Hemphill indicating a very dry climate with a low water 1992a, 1992b, 1992c). However, since all of table and severe constriction of regional marsh 122 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY zones. By 5,400 B.P., however, conditions evidenced by the numerous metates, manos, and were begirming to change, becoming more other processing implements (Aikens and Green­ moist, and by 3,750 B.P. the pond was at its span 1988:45; Musil 1992:259-260). deepest, reflecting the onset of the Medithermal No direct faunal or botanical evidence was and wetter conditions than those of the present. collected during the surveys, although small, These wet conditions, punctuated with distinct fragmentary unburned and burned bones were drought episodes, continued until approximately noted on the surface at several sites. In addi­ 2,600 B.P., when a drying trend began. Since tion, small mammal and fish bones were observ­ 2,000 B.P. there have been fluctuafions in the ed and collected from a large hearth on the amount of effective moisture, with episodes of eastern side of the lake. Despite the lack of increased effective moisture and periodic direct evidence, the abundance of milling tools droughts. The projectile point assemblages and and the presence of 137 notched and girdled net the radiocarbon ages indicate substantial weights indicate a lacustrine subsistence focus occupation of the region since 2,000 B.P., but for many, if not most, of these sites. Milling the data are too coarse-grained at present to tools were found at all but one of the recorded determine what effect individual droughts and sites and net weights were found at 14 of the wet periods had on local populations. sites. The two artifact features containing notched net weights may be the remains of now- LAND USE PATTERNS decomposed nets with attached weights, pre­ Several researchers have argued that wet­ sumably used to catch fish or, possibly, water­ lands resources, in the form of marsh plants, fowl. waterfowl, and fish, were a central part of the The locations of the recorded sites also subsistence system of Harney Basin populations suggest that marsh and lacustrine resources were and that these resources may have fostered a rel­ important aspects of the local economy. Many atively sedentary existence during the later of these sites would have been uninhabitable Holocene (Toepel et al. 1984; Greenspan 1985; during periods of high water (similar to that of Minor and Greenspan 1985; Aikens and Green­ the recent flooding) but, as mentioned, a variety span 1988; Musil 1992). Faunal remains analy­ of marsh habitats prosper in various parts of the zed by Greenspan from the Headquarters site "lake" area during lower water intervals. The (35HA403) on the south shore of the lake (Aik­ sites in the northwest portion of the lake are ens and Greenspan 1988), and from marsh-edge located within the western ecological unit, an sites elsewhere in the region (Toepel et al. area of small ponds, low rises, and a mosaic of 1984; Minor and Greenspan 1985; Greenspan freshwater marsh habitats in periods of low or 1990, 1991; Musil 1992) indicate that a variety moderate water levels (Fig. 2). The water in of terrestrial and aquatic resources were used. this area is generally less alkaline than in other Large and small mammals and fish were well parts of the lake and would support fish and represented, and birds were present in low birds as well as a wide variety of emergent numbers at several of the sites (Aikens and marsh vegetation and nearby terrestrial plants. Greenspan 1988:48). Hunting equipment, in the Forty, or over half, of the sites recorded during form of projectile points, was abundant, but the surveys were found in this area, primarily examples of fishing gear were limited to three on low rises, locations presently islands and notched net weights at the Headquarters site mainshore high spots (Fig. 3). The size and (Minor and Toepel 1988:28). Plant foods were variety of artifacts found at many of these sites, important aspects of the aboriginal diet as well, along with several possible house features, sug- LAKE AND MARSH-EDGE SETTLEMENTS 123 gest that they were well-established, intensively availability. Nine sites were found in the north used locales. shore tract, all relatively small, low density The north and south shore survey areas artifact scatters with few milling tools (Fig. 3). were in the central ecological unit, containing Most of these sites probably functioned as occa­ freshwater marsh habitats but more open water. sional short-term limited use areas for acquiring The position of the lakeshore fluctuates slightly terrestrial animal and plant resources. The on portions of the south shore of the lake since largest sites in this area, significantly, are those the ground rises rapidly into low hills. Fifteen closest to the more reliable riverine resources of sites were found in that area (Fig. 3), including the Silvies River. two very large, artifact-dense sites. Both of The paleoenvironmental record suggests that these sites are situated on rises along the shore the size and configuration of the lake and asso­ and are ideally located in relation to permanent ciated marshlands have varied during the Holo­ fresh water (springs), varied nearby wetland and cene, so people living near and using these terrestrial resources, and high dry ground. resources would