Norwegian Biodiversity Policy and Action Plan – Cross-Sectoral Responsibilities and Coordination

Ministry of the Environment

Summary in English: Report No. 42 to the Storting (2000-2001)

Published by: Royal Ministry of the Environment Norwegian biodiversity policy Additional copies may be ordered from: Statens forvaltningstjeneste Informasjonsforvaltning and action plan – cross-sectoral E-mail: [email protected] Fax: +47 22 24 27 86

Publication number: T-1414 responsibilities and coordination Translation: Alison Coulthard Coverdesign: Seedesign as

Printed by: www.kursiv.no, Oslo 8/2002 Summary in English: Report No. 42 to the Storting (2000–2001)

Norwegian biodiversity policy and action plan – cross-sectoral responsibilities and coordination

Side 1 Cyan Magenta Yellow Sort ISBN 82-457-0366-4 www.kursiv.no

SIDE 2 Cyan Magenta Yellow Sort Table of Content

0 Summary ...... 5 3 A new policy: towards knowledge-based management 1 Introduction ...... 8 of biological diversity ...... 39 1.1 Implementation of the UN 3.1 Main conclusion of the white Convention on Biological Diversity paper: a new management system – challenges at international level .. 8 for biodiversity is needed ...... 39 1.2 Implementation of the UN 3.2 Joint action forming part of the Convention on Biological Diversity seven main tasks in the period – challenges at national level ...... 10 2001–2005 ...... 41 1.3 About the white paper ...... 11 3.2.1 Identifying cross-sectoral and sectoral responsibilities and 2 A coordinated approach to the coordinating the use of policy conservation and use of instruments ...... 41 biological diversity ...... 12 3.2.1.1 Cross-sectoral and sectoral 2.1 Vision, targets and strategy ...... 12 responsibilities ...... 41 2.1.1 Vision ...... 12 3.2.1.2 Coordinating the use of policy 2.1.2 Targets ...... 12 instruments ...... 41 2.1.3 Strategy ...... 13 3.2.2 Coordinating and improving 2.2 Main tasks ...... 17 knowledge of biological diversity ... 45 2.2.1 Identifying cross-sectoral and 3.2.2.1 Surveying and monitoring sectoral responsibilities and biological diversity ...... 45 coordinating the use of policy 3.2.2.2 Research and development ...... 48 instruments ...... 17 3.2.3 Ensuring sustainable use of 2.2.1.1 Cross-sectoral and sectoral biological resources ...... 48 responsibilities ...... 17 3.2.4 Avoiding the undesirable 2.2.1.2 Coordinating the use of policy introduction of alien species ...... 49 instruments ...... 20 3.2.5 Ensuring sustainable land use ...... 50 2.2.2 Coordinating and improving 3.2.6 Avoiding pollution ...... 51 knowledge of biological diversity ... 23 3.2.7 Enhancing international 2.2.3 Ensuring sustainable use of cooperation ...... 51 biological resources ...... 26 3.2.7.1 Coordination of environmental 2.2.4 Avoiding the undesirable agreements ...... 52 introduction of alien species ...... 29 3.2.7.2 The relationship between 2.2.5 Ensuring sustainable land use ...... 31 environment and trade agreements 52 2.2.6 Avoiding pollution ...... 34 3.2.7.3 Development cooperation ...... 52 2.2.7 Enhancing international 3.2.7.4 Marine resources, the Arctic and cooperation ...... 37 indigenous peoples ...... 53 3.2.7.5 Other fora ...... 53

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0 Summary

Norway’s action plan for the conservation of biodi- – making planning processes more cost-effective versity was presented to the Storting (Norwegian – making land-use management more predict- parliament) in the form of a white paper. The En- able, for example for the Ministry of Transport glish translation consists of three chapters of the and Communications, Ministry of Defence, white paper: the introduction (Chapter 1), a pre- Ministry of Local Government and Regional sentation of a coordinated approach to the conser- Development and Ministry of Trade and Indu- vation and sustainable use of biological diversity stry (Chapter 2) and a description of a new policy towards knowledge-based management of biological The new management system for biodiversity will diversity (Chapter 3). Chapter 3 presents the gov- require the identification of areas that are of great ernment’s most important priorities, a new man- importance for biological diversity. To obtain this agement system for biodiversity and joint action information, surveys and monitoring programmes for the period 2001–2005. must be initiated. In addition, a species data bank The white paper is a political tool for use in is to be established (see Figure 1). Norway’s efforts to follow up the Convention on Information on areas of great value for biodi- Biological Diversity. It is subtitled «Cross-sectoral versity must be readily available. This will provide responsibilities and coordination» in direct refer- the factual basis for management at central, re- ence to Article 6 of the convention, which states gional and local level. that all sectors must take responsibility for inte- To ensure the conservation and sustainable grating biological diversity considerations into management of biological diversity, legislative and their administrative tasks. economic instruments must be coordinated. They The most important conclusion drawn by the must also focus on areas that are of great value for government in the white paper is that it is neces- biodiversity (see Figure 1). sary to establish a new management system for Work is already in progress on the legislative biological diversity (see Figure 1). Three cross- instruments. A committee has been appointed to sectoral priority areas will be of particular impor- evaluate the legislation on biological diversity and tance in ensuring that the value of Norway’s bio- relevant sectoral legislation. Another committee is logical diversity is maintained. The government evaluating amendments to the Planning and Build- will give special priority to the following areas in ing Act to ensure that it takes biodiversity con- the period 2001–2005 (see Figure 1): cerns more fully into account. 1. National programme to survey and monitor A review of all economic instruments that may biological diversity have an impact on biological diversity will also be 2. Coordination of legislative and economic in- initiated. The review will consider changes in exist- struments ing policy instruments and the need for new ones 3. Information, research and expertise that clearly target areas of great value for biological diversity. The new management system for biodiversity will The government’s new management system is help Norway to make progress towards a number to be knowledge-based. Information, research and of goals: expertise will constitute the scientific basis for the – the conservation and sustainable use of biologi- development of the new system, which is to be cal diversity built up in the period 2001–2005. – simplifying the public administration and mak- These three priority areas are the main ele- ing it more effective ments of the new management system for biologi- – the transfer of more authority and responsi- cal diversity. To make the system operative, steps bility from the central to the municipal level must be taken to improve and coordinate surveys – making it easier for decision-makers to weigh and monitoring of biodiversity (see Figure 1). up different public interests The government will also give priority to action

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by the 17 ministries within the framework of the – Ministry of Finance following main tasks: – Ministry of Fisheries 1. Identifying cross-sectoral and sectoral respon- – Ministry of Foreign Affairs sibilities and coordinating the use of policy in- – Ministry of Health struments – Ministry of Labour and Government Adminis- 2. Coordinating and improving knowledge of bio- tration logical diversity – Ministry of Petroleum and Energy 3. Ensuring sustainable use of biological re- – Ministry of Social Affairs sources – Ministry of Trade and Industry 4. Avoiding undesirable introduction of alien spe- – Ministry of Transport and Communications cies 5. Ensuring sustainable land use These actions are not included in the English sum- 6. Avoiding pollution mary. Chapter 3 was drawn up on the basis of the 7. Enhancing international cooperation. conclusions reached in Chapter 2 and the actions listed by the ministries and the Sámediggi. These Using the seven main tasks as a framework, the were used to draw up a new management system Sámediggi (Sami parliament) and the following for biological diversity in Norway. ministries made contributions to the white paper The white paper on biological diversity (Report that included about 300 different actions: No. 42 (2000–2001) to the Storting) was presented – Ministry of Agriculture to the Storting in spring 2001. The English trans- – Ministry of Children and Family Affairs lation has therefore been updated to take account – Ministry of Culture and Church Affairs of changes in the structure of the central govern- – Ministry of Defence ment administration, changes in protected areas – Ministry of Education and Research and deadlines for the implementation of measures – Ministry of the Environment that are being implemented.

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Figure 1: Areas of great value for biological diversity are to be identified. This is to be done by means of surveys, monitoring programmes and the development of a species data bank. Legislative and economic instruments are to be adapted to protect the most valuable areas. Information, research and expertise are to be used for quality assurance of the system and to develop it into a useful tool for all parts of the central government and local administration.

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1 Introduction

People are a part of the diversity of life on earth. needed to ensure that our efforts are coordinated. And the rich diversity of living organisms is the The white paper describes the new policy and sets basis for our very existence, for economic growth out the action that is to be taken in the period and for the quality of people’s lives and their well- 2001–2005. being (see Box 1.1). The world’s biodiversity has The Government’s objective in publishing this evolved naturally over millions of years. This is a white paper is to bring about changes in the way dynamic process, and involves the disappearance our society is organized and thus in the driving of some organisms and the evolution of new spe- forces that are currently resulting in losses of bio- cies. Only a small proportion of the overall diversi- logical diversity, so that they become progressiv- ty of species has been domesticated or cultivated, ely less of a threat to the conservation and sustain- but these species are of vital importance for global able use of biological diversity. food production. Population growth, rising consumption and accelerating technological developments have resulted in losses of biological diversi- 1.1 Implementation of the UN ty that are many times greater than the natural rate Convention on Biological of loss. In Norway, we believe that at least 130 Diversity – challenges at plant and animal species have been lost in the past international level 150 years. The UN has stated that «the adverse effects of human impacts on biodiversity are in- The UN Convention on Biological Diversity is a creasing dramatically and threatening the very clear expression of the world community’s con- foundation of sustainable development» (cf. Global cern over current losses of biological diversity and Biodiversity Assessment, UNEP 1995). It is there- its recognition of the need to take steps to counter- fore essential to take steps to conserve biodiversi- act this through the conservation and sustainable ty. The concept of biological diversity is defined in use of biodiversity. At the same time, the benefits Figure 1.1. arising out of the utilization of genetic resources Biological diversity can be looked upon as na- must be shared fairly and equitably. The conven- ture’s own form of insurance. Every species shows tion also includes provisions on burden-sharing be- a range of genetic diversity that makes it adaptable tween the parties. Negotiations on the convention to stresses or changes in external conditions, such were completed in 1992, and it has now been rat- as pollution or climate change. Thus, genetic var- ified by 183 countries. Norway ratified the conven- iation acts as an insurance that enables species to tion in 1993. The convention is a process-oriented survive over time and under varying environmen- framework convention, which means that it lays tal conditions. Similarly, species diversity is impor- down overall goals, principles and the general obli- tant for the functioning and long-term survival of gations of the parties, while more specific obliga- ecosystems. And ecosystem diversity is a form of tions are to be developed through protocols and insurance for the sustainable development of hu- work programmes drawn up under the convention. man societies in the future. All parties are required to take measures for the Given this background, it is obvious that bio- conservation and sustainable use of biological di- logical diversity is a vital resource for every human versity by developing national strategies, plans and society, and that current losses of biodiversity programmes that must apply to all sectors of their must be stopped. This requires a coherent policy, societies. This imposes a heavy burden on devel- which can only be achieved through binding coop- oping countries, which are responsible for stew- eration in which all sectors and interest groups ardship of a large proportion of the world’s biologi- assume their share of the responsibility. Even cal diversity. To ensure equitable burden-sharing, though the responsibility of all sectors for sustain- the industrial countries have undertaken to pro- able conservation and use of biological diversity is vide financing, transfers of technology and take an accepted principle in Norway, a new policy is other action to ensure that benefits arising from

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Figure 1.1. Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is the variability among living organisms (plants, animals and microorganisms) and their genetic material and the ecological complexes of which they are a part. It can be divided into the diversity of ecosystems and biotopes, species diversity and genetic diversity.

biological diversity are shared fairly with devel- Implementation of the convention will involve a oping countries. number of major challenges. These include safe- Further development of the convention inter- guarding access to genetic resources and the ben- nationally is a major challenge. One important ad- efits arising from their use. Steps must also be vance was the negotiation of the Cartagena Proto- taken to to ensure that important sectors of society col on Biosafety. This was opened for signature in shoulder their share of the responsibility for devel- May 2000, and has so far been signed by more than opment of the convention. The conservation and 100 countries: Norway has already ratified it. The sustainable use of forests, marine and coastal ar- protocol deals with trade, technology and econom- eas, agricultural biodiversity and inland waters are ic activity involving living modified organisms, and considered to be particularly important. Finally, it demonstrates the willingness of the international is important to improve coordination between the community to take responsibility for ensuring a convention and other international environmental positive course of development in this field. It is agreements such as the UN Framework Conven- important to build on the foundation provided by tion on Climate Change and the Convention to the adoption of the protocol. Combat Desertification. Another important task

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on the environment has been put into practice in Box 1.1 Values assigned to the last few years, and many sectors have made biological diversity important progress towards sustainable manage- – Direct use values: the value of biological re- ment of biological diversity. Exploiting the oppor- sources that are used for food, medicines, tunities offered by purposeful cooperation between stimulants, art, clothes, buildings and fuel, the authorities responsible for administration of as well as the use of components of biodi- the various sectors will enable us to make even versity for play, recreation, tourism, teach- better arrangements for sustainable management ing and research. of biological diversity. At the same time, our – Indirect use values: the value of life-sustain- knowledge of biological diversity has grown and ing processes and ecosystem services such the need for coordinated efforts by the public auth- as biological production, soil formation, orities has become more apparent in various fields. cleansing of air and water, regulation of lo- Cross-cutting instruments and measures are fre- cal and global climate, carbon, nitrogen and quently needed in priority areas related to biologi- other cycles, ecological stability and the cal diversity, and this makes new demands on the ability of the environment to mitigate the coordination of the public administration. In re- effects of environmental pressures such as sponse, Norway needs a cross-sectoral national ac- pollution, flooding and drought. These val- tion plan for the management of biological diversi- ues are an essential basis for human exist- ty according to the principles of the convention. ence and economic activity. In 1994, the Ministry of Fisheries, the Ministry – Option value: value that is not used or rec- of Defence, the former Ministry of Education, Re- ognized at present. This may include both search and Church Affairs, the Ministry of Agricul- direct and indirect use values as described ture, the Ministry of the Environment, the former above, and includes for example the use of Ministry of Industry and Energy, and the Ministry currently unutilized genetic resources both of Transport and Communications all drew up sec- in traditional cultivation and breeding and toral action plans for the conservation of biological in gene technology to manufacture new diversity. Norway described these in its 1998 re- products that have direct use value. port to the 4th Conference of the Parties (COP) to – Intrinsic values (also known as non-use or the convention. The action plan that has now been passive values): values that are based on presented to the Storting in the form of a white ethical and moral considerations, for exam- paper is the result of cooperation between 17 min- ple related to the desire to know that a spe- istries. The action plan forms the basis for cooper- cies exists, to the opportunities open to fu- ation within the public administration on principles ture generations and the quality of their for following up the convention and the specific lives, and to the desire to maintain the land- action to be taken. scape and natural environment as part of The white paper on biological diversity is based our heritage and a source of aesthetic expe- on Report No. 58 (1996–1997) to the Storting on an rience. environmental policy for sustainable development and Reports No. 8 (1999–2000) and 24 (2000–2001) on the Government’s environmental policy and the state of the environment in Norway. will be to improve coordination between trade The white paper deals mainly with the conser- agreements and environmental agreements. vation and sustainable use of biological diversity. However, a number of measures that belong to other priority areas are included here because 1.2 Implementation of the UN they are important in relation to biodiversity. Thus, Convention on Biological the white paper also provides support for environ- Diversity – challenges at national mental policy efforts in areas such as outdoor rec- level reation, the cultural heritage, climate, hazardous chemicals, the northern areas, environmental con- Like an increasing number of other important siderations in connection with the Antarctic Treaty tasks for Norwegian society, the conservation of and Local Agenda 21 (LA 21). biological diversity in Norway presents cross-sectoral challenges. The principle that all sectors must take responsibility for the pressure they put

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authorities in translating the global perspective of 1.3 About the white paper the convention into national and local action. New environmental policy initiatives are to be intro- The white paper is a political tool for use in Nor- duced to ensure coordination between sectoral way’s efforts to follow up the Convention on Bio- authorities and a coherent central government ap- logical Diversity. It is subtitled «Cross-sectoral re- proach to the use of policy instruments and to sponsibilities and coordination» in direct reference dealing with cross-cutting challenges. On the basis to Article 6 of the convention. Article 6 requires the of the main tasks identified in Chapter 2, 17 minis- parties to draw up national plans for the conserva- tries and the Sámediggi (Sami parliament) made tion and sustainable use of biological diversity and contributions to the white paper that include about to ensure that all sectors take responsibility for 300 different actions. These are not included in the integrating biological diversity considerations into English summary. Chapter 3 draws together con- their administrative tasks, both within each sector clusions on how to structure a joint effort by the and in cooperation between sectors. entire public administration on the basis of the The white paper describes action that is to be main tasks identified in Chapter 2 and the material taken during the four-year period 2001–2005. presented by individual ministries and the Sáme- Chapter 2 contains an analysis of the government’s diggi. The contribution from the Sá mediggi is an strategy for conservation and sustainable use of important element of Norwegian efforts to follow biological diversity, in order to identify the main up the Convention. joint tasks and the role of the central government

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2 A coordinated approach to the conservation and use of biological diversity

2.1 Vision, targets and strategy the government’s strategic objective and the seven national targets set out in Report No. 24 (2000– 2001) to the Storting, see Box 2.1. 2.1.1 Vision In the Convention on Biological Diversity, the The government’s vision is for Norway, in accord- precautionary principle underlies the objective of ance with its obligations under the Convention on limiting or preventing serious reduction or losses Biological Diversity, to play its part in the following of biological diversity. The precautionary principle by means of national action and international coop- was launched at a conference in Norway in 1990 to eration: follow up the report of the World Commission on 1. safeguarding the world’s biological diversity, 2. making use of the values associated with biological diversity to the benefit of human society as a whole, 3. ensuring that benefits and burdens are equitably distributed within and between generations and communities.

Norway is only directly responsible for managing a small fraction of the world’s overall biological diversity, but the species and ecosystem diversity found in the country is important and in some cases unique both in the Nordic region and globally. We also manage some of the most productive marine areas in the northern hemisphere. Our national policy will mean that Norway assumes its share of the global burdens, as the principle of conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity set out in the Convention requires. Action at national level to follow up the Convention is of crucial importance for development opportunities and economic growth in Norway, for the quality of people’s lives and for their welfare (see Box 1.1, chapter 1). It is also essential to maintain Norway’s credibility internationally.

2.1.2 Targets When considering the targets for conservation of biological diversity set out in Report No. 58 (1996– Figure 2.1 Divers: from top to bottom, red- 1997) to the Storting, the Standing Committee on throated diver (Gavia stellata), great northern Energy and the Environment stated in Recommen- diver (Gavia immer), black-throated diver (Gavia dation S. No. 150 (1997–1998) that Norway’s target arctica). All three species are red-listed. Red- must be to maintain viable populations of all known throated and black-throated divers are classified organisms and to continue efforts to identify as yet as «declining, care-demanding» and great unknown species. This has been incorporated into northern as «rare». Water-colour by Annegi Eide.

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for action under the Convention, known as the Box 2.1 Goals for conservation ecosystem approach. At the 1999 Trondheim con- and sustainable use of ference, the twelve principles of this approach, also biological diversity known as the Malawi principles, were agreed on. Strategic objective: They may be briefly summarized as follows: 1. Management should be based on all types of The environment shall be managed in a way information, including scientific, traditional that maintains the diversity of habitats and and local knowledge, to maintain ecosystem landscape types and ensures that there are functioning and ensure that human activity viable populations of naturally-occurring spe- takes place within the tolerance limits of the cies: this will ensure that biological diversity natural environment. can continue to evolve. 2. Management should be evaluated on a contin- uum from intensive use to strict protection. National targets: 3. Management should be planned so that it is adapted to temporal ecological variations and 1. A representative selection of Norwegian effects on neighbouring ecosystems. habitats shall be protected for future generations. The government considers the precautionary prin- 2. Major disturbance (such as infrastructure ciple and the ecosystem approach to be fundamen- development) shall be avoided in endan- tal management principles for all administrative gered habitats, and in vulnerable habitats sectors in Norway. important ecological functions shall be maintained. 3. The cultural landscape shall be managed in 2.1.3 Strategy such a way that biological diversity, the his- To intensify the effort to ensure the conservation torical and aesthetic value of the landscape and sustainable use of biological diversity by and its accessibility are maintained. means of coordinated policies and actions, the gov- 4. Harvesting and other use of living re- ernment has drawn up the following strategy in sources shall not cause species or popula- earlier white papers: tions to become extinct or endangered. 1. The causes of loss of biological diversity must 5. The introduction of alien species through be addressed. human activity shall not damage or limit 2. Biological diversity shall be used sustainably. ecosystem functions. 3. Endangered and vulnerable components of bio- 6. Populations of endangered species shall be logical diversity shall be protected and if neces- maintained or restored to viable levels. sary restored. 7. The needs of future generations shall be taken into account when managing soil re- The government considers that the objective of a sources that are suitable for cereal produc- strategy that requires a cross-sectoral approach tions. must be to reduce losses of biological diversity effectively. This means that the various tasks must be put in order of priority and that action to achieve Environment and Development. It gained interna- specific goals must be practical and cost-effective. tional acceptance in the Rio Declaration in 1992, The rest of this section contains an analysis of and is a basis for both the Climate Change Conven- the strategy in order to identify the main tasks that tion and the Convention on Biological Diversity. should be given priority in the period 2001–2005. The principle states that «where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scien- 1. The causes of loss of biological diversity must tific certainty shall not be used as a reason for be addressed postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation». It is less costly to prevent environmental damage Implementing the objectives of the Convention than to repair it. And a preventive strategy does not on Biological Diversity requires that ecological only result in cost savings: it also reduces conflict. systems and their functions are taken into consid- The government therefore considers it very impor- eration as fully as possible. This idea has been tant to address the causes of loss of biodiversity. further elaborated internationally as a framework These are many and varied, but the most impor-