have used different parts of the Additionally, these sites are sheltered by the landscape at different periods. The rising topo­ nearby hills from the prevailing winds and graphy of the southern shore limits the amount weather that blow across the lake from west to of shoreline fluctuation that would accompany east. The Headquarters site, a large probable changing water levels, thus the sites on this village underlying the headquarters compound of shore are more likely to be multi-component, the refuge, is just west of these two sites in a since these areas are likely to have been inhab­ very similar setting. This combination of ited again and again throughout the Holocene. natural factors, not found elsewhere around the This situation may be partially reflected in the lake, suggests that the occurrence of three large range of point types found at these south shore dense sites in this area is not coincidental. The sites (Table I). The temporal range of points span and intensity of occupation at these sites present at sites on the northwest shore suggests also appear rather similar, with each having that this area also was a favorable location large assemblages of Rosegate series points, and throughout much of the Holocene, since nearly smaller numbers of Elko series and Northern 75% of the collected Great Basin Stemmed, Side-notched specimens (Aikens and Greenspan Northern Side-notched, and Elko series points, 1988; Getting 1990a, 1990b). as well as large assemblages of late Holocene The north shore of Malheur Lake is very points, were found in this area (Table 1). This flat, in contrast with the northwest and south distribution may indicate that water levels were shores, making the north shore survey area the low enough to utilize this area for extended most variable in terms of shoreline location and periods of time. Shoreline fluctuation would be the location of attendant weflands resources. most pronounced on the northern and eastern Even if the lake level declined to the 4,093 ft. edges of the lake. In these areas, single elevation, the 1960 elevation of the lake (the component sites may be more common. dashed line in Fig. 3), most of the sites on the In particular, the nine sites on the eastern northwest and south shores would remain near islands (Fig. 3), in the more alkaline eastern the water's edge. The sites in the north shore ecological unit, were dominated by late Holo­ survey tract, however, would be nearly 4 km. cene point types—small triangular points and from the lake margin. Frequent fluctuation in narrow-necked, corner-notched points (Table 1). lake level may have made this region less pre­ Overall, few earlier styles were represented, dictable in terms of resources and resource and, in particular, few Elko series broad-necked 124 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY points were recovered. These assemblages indi­ were well-used locations, rather than temporary cate that this portion of the lake region, and its camps or task locations. The quantity of lithic resources, were a favored location in the late raw materials and the size of many unused prehistoric period. This is reinforced by waste flakes indicate that the local prehistoric ethnohistoric information from the ethnographic residents had plentiful local sources for these residents of the region, the V^ada 'tika Northern materials and little need to economize on their Paiute, who assembled annually on the north­ use or transport. eastern shore of Malheur Lake to harvest waada The distinctive bifacial blades suggest seeds (Couture 1978:30). Waada (Siiaeda de- another avenue for considering sedentism (Fig, pressa) is a seed-bearing chenopod that was of 4). Similar large bipointed and sometimes great economic importance to the Wada'tika waisted obsidian blades have been found in people. The survey archaeologists noted that ethnographic contexts in northwestern California waada plants were more abundant in the eastern and in archaeological contexts in southwestem part of the lake than elsewhere, and two-thirds Oregon (Cressman 1933; Hughes 1990), the of the collected late prehistoric Desert Side- Klamath/Modoc region (Sampson 1985:357), notched and Cottonwood Triangular points were and on the Columbia River (Strong I960), but recovered from this survey area. While the have rarely been found in the Great Basin. casual association of these small triangular point Such blades were considered wealth or treasure styles with Numic groups has been justly dis­ in northwestern California and displayed only puted (Kehoe 1966; Bufler 1978; Baxter et al. during special dances (Rust 1905; Kroeber 1983; Lohse 1985), this does not preclude the 1925:26-27). The possibility that the Malheur possibility that in the Harney Basin these points Lake bifacial blades were related to wealth or are indicative of Numic people. The differential social status may reflect the operation of a presence of such points in an area known to relatively sedentary and complex social system have been a focus of ethnographic Northern in this area. This hypothesis cannot be ade­ Paiute activity may be significant. quately addressed with the data currently The foregoing discussion has suggested that available, but it certainly suggests interesting several of the large, artifact-dense sites recorded avenues for continuing research. during the surveys may have functioned as an­ Such semisedentary, wetlands-oriented nually reoccupied villages, or possibly peren­ groups have been likened to the ethnographic nially occupied villages. This inference is based Klamath/Modoc elsewhere in the northern Great on the observed cultural assemblages and Basin—in Warner Valley (Weide 1968) and in features, and on ethnographic analogy. Prob­ the Lake Abert-Chewaucan Marsh Basin (Get­ able house features were found at three of these ting 1989). In Harney Basin both the Klamath/ sites, suggesting long-term and/or recurrent Modoc (Minor and Toepel 1988) and the local occupation. Numerous burials were encount­ ethnographic inhabitants, the Wada'tika ered. These sites have large quantities and Northern Paiute (Aikens and Greenspan 1988), varieties of flaked stone tools, finely formed and have been considered as analogues for exam­ finished milling equipment, numerous notched ining the local prehistoric settlement-subsistence net weights, and a variety of bone/antler/shell patterns. Regardless of ethnic affiliation, tools and ornaments. In addition to the diversity however, the evidence from both of these of finished tools found, the large cores, tool Oregon groups indicates that villages such as blanks, preforms, and quantities of debitage these at Malheur Lake were occupied during the provide further evidence that some of these sites winter months (Spier 1930:10; Couture 1978: LAKE AND MARSH-EDGE SETTLEMENTS 125

31) and perhaps for longer periods (Stern 1966: ditions affecting various parts of the lake, with 11). large diverse sites found in the rich marshland mosaic of the northwest shore and the stable SUMMARY shoreline of the south shore, but smaller, less The archaeological surveys conducted on diverse sites on the fluctuating north shore. In the recently flooded islands and shores of Mal­ general, the data collected during the Malheur heur Lake resulted in the location and recorda­ Lake surveys reinforce the view that Harney tion of 73 archaeological sites. Cultural remains Basin was one of several well-watered basins in were found in virtually every part of the lake the northern Great Basin that supported prehis­ inspected, but the majority of sites and artifacts toric populations residing in relatively stable were found on the islands and mainland shores settlements and making intensive use of wet­ in the northwest portion of the lake. The re­ lands resources (Aikens 1985; Aikens and corded sites ranged widely in size and artifact Greenspan 1988; Oetfing 1989; Musil 1992). density. Limited surface collections resulted in These surveys have demonstrated the rich poten­ the recovery of 2,131 artifacts. The density and tial of the Malheur Lake archaeological record diversity of assemblages at some of the sites and the vulnerability of this record to both have, at present, few parallels in the northem natural and human disturbances. Great Basin. Artifacts such as the large bifacial blades and the well finished ground stone imple­ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ments have rarely been found in the region and These surveys were conducted under the terms never in the numbers seen at these sites. of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service contract No. 14- 16-0001-88043(RWG) and survey and planning grant The recovered projectile points provide HSPP No. 8901 from the Oregon State Historic evidence for prehistoric use of the Malheur Preservation Office. Kevin McCoraack and Jill Lake area throughout the Holocene. Wide­ Chappel created the artifact illustrations. This article has benefitted from constmctive advice by Pamela spread use and occupation of the lake and marsh Endzweig, Rick Minor, Kathryn A. Toepel, Robert shores appears to have begun after 5,000 B.P., R. Musil, C. Melvin Aikens, Philip J. Wilke, and probably corresponding to the ameliorafing two anonymous reviewers. Medithermal climate and re-expansion of the REFERENCES region's wetlands systems. However, the surface-collected temporal data may not fully Aikens, C. Melvin reflect the extent of earlier occupations, which 1982 Archaeology of the Northem Great Basin: An Overview. In: Man and may remain buried. The numbers and wide dis­ Environment in the Great Basin, David B. tribution of narrow-necked projectile points Madsen and James F. O'Connell, eds., suggest that human occupation was most inten­ pp. 139-155. Society for American sive after 2,000 B.P. Archaeology Papers No. 2. A lacustrine subsistence focus can be infer­ 1985 The Nightfire Island Lakemarsh Adapta­ tion in the Broader Context of Desert red for many of the recorded sites, based on the West Prehistory. In: Nightfire Island: location of sites and the presence of particular Later Holocene Lakemarsh Adaptation on tool types. The variety and density of artifacts, the Westem Edge of the Great Basin, by along with the presence of possible house C. Garth Sampson, pp. 519-528. Uni­ versity of Oregon Anthropological Papers features, suggest that some of the sites were No. 33. seasonally reoccupied villages. The site loca­ 1988 Ancient Patterns of Hunting-Gathering tions and inferred land use patterns can be cor­ and Settlement Mobility Around a Desert related to some extent with the ecological con­ Marsh in the Great Basin of North Amer- 126 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

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