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Figure 2.2 All cultivated plants have been bred from wild species. The map shows the original areas of distribution for wild plants that now provide centres of genetic diversity for major crops. Source: Primack, R.B., 1993. Essentials of Conservation Biology. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass.

tant direct causes are changes in land use, over- the introduction of alien species. Such direct caus- exploitation of biological resources, pollution and es are the result of underlying factors, or driving forces, that arise from the way human society is organized. Box 2.2 An example of direct benefits Two important driving forces behind the loss of from complex ecological interactions biological diversity are rising consumption and The day-flying moth Urania fulgens, of north- population growth. Technological advances, in- ern South America and Mexico, provides an creasing globalization and trade, transport and the example of how complex interactions between introduction of alien species also add to the pres- species can provide ecological goods. The cat- sure on the environment. Many of the choices we erpillars of the moth feed exclusively on trees make as a society today are governed by the needs and vines of the genus Omphalea. When the of the market economy. However, as a general caterpillar population reaches locally high lev- rule, the market can only reflect the direct use els the plants become heavily defoliated, and values of biological diversity. Indirect use values, this heavy defoliation causes the trees and option value, and intrinsic value are not normally vines to produce protective chemical toxins. included in a market-based approach. All in all, As the plants in a location become unpalatable these developments mean that an active govern- the moths begin to migrate to new areas. In ment policy for the conservation and sustainable this case, the toxic plant compounds, which use of biological diversity is needed to counteract have been shown to be effective against the the driving forces that are currently causing losses HIV virus in vitro, are produced only from the of diversity. It is only possible to implement such a interaction between plant and moth and only policy if all sectors assume a share of the respon- when moth populations reach a threshold in- sibility and coordinate their efforts. tensity. Another fundamental reason for the loss of bio- Source: UNEP 1995, Global Biodiversity Assessment diversity is our lack of knowledge. For example, estimates of the number of species that exist in the

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world today are still so uncertain that they vary that give high yields and that are adapted to a wide from seven to 20 million. In Norway, the total num- variety of growing conditions, cultivation methods ber of species is estimated at 60 000, but only about and quality standards. two thirds of them have been identified. With the rising demands for efficiency and There are similar gaps in our knowledge of high yields in food production, there has been a species biology and of how ecosystems function. steady reduction in the number of varieties and We therefore need a coordinated effort including breeds of domesticated species. In other words, surveys and monitoring of biological diversity and specialization is reducing the range of variation in research and development. And it is equally impor- the genetic material of these species, and thus re- tant to improve access to information for decision- stricting the choices and development potential makers and the general public. Information tech- available in the future. This trend must be counter- nology has opened up new opportunities to store, acted by a policy that ensures that both genetic spread and analyse information on biological di- variability within species and access to this var- versity, thus making it possible to integrate bio- iability are maintained in the interests of future logical diversity considerations into planning proc- food and agricultural production. esses. Gene technology has given us opportunities to alter the characteristics of plants, animals, fungi and micro-organisms. It has opened up almost un- 2. Biological diversity shall be used sustainably limited possibilities for the use of genetic diversity, The Convention on Biological Diversity defines and increased its potential value correspondingly. sustainable use as «... the use of components of Used in the right way, gene technology can be- biological diversity in a way and at a rate that does come one of our most important tools in the future. not lead to the long-term decline of biological di- But the release of genetically modified species and versity, thereby maintaining its potential to meet the introduction of domesticated or wild species the needs and aspirations of present and future can cause serious damage and have adverse ef- generations.» This definition is valid for both di- fects on health, biological diversity and the econo- rect and indirect uses of biological diversity. In my. Even small numbers of organisms that are other words, sustainability is a requirement re- only slightly different from those that occur nat- gardless of what kind of pressure is being put on urally can cause a great deal of damage if they or the environment, and whether we are talking their genes spread at the expense of native spe- about the use of biological and genetic resources cies. Production, trade, transport and tourism have and land use or the introduction of alien species resulted in a substantial increase in the spread of and pollution. Species diversity is dynamic and is alien species, both intentionally and accidentally. influenced by the interactions between people and One example is the spread of the salmon parasite the environment. Sustainable use of biological di- Gyrodactylus salaris, which has had serious eco- versity is thus of crucial importance for all sectors, nomic consequences in Norway. We need to focus whether we are considering the harvesting of bio- more on this trend and take steps to reverse it. logical production in the agricultural, forestry and The overall effect of population growth and ris- fisheries sectors, the use of non-living resources ing consumption is to put severe pressure on the such as minerals, hydropower, oil and gas, or the environment, which becomes apparent for exam- use of land for residential, industrial and transport ple through the adverse impacts of pollution. This purposes. threatens biological diversity both globally and lo- There is another important way in which peo- cally. Acid rain, emissions of hazardous chemicals ple influence biodiversity. We deliberately alter or- and greenhouse gas emissions are the anthropo- ganisms and then release them in the environment genic pollution problems that have the greatest for particular purposes. Species whose evolution impact on biological diversity. In the long term, has been influenced by humans to satisfy their climate change may have serious consequences, own needs are called domesticated or cultivated although some components of biological diversity species (see Figure 2.2). Hundreds of plant and have the ability to fix greenhouse gases and thus animal species have been domesticated or culti- act as a buffer against climate change. As a general vated, but they only make up about 0.01 per cent of rule, pollution damages ecosystems. However, the world’s species diversity. Nevertheless, these within certain limits ecosystems can repair them- are the species that feed the entire human pop- selves and render pollutants harmless, so that ulation of the world. Their genetic diversity provid- their productivity is not permanently affected. One ed the basis for crop varieties and livestock breeds important task is therefore to clarify the effects of

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Figure 2.3 National parks in Norway. For more information, see State of the Environment Norway, http://www.environment.no Source: Directorate for Nature Management.

various types of pollution in relation to the ob- Norway’s Report No. 8 (1999–2000) to the Storting jective of ensuring conservation and sustainable on the Government’s environmental policy and the use of biological diversity. state of the environment in Norway includes a list of 56 ecosystems that are endangered or vulnerable and therefore of particular importance for bio- 3. Endangered and vulnerable components of diversity. These are grouped into seven main types biological diversity shall be protected and if as described in the manual on surveys of ecosys- necessary restored tems and identification of the value of biological The Convention on Biological Diversity naturally diversity published by the Directorate for Nature gives high priority to the protection of threatened Management. and vulnerable components of biological diversity. Norway’s 1998 national Red List (published by

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the Directorate for Nature Management) contains 3062 species, of which 1725 are placed in the cate- 2.2 Main tasks gories extinct, endangered, vulnerable and rare. The threats are particularly serious for endan- The Government’s vision, targets and analysis of gered and vulnerable wild species and a number of the strategy for the conservation and sustainable cultivated plant varieties and livestock breeds. To use of biological diversity provide a basis for identi- save some of these species, ex-situ conservation fying the following seven main tasks for the period measures (i.e. measures outside their natural hab- 2001–2005: itat) are also necessary. For example, material may 1. Identifying cross-sectoral and sectoral respon- be collected in gene banks, as has been done for sibilities and coordinating the use of policy in- some stocks of Atlantic salmon, livestock breeds struments and crop varieties. The Atlantic salmon provides a 2. Coordinating and improving knowledge of bio- good example of the economic value that may lie in logical diversity new uses of biological diversity: salmon farming 3. Ensuring sustainable use of biological re- has become one of Norway’s largest export indus- sources tries in the last 25 years. 4. Avoiding the undesirable introduction of alien About 9.35 per cent of the Norwegian mainland species is currently protected in some way pursuant to the 5. Ensuring sustainable land use Nature Conservation Act (Figure 2.3). After the 6. Avoiding pollution Storting considered Report No. 62 (1991–1992) to 7. Enhancing international cooperation. the Storting on a new nationwide plan for national parks and other large protected areas, it was decided that the target should be to increase this pro- 2.2.1 Identifying cross-sectoral and sectoral portion to 12–13 per cent. Most of this will consist responsibilities and coordinating the of national parks in largely mountainous areas, and use of policy instruments only a small proportion will be in low-lying produc- 2.2.1.1 Cross-sectoral and sectoral tive areas where species diversity is high and there responsibilities are important ecosystems. The need to safeguard a representative selection of ecosystem types is met Components of biological diversity are renewable mainly through county protection plans and pro- resources that can be utilized on a long-term basis, tection plans for coniferous forest. The purpose of but only if they are managed sustainably. Non- protecting areas pursuant to the Nature Conserva- renewable resources, on the other hand, can only tion Act is to safeguard a representative selection be extracted and used once. Sound management of of Norwegian nature and some of the most valua- both types of resources is needed to satisfy the ble areas of natural environment. Protected areas needs of human society, but all utilization of re- are also intended to serve as reference areas for sources will have consequences for the resources, comparison with developments in other areas. the environment and society. Sustainable use of all In Svalbard, almost 60 per cent of the total land types of natural resources is therefore an over- area is protected as national parks or nature re- riding objective in the management of biological serves (Figures 2.4 and 2.5). diversity. Even when areas or species have been protect- The Government’s position is that all authori- ed, control and inspection measures must be con- ties, industrial sectors and other relevant actors tinued to maintain conservation value, and an ac- must play their part in efforts to ensure the conser- tive management regime is often needed as well. A vation and sustainable use of biological diversity. selection of protected areas forms the basis for the The ministries are responsible for integrating bio- conservation of biodiversity, but the remaining 90 logical diversity concerns into their administrative per cent of the country, where no special protec- responsibilities, and for encouraging subordinate tion measures are in force, must also be managed agencies, industrial sectors and voluntary organi- sustainably. This is of central importance in follow- zations in areas related to their spheres of respon- ing up the Convention. Agricultural landscapes are sibility to follow up the national targets for biologi- very valuable in biological, historical and cultural cal diversity. The following principles and respon- terms, but their value can only be maintained by sibilities are intended to apply to the central gov- active use. Such landscapes are also constantly ernment administration in its efforts to ensure the changing, and it is a challenge to maintain or re- conservation and sustainable use of biological di- store biodiversity in such areas. versity:

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Figure 2.4 Protected areas in Svalbard. These are protected pursuant to the 1925 Svalbard Act. There are plans to establish new protected areas in autumn 2002 Source: Norwegian Polar Institute.

1. Each ministry shall maintain an overview of the on biological diversity associated with activities environmental impact of activities within its within the ministry’s sphere of responsibility. field of responsibility, and shall survey and Every ministry is expected to follow up these monitor biological diversity in accordance with requirements. the national programme (see further details in 3. The ministries shall actively seek cross-secto- Chapter 3.2.2). ral cooperation in order to make the conserva- 2. In principle, each ministry is administratively tion of biological diversity more effective and to and financially responsible for action within its make joint efforts possible. Any agreements on own sphere of responsibility. This must be ex- cooperation frameworks or the division of re- plicitly laid down wherever the ministry’s au- sponsibility shall be financially binding. Such thority is exercised and includes action to en- cooperation is the basis for the actions de- sure the conservation and sustainable use of scribed for each of the main tasks in Chapter 3. biological diversity, preventive measures, res- 4. Wherever possible, the responsibility for action toration, and the mitigation of adverse effects shall be delegated to the local level. This will

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The administrative responsibilities of the ministries relating to biological diversity can be divided into three categories. 1) Some ministries have sectoral responsibilities for the management of biological resources. This applies particularly to the Ministry of Agricul- ture, the Ministry of Fisheries and the Ministry of the Environment. These have all developed substantial expertise and experience relating to the sustainable management of biological resources. Their activities have direct impacts on biological diversity, but to different degrees and in different ways. The ministries have used their expertise to implement measures both separately and jointly and thus fulfil their sectoral responsibilities under the Convention. 2) Other ministries have sectoral responsibilities for the use of physical resources: these involve various types of uses and developments that may have impacts on biological diversity. The ministries particularly concerned here are the Minis- try of Defence, the Ministry of Fisheries, the Min- istry of Local Government and Regional Develop- ment, the Ministry of Trade and Industry, the Min- istry of Petroleum and Energy and the Ministry of Transport and Communications. The scope of their responsibilities is wide, and they deal with matters of major public interest that can have substantial impacts on biological diversity. Several of Figure 2.5 Kovalskifjellet cliffs in South them have developed considerable expertise and Spitsbergen National Park.The largest colony of have taken steps to incorporate biological diversity Brünnich’s guillemots in Svalbard nests here concerns into their activities. and on the neighbouring cliffs. Photo: Vidar 3) A third group of ministries has sectoral re- Bakken/ARC. sponsibilities that indirectly influence the management of both biological and physical resources and make it possible to take local choices and pri- the conservation and sustainable use of biological orities into account within the framework of diversity. These are the Ministry of Children and national targets and priorities. Family Affairs, the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry 5. Each ministry is expected to provide reports of Cultural Affairs, the Ministry of Local Govern- and other information on environmental trends ment and Regional Development, the Ministry of and impacts and on the costs of planned or Education and Research, the Ministry of Health implemented actions included in the annual and the Ministry of Social Affairs. The Ministry of budgets within its own sphere of responsibility. Labour and Government Administration also plays a role here because it has administrative respon- These principles are primarily intended to apply to sibility for overall management processes and recurrent and future policy instruments and activ- gional administration. This group includes several ities. However, vulnerable elements of biological ministries that have a very important role to play in diversity may also be associated with areas where the establishment of new processes and types of the form of land use has changed. The national action that should be used as a basis for conserva- programme to survey and monitor biological dition and sustainable use of biological diversity as versity should help to improve our knowledge of set out in the white paper. such areas as well, and to identify cases where The Norwegian public administration must they should be evaluated separately so that their take steps to implement Article 8j of the Conven- value for vulnerable elements of biological diversi- tion, which lays down that parties must «respect, ty is maintained or restored. preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and

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practices of indigenous and local communities em- tion relating to natural resources was first intro- bodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the con- duced when the Storting considered Report No. 46 servation and sustainable use of biological diversi- (1988–1989) to the Storting on environment and ty». The parties have drawn up a separate work development. The results can be seen in legisla- programme for this field, which in the Norwegian tion for which both the Ministry of the Environ- context must be related to the traditional way of ment and other ministries are responsible. Exam- life and culture of the Sami people. All authorities ples include the Gene Technology Act, the section that play a part in the management of land and of the Land Act describing its purpose, regulations natural resources in areas used or settled by the pursuant to the Forestry Act, the legal authority to Sami are expected to evaluate whether measures lay down prohibitions or restrictions on aquacul- are in accordance with Article 8j in their planning ture operations provided by the Aquaculture Act, and management activities. The Government will and the new Water Resources Act. However, expe- for example make use of reports produced by the rience shows that considerably more can be done, Sami Rights Council on Finnmark county and oth- both in applying the legislation and in its further er areas of particular importance for Sami culture development. and land use to ensure that the requirements of There are currently many acts of legislation that Article 8j of the Convention are fulfilled. provide the authority to make decisions on activities with an impact on biological diversity, but that leave considerable room for the use of discretion. 2.2.1.2 Coordinating the use of policy We must ensure that such discretionary decisions instruments are based on the best possible information about A complete analysis of policy instruments for the impacts on biological diversity. The main gaps in conservation and sustainable use of biological di- Norwegian legislation dealing with the manage- versity is a very complex task. There are many ment of biological diversity are as follows: driving forces, sectoral targets and needs to be – The legislation relating to disturbance and de- taken into account, and our knowledge of biologi- velopment of endangered and vulnerable eco- cal diversity and causal relationships is far from systems and habitats for endangered and vul- complete. It has therefore been necessary to re- nerable species is not properly coordinated. strict the scope of the analysis. The focus has been The various sectoral acts must be considered on ensuring the development of cost-effective in- together, and an appropriate balance must be struments that meet the both the need for coor- found between protection and sustainable use. dination and sectoral needs. International condi- There are also weaknesses in the current Na- tions must also be taken into consideration. ture Conservation Act, which deals with classi- cal nature conservation. It is important to carry out a review and evaluation of these matters Legislative instruments and to use the conclusions reached as a basis The Convention on Biological Diversity provides a for any changes. new international framework for comprehensive – The existing legislation does not link the pro- management of the environment. It is the first ma- tection of species closely enough with their jor international agreement that so clearly focuses habitats. For example, the basis for better pro- on the links between use and conservation of biodi- tection of wild plants must be evaluated. versity and on the equitable sharing of benefits. – The legislation does not deal adequately with Norway’s legislation on biological diversity should the introduction of alien species. reflect these principles, and should be based on – There is no legislation regulating access to and internationally agreed premises for management the use of naturally occurring genetic re- of the environment and sectoral responsibilities. A sources. cohesive legislative framework must be devel- – The relationship between human impacts on oped, in which sectoral legislation provides the the environment/traditional knowledge and best possible support for targets and obligations biological diversity should be better reflected relating to biological diversity. The government in the legislation. will consider whether it is most appropriate to – Supplementary rules are needed on compensa- draw up a single act on biological diversity or to tion and restoration in cases where biological regulate various issues in already existing acts. diversity is adversely affected by illegal devel- The requirement for all sectors to incorporate opments. biological diversity concerns into sectoral legisla- – At present, the Planning and Building Act is not

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formulated to provide optimal protection for effective policy instrument, but it would be a new biological diversity when decisions involving element of land-use management and would there- land use and the use of natural resources are to fore raise a number of questions. be taken. The government has appointed a There has been no real tradition of economic committee to review the planning legislation, valuation of biological diversity in Norway up to and one of its tasks is to review the provisions the present, but requirements to mitigate damage on land use and the use of natural resources have been enforced for many years in specific ar- (cf. section 2.2.5). eas: for example, requirements to stock watercourses with fish after regulation. These issues have also been in focus internationally for many Economic instruments years – for instance, there has been long-term re- Until now, there has been little emphasis on eco- search into ways of valuing biodiversity in econom- nomic instruments as a means of safeguarding bio- ic terms. Resources of this kind, which often have logical diversity in Norway or internationally. How- no direct market value or link with the market, are ever, they are a familiar and important tool for very difficult to compare with other goods and ser- example in pollution control policy and in the agri- vices. The OECD (Organization for Economic cultural sector, where environmental taxes, grants Cooperation and Development) has recently pub- and subsidies are used to provide economic in- lished Handbook of Biodiversity Valuation: A Guide centives for environmentally-sound operations. for Policy Makers. This focuses on the nature of The market rarely reflects the real value of biologi- values associated with biological diversity and the cal diversity, and there has been little integration methodological approaches that can be adopted to of biodiversity concerns into the economy. assign values for policy purposes. During its deliberations on Report No. 58 (1996–1997) to the Storting, the Storting unani- Organizational mechanisms and instruments mously stated that a systematic review of the ex- penditure side of the central government budget Instruments of this type are as a general rule adapt- was needed in order to remove subsidies that have ed to the way sectoral responsibilities are assigned a negative impact on biological diversity. in the Norwegian public administration. However, The same white paper also included plans for a the problems and challenges we have to deal with review of whether to introduce taxation of the use are becoming increasingly cross-sectoral, and the of the environment in the form of a land use tax. conservation and sustainable use of biological di- This work is at a preliminary stage and should be versity is a good example. It is therefore essential considered in conjunction with similar internation- to improve coordination across administrative sec- al work based on the «User Pays Principle». This is tors and levels. a parallel to the «Polluter Pays Principle» (which The government’s result monitoring system states that no-one has a right to pollute and that has been presented in several white papers (Re- polluters must bear the costs of preventing and ports No. 58 (1996–97), No. 8 (1999–2000) and No. controlling pollution), but is concerned with use of 24 (2000–2001) to the Storting). It includes regular the natural resource base. The reasoning behind reports using a system of key figures based on the this is that biological diversity is a public good that national targets for environmental policy. The na- in many contexts is not priced, but that is often tional targets are used in drawing up sectoral tar- depleted or lost as a result of commercial devel- gets that in turn are used to devise the measures opments. The principle underlying the introduc- listed in the ministries’ sectoral environmental action of a land use tax is that anyone who uses tion plans. All the ministries are required to report important elements of biological diversity, which is annually on the results they achieve to the envi- a public good, should in return pay a tax to society. ronmental authorities. The result monitoring sys- In particular, taxation will be considered in the tem is still being developed, and few key figures case of developments that are not in accordance are operative for biological diversity at present. It with national targets and that significantly deplete will be necessary to evaluate the national targets public goods that are of importance for sustainable and key figures for biodiversity regularly with a use. One purpose of such taxation is to ensure that view to establishing an optimal system that the use of biodiversity does not come into conflict achieves its purpose and is practical for all sectors with the agreed national targets. It will apply to of the public administration. developments that involve a change in existing At the beginning of 2001, the following minis- land use. A land use tax could become a cost- tries had completed sectoral environmental action

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plans: the Ministry of Defence, the Ministry of access to information, public participation in deci- Transport and Communications, the Ministry of sion-making, and access to justice in environmen- Petroleum and Energy, the Ministry of Fisheries, tal matters.» This will be given priority in efforts to the Ministry of Local Government and Regional follow up sectoral and cross-sectoral responsibil- Development, the Ministry of Trade and Industry, ities and to promote greater public participation the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of through Local Agenda 21 and the involvement of Education and Research. No final decision has voluntary organizations and other actors. been taken on revision of the action plans. The purpose of this white paper is to ensure that the Cooperation with voluntary organizations various ministries coordinate their efforts to follow up the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Voluntary organizations play an important role in principles of sustainable development. It will be efforts to follow up the Convention on Biological particularly important to ensure coordination of Diversity. Their overall expertise in the field of action and policy instruments introduced by the biodiversity means that they have a great deal to public administration in areas such as biological offer. Through their activities and participation in diversity, outdoor recreation, the cultural heritage the public debate, these organizations make a valu- and certain other priority areas. able contribution to efforts to conserve biological diversity. They play a central role in educational and advisory work, particularly where children and Information young people are the target groups. Many of these A coordinated information strategy is needed in- organizations also have considerable expertise in volving all the sectors, and each of them must take environment and development issues. Their com- responsibility for ensuring that information is bined expertise is useful for local authorities in made available and provide guidance on its use their efforts to register and map biological diversi- within the sector and for relevant target groups. ty. The organizations therefore have an important Children and young people will be tomorrow’s role to play in Local Agenda 21 processes. They users and managers of biodiversity, and are there- also have a part to play in voicing the interests of fore a particularly important target group. With the the public in local planning processes and other increasing urbanization of society, we are losing political decision-making processes. Furthermore, knowledge of the values associated with biological they are important in cooperation between peo- diversity (see Box 1.1 in Chapter 1). It is important ples, both because they have international net- to focus on improving levels of knowledge at all works and because they can initiate small-scale levels from primary to upper secondary school, local cooperation projects. and to focus on interdisciplinary project work in Conservation and sustainable use of biological accordance with the latest reform of the curricu- diversity is an important issue for a number of the lum (L97). The Norwegian Environmental Educa- voluntary organizations, including the Norwegian tion Network, which is coordinated by the Minis- Society for the Conservation of Nature/Friends of try of Education and Research, and support for the the Earth Norway, the Norwegian Association of children’s organization Inky Arms Eco-Detectives Hunters and Anglers, and SABIMA (the Norwe- are examples of interministerial cooperation tar- gian Council for the Conservation of Biodiversity). geting children and young people. Other organizations involved in this work include People who make decisions in fields such as 4-H and forestry and gardening organizations. the harvesting of biological resources, transport, The kind of work these organizations do can be production and trade, recreation and tourism, de- exemplified by SABIMA, which focuses mainly on velopment and other forms of land use are all im- biological diversity. This is an umbrella organiza- portant target groups for education, training and tion for 13 different societies, all dealing with dif- the use of the available data. A publicly-appointed ferent aspects of biology. Their overall member- committee has evaluated the rights and duties of ship totals about 15 000 and includes most of Nor- various actors as regards the provision of envi- way’s biological expertise. SABIMA has for exam- ronmental information pursuant to Article 100 b of ple run 10 regional courses that provided the Norwegian Constitution, and whether amend- theoretical and practical training in surveying and ments to the existing legislation are needed. This valuing biodiversity for the Directorate for Nature is partly in response to the Aarhus Convention, Management. They were intended as a supple- which Norway signed in 1998, and whose objective ment to the directorate’s manuals for the munici- is that «each Party shall guarantee the rights of pal programme to survey biological diversity and

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identify and classify its value. SABIMA’s other ac- logical diversity, and the use of new technology for tivities include registering biodiversity and taking this purpose is therefore being reviewed. This is a part in Local Agenda 21 processes, and it plays an field that is developing rapidly, and the environ- important role as an environmental NGO and as a mental authorities have been working closely with source of expertise for various sectoral authorities, the Norwegian Space Centre since 1993. At pre- organizations and business and industry. sent, ways of using satellite data to survey and monitor biological diversity are limited in Norway, but they should be further developed in close 2.2.2 Coordinating and improving cooperation between the environmental authori- knowledge of biological diversity ties, the Norwegian Space Centre and other rele- There are many gaps in our knowledge of biologi- vant actors. However, if satellite data are to be cal diversity today, and a coordinated effort includ- used on a large scale in surveying and monitoring ing surveying, monitoring, research and develop- biodiversity, specific user needs must be satisfied ment is needed to close them. It is just as impor- and several sectors must be involved. tant to improve access to this knowledge for decision-makers and the general public. To meet these Surveying biological diversity needs, the government has followed up the decision announced in Report No. 58 (1996–1997) to The Ministry of the Environment has carried out a the Storting and has initiated a five-year pro- four-year nationwide programme to provide better gramme involving the central and local authorities data on land use and classify areas used for differ- to provide a better basis for decisions concerning ent purposes according to their value. The pro- biological diversity (See figure 2.6). The programme had a wide scope to ensure that it encom- gramme has three phases: passed all information on the value of different I. Identification of the information currently avail- areas that could be useful in municipal land-use able and of gaps in our knowledge. planning. The programme included a number of II. Steps to encourage surveys of biological diver- projects, the largest of which was called AREALIS. sity and the identification and classification of This is still being continued, and is a national pro- its value, to be organized at municipal level. ject designed to make land-use, environmental and III. Establishment of a national monitoring pro- planning information readily available to munici- gramme for biological diversity. palities and counties. AREALIS is a digital information system that is being developed through coop- The purpose of phase 2 is to complete surveys and eration between national, regional and local auth- mapping of areas that are important for biological orities. Land use data gathered by the municipal diversity by 2003, and to classify their value. The surveys of biological diversity and identification monitoring programme is intended to provide in- and classification of its value is being made avail- formation on changes in species distribution, able through AREALIS. This will provide informa- abundance, etc. and in ecosystems over time, and tion on which ecosystems are most important as the causes of such change. regards the conservation of biological diversity. Information technology will be an important The Directorate for Nature Management has pro- tool in work on biodiversity, but this requires coor- duced guidelines for surveys of biodiversity, in- dination of different systems and steps to make cluding a list of 56 particularly important types of them more accessible for all users. The competent ecosystems that should be identified and mapped. authorities should ensure that national standards The survey of ecosystems, together with other da- are used for mapping. Geographical information ta sets, will provide a basis for mapping all the most systems (GIS) are a priority area for the Norwe- important area for biological diversity. gian Mapping Authority. They can be used to pro- The other area that must be given priority to vide clear information on most topics of relevance obtain a satisfactory survey at ecosystem level is to land use and to produce time series that show gathering data on marine ecosystems. This is nec- changes, and maps can be combined to illustrate essary to gain an overview of all important ecosys- causal relationships. New technology can be em- tems in Norway and satisfy the national targets for ployed to make the results even more useful, for biodiversity. A good deal of work is also needed to example by combining satellite data with other map the distribution of endangered and vulnerable types of data. species, i.e. the red-listed species. Another impor- It is considered very important to develop cost- tant task is to ensure that data currently held by effective methods of surveying and monitoring bio- universities, other research institutions, voluntary

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Figure 2.6 Surveys of biological diversity provide an important basis for land-use planning and the management of natural resources. At present, 170 of Norway’s municipalities are taking part in surveys of biodiversity organized by the Ministry of the Environment and the Directorate for Nature Management. The map shows the area around Brumunddal in Hedmark county. Source: Ringsaker municipality and Directorate for Nature Management.

organizations and the public administration are task to establish a coherent monitoring pro- made accessible. This work should lead to the es- gramme for biological diversity. The results will be tablishment of a national species data bank. made available through joint information channels for the various sectors, including AREALIS, the species data bank and a portal for environmental Monitoring biological diversity information on the Internet. Until now, environmental monitoring programmes The Directorate for Nature Management has in Norway have focused mainly on pollution and on drawn up a plan for a national monitoring pro- species and natural resources that are of economic gramme for biological diversity in cooperation importance today. Other components of biological with several sectors. The plan proposes monitor- diversity and ecosystems and species that are valuing of eight mainecosystem types: agricultural able in other ways or have economic potential have landscapes, forest, mountains, coastal areas, fresh generally not been included in monitoring pro- water, mires and wetlands and the Norwegian Arc- grammes. There has been little systematic mon- tic. It is based on already established monitoring itoring of the impact of changes in land use, har- programmes organized by several different minis- vesting, pollution and the introduction of alien spe- tries, but includes proposals to expand such pro- cies on biodiversity. It is therefore a high priority grammes, new topics and coordination in a nation-

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al monitoring programme. Access to the data col- the agricultural sector. Together with the Ministry lected by surveys and monitoring programmes is of the Environment, the ministry is also responsib- necessary to enable the authorities to manage bio- le for surveying and monitoring agricultural land- diversity along the lines determined by the govern- scapes and forested areas. The Ministry of Fisher- ment on the basis of the Convention on Biological ies is responsible for surveying and monitoring Diversity. commercially important marine species, and has well-established programmes for this purpose. It also has a responsibility for promoting surveys of Responsibility for surveying and monitoring the effects of harvesting resources and surveys of biological diversity other marine species and their habitats that are All the ministries share the responsibility for gath- vulnerable or of particular importance for biodi- ering more data on biological diversity. This fol- versity. lows from the principle that sectoral authorities The Ministry of Defence, the Ministry of Trans- are responsible for monitoring and reporting on port and Communications, the Ministry of Petro- environmental impacts within their own sectors. leum and Energy and the Ministry of Trade and Furthermore, each ministry is responsible for Industry are responsible for surveys and data col- making its own data available by ensuring that data lection as a basis for development projects and sets are compatible, and for making sure that other activities within their spheres of responsib- wherever possible, data are accompanied by ge- ility. They are also required to monitor the effects ographical coordinates. The government consid- of their activities on biological diversity. ers it important to improve cooperation between The Ministry of Education and Research is ad- the ministries by means of an interministerial pro- ministratively responsible for the universities and gramme in order to ensure that programmes to the natural history museums, which have a sub- survey and monitor biological diversity use a uni- stantial and expanding knowledge base as regards form methodology and are cost-effective. A system biodiversity. One of the ministry’s special respon- must also be developed for accessing data on the sibilities is to provide a framework enabling these conservation and sustainable use of biological di- institutions to take an active part in cooperation to versity and for the exchange of such data between establish a species databank. It is also important databases under different ministries. for the ministry to make its own data available in Separate monitoring programmes have been the species databank. This includes data on threat- developed for the northern areas. Data collection ened and vulnerable species. for the environmental monitoring programme for Svalbard and Jan Mayen (MOSJ) started in 2001. Research and development The environmental monitoring programme for the Norwegian and Russian Arctic seas (MONRA) is There is a pressing need to improve our knowl- still in the planning stage, and data collection has edge of biodiversity. This includes both a basic not yet started. knowledge of ecological interactions and a knowl- The Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of edge of the challenges that may arise from the Fisheries are responsible for surveying and mon- interplay between the natural environment and our itoring biological diversity within their spheres of use of it. Such knowledge is needed to give a better responsibility, and for providing data on trends in understanding of causal relationships and to make environmental pressures in the same fields. The appropriate choices as regards management of two ministries are responsible for valuable biodiversity and which measures to implement. elements of Norway’s biodiversity and major bio- This means that research must be given priority, logical resources, and therefore have a particular especially research involving cooperation between responsibility, together with the Ministry of Edu- the natural and social sciences. Research on bio- cation and Research and the Ministry of the Envi- logical diversity must also be better coordinated. ronment, for ensuring that data are made acces- Moreover, it is important to obtain data that will sible and for ensuring that databases are compat- provide a better basis for decision-making on the ible. basis of political targets and targets for the man- The Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for agement of biological diversity for all administra- surveying and monitoring genetic resources of im- tive levels, from local to regional to national, and portance for food production, crop varieties, live- for all relevant sectors. Basic research on biodi- stock breeds, and the introduction of alien species versity is mainly carried out at the universities and or genetically modified organisms connected with colleges. Most applied research takes place within

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programmes organized or financed by the Re- industries and harvesting as a part of outdoor rec- search Council of Norway, at applied research in- reation can be further developed: these activities stitutions such as the Institute of Marine Research, also have positive effects on the quality of people’s and as in-house research organized by business lives, their well-being and sense of identity, and enterprises. It is important to forge closer ties be- provide opportunities for experiencing the natural tween all these institutions and provide better op- environment. portunities for research cooperation both at nation- The agricultural sector can help to maintain an al level and internationally, especially within the integrated and living agricultural landscape by re- EU and the OECD. taining some of the traditional forms of use and In Report No. 39 (1998–1999) to the Storting on landscape types, protecting the cultural heritage, research at the beginning of a new era, the govern- conserving biological diversity, and maintaining ment emphasized that environmental concerns are variation in the landscape and opportunities for cross-cutting and should be incorporated into re- recreation. Agricultural activities are also impor- search in all sectors. The white paper requires all tant for the maintenance of biodiversity associated sectors to take responsibility for ensuring that envi- with cultural landscapes. New technology and ronmental research is integrated into and specifi- growing demands for efficiency in harvesting and cally considered in their research and development production have resulted in changes in harvesting strategies. Moreover, Report No. 58 (1996–1997) to and farming techniques, and to the abandonment the Storting states that research on biological di- of traditional forms of use. Intensive farming and versity and the impact of sectoral activities on bio- the abandonment of farmland or of particular logical diversity is the responsibility of each secto- forms of management can be a threat to species ral authority, and must be integrated into all rele- that are adapted to specific living conditions. Some vant areas in the Research Council’s work. types of cultural landscapes such as meadows, In order to follow up these points, cooperation wooded pastures, hay meadows and semi-natural with the Research Council should be established. pasture are changing character or becoming over- In this connection, Norway’s participation in the grown. A substantial proportion of Norway’s UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment should be threatened and vulnerable species, about 30 per reviewed. The assessment started up international- cent, are associated with such habitats in the agri- ly in 2001 and will focus on the consequences of cultural landscape. However, compared with much the loss of biodiversity. The UN Secretary-General of Europe, Norway still has considerable areas of has asked member states to take part in this work, such semi-natural vegetation types, and their value for example by carrying out national assessments. can be maintained by taking steps to maintain tra- The project was first discussed at a meeting hosted ditional farming and management techniques. by Norway in July 2000. About half of Norway’s species diversity and half of all threatened and endangered species in the country are associated with forests, and forest- 2.2.3 Ensuring sustainable use of biological ry operations are listed as an important threat to resources many red-listed species. This means that another priority area of Norway’s efforts to conserve biodi- Introduction and principles versity is to strike a balance between ecological In Norway, agriculture, forestry, fishing, whaling and economic considerations in the forestry indus- and sealing, aquaculture, and various outdoor ac- try by adapting it better to the environment. The tivities such as hunting, angling, and collecting forestry sector already has a good overview of its berries and mushrooms involve the direct use of resource base and a tradition of sustainable use, biological resources. These areas are important in but this sector too will meet new challenges relat- the management of biodiversity. Both directly and ed to surveying and valuing forest biodiversity, indirectly, the primary industries and harvesting of improving knowledge of particular species and un- biological resources on uncultivated land account derstanding ecosystems better. One important for a large proportion of wealth creation in Norway task is to improve the quality of the Norwegian Red and are important for employment, especially in List and develop it into a more functional tool for outlying districts. The government’s targets for the the forestry industry in its efforts to conserve for- conservation and sustainable use of biological di- est species. The Ministry of the Environment and versity will also help to make it possible to contin- the Directorate for Nature Management have ue activities based on the use of renewable biologi- started cooperation with the Ministry of Agricul- cal resources. Thus, wealth creation in the primary ture to this end.

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surveys and monitoring of Norway’s biological resources. The Ministry of the Environment is also responsible for coordinating this work by developing national targets and indicators and auditing the results that are obtained.

Genetic resources and gene technology The foundation for species diversity lies in the genes and genetic diversity. Genetic resources provide the basis for breeding domesticated spe- Figure 2.7 The fungus Tolypocladium inflatum cies and for the development of varieties and pop- from which Cyclosporin A has been produced. ulations of species that are adapted to specific hab- Occurs on the Hardangervidda, a Norwegian itats. People have so far only made use of a tiny mountain plateau. Photo: Norvartis proportion of the known genetic resources of the world. There are an estimated 80 000 plant species in the world that could be used for food, but in The fisheries and aquaculture industry has be- practice, very few of them are used in food produc- come one of Norway’s largest export industries, tion: and there are roughly 50 000 species of ver- with a potential for very significant economic tebrates, only about 30 of which are widely used in growth. Economic growth based on management agricultural production. About 200 aquatic species of living marine resources is dependent on a com- of plants and animals are used for food and in other prehensive regulatory system that includes both products. A growing number of fungi and micro- measures to ensure sustainable harvesting of organisms are being used for food production, fer- stocks and appropriate technical regulatory mea- mentation processes, industrial processes and sures, for example on the use of selective gear, medicine production. Almost 40 per cent of our bycatches, minimum sizes, mesh sizes and the clo- medicines have been developed from wild plants. sure of fishing grounds. The number of aquacul- Genetic variation in domesticated plants and ture facilities is rising rapidly, and the industry is animals can be preserved by the use of these spe- growing fast in economic terms as well. This has cies in agricultural production today. Modern live- resulted in various forms of pressure on the envi- stock and crop plants have been bred from tradi- ronment, conflict with other user groups and prob- tional domesticated breeds and varieties and from lems for the industry itself. Although the industry wild species, and these ancestral stocks must also has already solved many of its problems and taken be preserved to maintain genetic diversity. One steps to reduce its environmental impact over the important and cost-effective means of preserving years, there are still challenges to be met as re- genetic resources is to use gene banks, and the gards the impact of aquaculture on biodiversity, Nordic countries have established gene banks not least because the industry’s own goal is contin- both for plant genetic resources and farm animals ued rapid expansion. The most important tasks are under the Nordic Council of Ministers. to prevent the escape of farmed fish and to resolve Both wild species and domesticated varieties conflicts relating to land use in the coastal zone. are important resources for cultivation in the fu- Administrative bodies for fisheries and aquaculture, and genetic diversity is a form of life insur- ture must also continue the development of the ance for every species in the world. There are legislation, survey marine biological diversity and several Norwegian examples of the economic po- find ways of taking environmental concerns more tential of naturally-occurring genetic resources. fully into account. The interest being shown in the genetic resources Close cooperation between the Ministry of of marine biodiversity and in breeding pro- Agriculture, the Ministry of Fisheries and the Min- grammes to make use of fisheries resources in- istry of the Environment is important in systematic dicates that people are aware of this potential. For efforts to take environmental concerns into ac- example, Norwegian farmed salmon were devel- count in the harvesting of renewable biological re- oped by breeding from around 20 of the most suit- sources, and thus ensure the conservation and sus- able wild salmon stocks. The aquaculture industry tainable use of biological diversity. The three min- that has grown up now has an export value of more istries therefore cooperate systematically, and one than NOK 10 billion per year (about EUR 1.25 particularly important task is carrying out uniform billion). And a Swiss company has achieved profits

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of the same order by manufacturing the substance biological processes for the production of plants or cyclosporin, which prevents the body from reject- animals, and inventions whose commercial exploi- ing transplanted organs. Cyclosporin was original- tation would be contrary to ordre public or moral- ly discovered in a fungus that occurs on a Norwe- ity (for example processes for cloning human be- gian mountain plateau, the Hardangervidda (Fig- ings). ure 2.7). A patent can only be granted for an invention. According to the Convention on Biological Di- Patents are not granted for discoveries, such as the versity, states have sovereign rights over their ge- sequencing of a genome. However, if biological netic resources and the authority to determine ac- material that exists naturally is isolated and cultur- cess to them. Parties to the Convention undertake ed outside its natural surroundings, and the in- to facilitate access to such resources for other sig- ventor has in addition found a way of using the natories, but based on the principle of prior in- material to solve a technical problem (e.g. in the formed consent and on mutually agreed terms. manufacture of a medicinal product), the result The country of origin must be guaranteed a fair may be considered to be a patentable invention. and equitable share of the results of research and According to current practice, the material is con- development and the benefits arising from the uti- sidered to exist in another form than the naturally lization of genetic resources. Developing countries occurring one, and constitutes an invention. are the stewards of the largest proportion of the A patent granted pursuant to the directive gives world’s genetic resources today, but it is the indus- the holder of the patent the right to make commer- trial countries that have the technology needed to cial use of the invention for a limited period of time exploit these resources. (normally 20 years), but no more than this. A pat- So far, 50–60 developing countries and three ent does not for example give the holder any right industrial countries have drawn up national legisla- to make practical use of the invention. This is regu- tion governing access to genetic resources and the lated by other legislation – in the case of biotechn- benefits arising out of their use. Depending on ological inventions, the relevant Norwegian legis- how such legislation is formulated, it might cause lation is the Gene Technology Act. problems for the exchange of plant genetic materi- It has been claimed that the types of patents al between countries. Norway took part in the ne- permitted by the directive will result in activities gotiations to develop a mechanism based on the that are in conflict with the objectives of the Con- International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Re- vention on Biological Diversity, for example ensur- sources for Food and Agriculture in order to ening that countries retain rights over their own ge- sure access to these resources. However, Norwe- netic resources and ensuring fair and equitable gian legislation is inadequate in this field. It con- sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization tains very little in the way of provisions on access of genetic resources. It has also been claimed that to and conditions for access to Norwegian genetic the directive allows patents of such broad scope resources, and no provisions on the use by Norwe- that it may in practice hinder competition and fur- gian nationals of any genetic resources they take to ther product development. other countries. In June 2000, the Norwegian government de- Access to genetic resources is also related to cided to appoint an interministerial working group the issue of patents on inventions involving biologi- to consider what could be done to meet the main cal material. EU Directive 98/44 on the legal pro- objections that have been raised to the objective, tection of biotechnological inventions (known as both in Norway and internationally, if it is incorpo- the biotech patents directive) lays down as a gener- rated into the EEA Agreement. The group’s report al rule that inventions concerning products con- was submitted to the Minister of Justice on 2 No- sisting of or containing biological material shall be vember 2000. The actions proposed in the report patentable in the same way as inventions using will be further reviewed by the committee appoint- other materials. Both products and processes for ed to review legislation on biodiversity (see Chap- the production of plants, animals and micro-orga- ter 3) and by the relevant ministries (this work will nisms, and biological material from such orga- be coordinated by the Ministry of Justice). nisms, i.e. genes, cells and tissues, are considered In the World Trade Organization (WTO), Nor- to be patentable. Biological material from the hu- way will maintain that states must have the power man body is also patentable, but the directive pro- to refuse patents on plants and animals under the hibits the patenting of human beings as such. The TRIPS Agreement (Agreement on Trade-Related directive also states that the following shall not be Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights). patentable: plant and animal varieties, essentially Genetically modified organisms are plants, ani-

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mals, fungi and micro-organisms whose genetic therefore important to take preventive action na- make-up has been altered by means of gene or cell tionally, as follows: technology. If an organism’s genetic make-up is 1. A prohibition against genes for resistance to altered or genetic material is transferred from oth- antibiotics in foods and feedstuffs. Strict crite- er organisms, it may acquire new properties such ria must be used to evaluate whether such as resistance to pesticides or insect pests. Gene genes are to be permitted in other genetically technology has the potential to give us many prod- modified products . ucts that can be useful in fields including medicine, 2. When national funding is provided for the de- food production and industry, or that can be used velopment of gene technology, research on as pesticides or for combating pollution. However, health, the environment, ethics, social benefits the technology can also create problems related to and sustainability shall as far as possible be biological diversity and health. Genetically mod- made an integral part of the research projects. ified crops that tolerate pesticides or are resistant 3. Environmental impact assessments pursuant to insect pests may hybridize with wild-living spe- to the Gene Technology Act relating to trade in cies and transfer these properties to them, or have and the release of genetically modified orga- other unintended effects on ecosystems. Orga- nisms must be carried out in a way that will also nisms that have been made resistant to antibiotics help to improve levels of knowledge and ex- may transfer the genes for resistance to pathogen- pertise at national level. ic bacteria, thus indirectly contributing to the prob- 4. Norway will continue its efforts to persuade the lems of dealing with resistant pathogenic orga- EU to make its legislation in this field stricter nisms. Although the probability of this happening and more in line with Norway’s. is low, there is a possibility of very serious conse- 5. Priority must be given to support for building quences if antibiotics are no longer effective. Thus, up expertise in the control and inspection of the risks associated with the use of gene tech- production and use of genetically modified or- nology, especially the long-term risks, can be diffi- ganisms in developing countries. cult to evaluate. This is an important reason for Norway’s strict legislation in the field. The Gene In its efforts to follow up the Cartagena Protocol on Technology Act lays down that the production and Biosafety, the government will give special priority use of genetically modified organisms must be eth- to global rules for labelling and tracing genetically ically and socially justifiable, in accordance with modified organisms and to striking a balance vis-à- the principle of sustainable development and with- vis WTO rules. out detrimental effects on health and the environment. The government considers it necessary to 2.2.4 Avoiding the undesirable introduction continue a policy of strict regulation and control of of alien species the production and control of living genetically modified organisms. People have been responsible for the introduction To ensure coherent administration of gene of alien invasive species throughout history and in technology, several ministries must cooperate all parts of the world, both within and between closely. This applies particularly to the Ministry of continents. Species have been introduced both de- Agriculture, the Ministry of Fisheries, the Ministry liberately and accidentally. Through ratification of of Health, the Ministry of Social Affairs, the Minis- the Convention on Biological Diversity, Norway try of Trade and Industry and the Ministry of the has undertaken «as far as possible and as appropri- Environment. This field involves important foreign ate» to «prevent the introduction of, control or policy interests as well, particularly as regards pol- eradicate those alien species which threaten eco- icy vis-à-vis Europe and the WTO. The Ministry of systems, habitats or species». This undertaking Foreign Affairs therefore also plays an important has been incorporated into the national targets set role in this cooperation. The Ministry of Health by the government, and will be one of the most coordinates administration of the contained use of important challenges we have to meet in the fu- genetically modified organisms, for example in lab- ture. In addition, there will always be a certain oratories, while the Ministry of the Environment is natural flow of new species into ecosystems. This responsible for coordination between the minis- is not included in the concept «introduction of alien tries as regards the release of and trade involving species». genetically modified organisms. Gene technology There are two main reasons why the introduc- is a rapidly changing field, and Norway is heavily tion of alien species is more difficult to deal with influenced by international developments. It is than many other serious environmental problems.

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Figure 2.8 Many of Norway’s most important salmon rivers are infested with the salmon parasite Gyrodactylus salaris, which was introduced into Norway with salmon smolt from Sweden. Photo: Tor Atle Mo.

Firstly, it is very difficult to predict the impact of plants and animals that are a threat to biological introducing species to ecosystems where they do diversity. It is particularly important to develop a not occur naturally. The deliberate introduction of better basis for predicting the effects of new spe- a species may result in the desired effects, but in cies on natural ecosystems. many cases there is a negative impact and the There will be few other ways of dealing with results are not as anticipated. Secondly, it is gener- the environmental consequences of imports, other ally difficult to reverse the introduction of a spe- than through the existing control system for plant cies. If an introduced species becomes securely import, which largely targets weeds, diseases and established, experience shows that it is almost im- insect pests on agricultural plants. There are cur- possible to eradicate it from the ecosystem. In Nor- rently no restrictions on the import of timber from way, the following species are good examples of European countries. this: the waterweed Elodea canadensis, sycamore Recently, the introduction of marine organisms (Acer pseudoplatanus), mink (Mustela vison), Can- has also become a problem, especially the unin- ada goose (Branta canadensis), the kelp Sargas- tentional introduction of species with ballast water. sum muticum, minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus) and Because of the growing volume of oil exports, far the salmon parasite Gyrodactylus salaris (Figure greater volumes of ballast water are now dis- 2.8). charged into Norwegian waters, together with any The expansion of trade, tourism and travel, and organisms living in the ballast. This can result in the elimination of border controls between Nor- the establishment of new species. The scale of the way and the rest of Europe, mean that the intro- problem is illustrated by the fact that more than 18 duction of alien invasive species is a growing prob- million tonnes per year of ballast water from vari- lem for Norway. Legislation and control systems ous parts of the world is released into the harbour must be expanded and improved to prevent the area near the crude oil terminal at Sture near Ber- introduction of alien micro-organisms, fungi, gen.

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sure that the legislation and administration are consolidated and cover all aspects of this issue. This will require a joint effort to build up expertise on alien species.

2.2.5 Ensuring sustainable land use Larger and larger areas of Norway are being affected by various forms of development and activities that have an impact on biological diversity. If we are to succeed in maintaining biodiversity and ensuring sustainable use, all actors and sectoral authorities must follow up the national targets that have been set, see Chapter 2.1. It is also important to plan follow-up measures so that particularly valuable areas and ecosystems are given priority. This means large continuous areas of natural environment that meet the following criteria: 1. There is little disturbance of the environment. 2. They include threatened and vulnerable ecosystems. 3. They are particularly representative of Nor- Figure 2.9 Remaining areas of wilderness-like way’s biological diversity. habitat in Norway in 1998 and areas of such 4. The ecosystems are rare, unique or have spe- habitat lost in the period 1940–1998. cial biological functions Wilderness-like areas are defined as being more 5. They provide habitats for threatened, vulner- than 5 km in a straight line from major able, rare or commercially important popula- infrastructure development. tions and species. 6. They are suitable for cereal production for hu- Source: Directorate for Nature Management. man consumption.

Construction and other developments that require As regards fresh-water organisms, we have ac- large areas of land may be in conflict with the cumulated some knowledge and experience of the target of ensuring conservation and sustainable effects of alien invasive species. There are many use of biological diversity. This may be true both of examples both from Norway and from other coun- single major developments and of the overall effect tries of substantial costs associated with the in- of a number of smaller projects. All authorities that troduction of species. One well-known example is have administrative responsibility for changes in the unintentional introduction of Gyrodactylus sala- land use are expected to integrate biodiversity con- ris to Norwegian salmon rivers, which has resulted cerns into their policies, legislation, plans and ac- in substantial losses. Ecological and economic tivities. In the longer term, good systems should problems related to the introduction of alien spe- be developed for reporting the scale and type of cies were discussed at a conference on the issue in disturbance in areas that have been identified as 1996, one of several conferences hosted by Nor- comprising threatened or vulnerable ecosystems. way under the Convention on Biological Diversity. Other activities may include building up expertise The introduction and import of plants, animals and developing advisory material for subordinate and micro-organisms to Norway are regulated by a agencies and relevant sectors. number of acts and regulations, which are intend- In order to meet society’s needs, we have to ed to prevent diseases and protect commercial in- make use of land and resources. This has conse- terests and natural ecosystems. The legislation quences for both natural and cultivated biological and administrative system are designed to meet diversity. In the last 40–50 years, breeding pro- sectoral responsibilities, including those related to grammes and technological advances have in- biodiversity. However, it is clear that national legis- creased plant and livestock production and greatly lation and international agreements need to be re- increased the efficiency of agriculture. These viewed in order to improve coordination and en- changes were necessary, but they have also result-

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ed in many changes in the agricultural landscape cabins: these changes may have a negative impact and put great pressure on biodiversity. Road con- on species that are sensitive to disturbance. struction has also had a major impact: in the last 30 Both economic and other instruments should years, the total length of the public road system be used to ensure that the environmental quality of and forest roads in Norway has risen from 90 000 large areas of old-growth forest is maintained. km to more than 200 000 km. The total length of More knowledge of the value of such areas for the forest roads is now 65 000 km, and in addition, biological diversity is needed. As a continuation of there is a total of 50 000 km of tractor tracks in the «Living Forests» project, a review of the litera- forest and uncultivated areas. Hydropower devel- ture on the importance of old-growth forest for opments and the facilities associated with them biodiversity is to be made. In addition, the Ministry also involve a change of land use with major conse- of the Environment and the Ministry of Agricul- quences for biological diversity. However, 20 per ture, together with the Directorate for Nature cent of Norway’s hydropower potential has been Management, are starting cooperation to gather permanently protected against development. This more information on species, develop quality as- is one case where society has decided that the surance routines for the Red Lists, etc. This coop- intrinsic value of the natural environment takes eration is based on processes that are already un- priority over the substantial economic benefits that der way and is also to be linked to work on the can be gained by its development and use. species data bank and environmental monitoring. A white paper on the forestry sector (Report The cooperation is intended to include work on No. 17 (1998–1999) to the Storting) drew attention undisturbed areas of forest and on threatened and to the fact that forests include areas of special envi- vulnerable forest species in order to improve our ronmental value, such as wilderness-like areas knowledge of the issues discussed above. without recent traces of infrastructure develop- The Planning and Building Act is an important ment and areas along permanently protected wa- legislative instrument as regards land use and the tercourses. The white paper indicated that more conservation of biological diversity. It was dis- restrictions on forestry activities should be intro- cussed in some detail in Report No. 29 (1996– duced in such areas than in other areas of forest. 1997) to the Storting on regional planning and Registration of areas without major infrastruc- land-use policy. The purpose of the act is to ensure ture development in the period 1988–1998 has coordinated planning as a basis for the use and shown that 74 per cent of the reduction in size of protection of land and other natural resources. It these areas during the ten-year period was a result provides the legal authority for several different of road construction in the agricultural sector (Fig- types of planning processes: ure 2.9). Forest roads are often built with the help 1. The act gives the municipalities responsibility of public grants. In a number of cases, the roads for adopting municipal master plans, including would probably not be constructed if no grants the land-use part of such plans, and local devel- were available, because the areas in question are opment plans. Both types of plans are legally not very productive and operating costs are high. binding provided that the plans adopted are in The remaining areas of forest without major agreement with the framework and targets set infrastructure development are very valuable for by national and regional authorities. outdoor recreation and for the opportunities they 2. Within the same system, the municipalities can offer to experience undisturbed nature, and may adopt plans dealing with specific topics or spe- also be important in terms of biodiversity. They cific areas. The relevant central authorities often include large continuous areas of old-growth have both a right and a duty to play a part in forest, and are therefore important for species that municipal planning processes in order to en- are dependent on large areas of this type of habitat. sure that national policies are taken into con- In addition, a number of Red List species that need sideration and implemented. This is an impor- a stable microclimate and specific habitats are like- tant element of municipal planning. ly to have relatively large, viable populations in 3. The act lays down that county plans may in- such forests. Road construction followed by inten- clude guidelines for municipal-level planning, sive felling in such areas results in fragmentation and if necessary also for planning across mu- of the old-growth forest, and can have a negative nicipal boundaries. impact on various species because the size and 4. According to the act, the government may lay quality of their habitats is reduced. Road construc- down national policy guidelines that must be tion generally results in more traffic in nearby ar- used as a basis for municipal and county plan- eas and is often followed by the construction of ning, by any relevant sectors when they partici-

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pate in municipal planning, and in the munici- that is primarily intended to ensure economic palities’ own sectoral activities if so decided. growth, and where the degree to which the princi- 5. The act lays down that if necessary, the central ple of sustainable use is incorporated varies. Both authorities may require the adoption of a local environmental and other sectoral legislation must development plan, for example if required by be developed in such a way that biological diversi- important considerations of the public interest, ty concerns are properly incorporated. and regulations may be laid down pursuant to In the most recent white paper on the Govern- the act, for example giving guidelines for how ment’s environmental policy and the state of the biological diversity considerations are to be environment in Norway (Report No. 24 (2000– taken into account in decisions on the use of 2001) to the Storting), the government approved a land and natural resources. new national target for biological diversity which 6. The act also contains provisions requiring envi- reads as follows: «The needs of future generations ronmental impact assessment before any deci- shall be taken into account when managing soil sion is made to start major development pro- resources that are suitable for cereal production.» jects. Only about three per cent of the total area of 7. The act also contains provisions on building Norway is used for agriculture, and only about one applications. These specify the types of build- third of this is suitable for cereal production for ing projects and projects involving alteration of human consumption. Long-term conservation of the terrain for which a permit is required, and soil resources is therefore an important element of thus the projects for which the various plans Norway’s environmental policy. Long-term conser- have legal effect. vation of areas where cereal for human consumption can be grown is important because these re- The legislation for a number of administrative sec- sources are in scarce supply. It does not matter tors contains provisions relating to land use in ad- whether or not such areas are in active use for dition to provisions regulating the sector itself. Im- agricultural production today, provided that they portant examples are the Land Act, the Forestry are not irreversibly developed for other purposes. Act, the Nature Conservation Act, the Cultural Heritage Act, the Act relating to Salmonids and The municipalities and control of land use Fresh-water Fish, the Roads Act, the Watercourse Regulation Act, the Water Resources Act, the En- Biological diversity is part of the municipalities’ ergy Act and the Pollution Control Act. natural resource capital. It provides the basis for The municipalities have responsibilities and ex- local wealth creation and for the local population’s ercise authority pursuant to a number of acts relat- welfare and sense of identity. Norway’s municipal- ing to specific sectors. It is important for both the ities control and influence land use in both the municipalities and the administrative bodies re- public and the private sector through the Planning sponsible for these sectors to take active steps to and Building Act. This means that the municipal- fulfil their responsibility for the conservation and ities have a very important part to play in safe- sustainable use of biological diversity in areas guarding national biodiversity by following up the where they have authority, for example by resolv- government’s targets and thus helping to ensure ing conflicts by means of open and transparent that the objectives of the Convention are achieved. planning processes. The same applies to the cen- Both the Local Government Act and the Planning tral authorities for these sectors. The interests of and Building Act give Norwegian municipalities a particular actors and overall policy considerations great deal of authority and a high degree of autono- must be weighed up and used as a basis for deci- my, but this also means that they must take an sions. independent responsibility for maintaining up to Sustainable land use is essential to prevent the date information on their own land and natural loss of biological diversity. In addition, certain ar- resources, including biological diversity. The mu- eas must be protected against use, in some cases nicipalities’ knowledge of these issues and the way by means of direct protection measures to safe- they approach them will be of crucial importance guard threatened and vulnerable species and their in efforts to safeguard biodiversity in the years habitats. The sectoral legislation for which the en- ahead. vironmental authorities are responsible is largely The municipalities and the Ministry of the En- designed to ensure conservation and sustainable vironment have cooperated in a number of ways to use of biological diversity. Other sectoral authori- build up local environmental expertise and ensure ties are administratively responsible for legislation that national environmental targets are followed up

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by the local administration. The most extensive that the programme is making an important contri- cooperation project, the local environmental devel- bution to a nationwide survey of biodiversity. The opment programme, ran from 1991 to 1996, and valuation of areas according to their importance plans for it were set out in Report No. 34 (1990– for biological diversity will be an essential basis for 1991) on environmental protection at local level. In planning in accordance with both national targets its response to the white paper (Recommendation and the principle of sustainable use of biodiversity. S. No. 190 (1990–1991)), the Storting stated that At a later stage, it will be useful for the municipal- local politicians must take their share of the re- ities to make annual reports to the central authori- sponsibility for efforts to follow up national targets, ties on the consequences of changes in land use in both to ensure that obligations under international the areas that are most important for biological environmental agreements are met and to improve diversity, and the status of surveys and planned the quality of the local environment. It also empha- municipal activities. It is planned to develop rou- sized that one important task for the municipalities tines for reporting as part of the KOSTRA project, was to strengthen environmental protection efforts which is developing a system of annual reporting by building up expertise, particularly in land-use from the municipalities to the central administra- planning, nature management and general ecol- tion. ogy. Furthermore, the Storting stressed the impor- Agenda 21 was adopted at the Rio conference tance of an approach based on solidarity in the in 1992 together with the Convention on Biological widest sense of the word, including all forms of life Diversity. This is a global plan of action based on and future generations, and concluded that ecolog- the idea of dialogue across administrative bounda- ical considerations must be used as a basis for all ries and other dividing lines in society, such as the local administration and all decisions at municipal responsibilities and roles of authorities, business level. and industry and voluntary organizations. Partici- In order to follow up the principles described pation by indigenous peoples is considered very above as regards the Convention on Biological Di- important, and local authorities are urged to take versity, important tasks will be to develop metho- their share of responsibility for the process dology, produce guidelines and information mate- through the development of Local Agendas 21. In rial and develop the available databases, for exam- Norway, the municipalities have indicated their ple by means of GIS technology. These are tools willingness to participate through the Fredrikstad that are being prepared for the municipalities for Declaration, adopted at a conference held in 1998 use in planning processes, both for the land use in the town of Fredrikstad. This marked the begin- part of the municipal master plan and for plans ning of the Local Agenda 21 process in Norway. focusing on biological diversity, in which the mu- The declaration has been endorsed by about half nicipalities can identify and classify areas of partic- of all Norway’s municipalities and all the counties. ular importance for biodiversity. The Ministry of the Environment is cooperating The Directorate for Nature Management has with the Norwegian Association of Local and Re- drawn up manuals describing standardized meth- gional Authorities and the Sámediggi (Sami parlia- ods for surveying and classifying valuable biologi- ment) in efforts to facilitate and encourage local cal diversity: there are separate manuals for eco- participation through Local Agenda 21 processes. systems, wildlife, marine biodiversity and fresh- At local level, land use, resources, wealth creation, water localities. The Norwegian Red List of threat- welfare, and provision for children and young peo- ened species, last published in 1999, identifies the ple are all elements that are important in relation to threatened species that are to be given priority in sustainable management of biological diversity. surveys of biodiversity. The manual on surveying Other sectoral legislation, for example the Wa- ecosystems was prepared in cooperation with sev- ter Resources Act, also provides the legal authority eral sectors and deals with the valuation of biologi- for decisions on the location of developments that cal diversity. may have a significant impact on land use. Biodi- The manuals should be used by all sectors in- versity concerns will be given considerable weight volved in surveys of biodiversity, and are a useful when the pros and cons of the proposed location of tool for municipalities that are taking part in the such projects are being weighed up. voluntary programme to survey biological diversity and identify and classify its value, which was 2.2.6 Avoiding pollution started in 1999. By the end of 2000, about 170 municipalities had begun to survey and classify the Pollution is an important cause of the loss of bio- value of different areas within their boundaries, so logical diversity, and national targets relating to

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Acidification Box 2.3 Although international agreements have resulted TBT (tributyltin) is an endocrine disruptor in substantial reductions in emissions of sulphur that has negative effects on reproduction and and nitrogen from Norway and the rest of Europe is extremely toxic to marine organisms. Seri- in the last 10–15 years, acidification is still one of ous environmental effects caused by TBT have the most serious threats to the environment in been documented along the Norwegian coast. Norway. Between 80 and 90 per cent of acidifying For example, the use of TBT in antifouling substances originate from other countries in Eu- paints for ships has caused female dogwhelks rope and enter the Norwegian environment as a to develop male sexual organs and thus be- result of long-range transport. Sulphur and nitro- come sterile. This phenomenon is called impo- gen in air and precipitation are monitored by a sex, and can threaten whole populations of nationwide network of measuring stations in order dogwhelks along the coast. to register trends in the deposition of acidifying substances. Calculations show that critical loads for acidification of surface water are exceeded across almost 20 per cent of the country. Even if the full reductions set out in the new Gothenburg Protocol under the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution are achieved, critical loads for acidification will still be exceeded across 7–8 per cent of Norway after 2010. Most of the area affected will be in the southern half of the country. Sulphur emissions are mainly related to industrial processes and metal production, while emissions of nitrogen are largely generated by coastal shipping and road traffic. The action that has been taken to reduce acidification is a good example of how successful cooperation across sectoral and national borders can help to safeguard biodiversity.

Figure 2.10. Dogwhelk (Nucella lapidus). The Hazardous chemicals species is found from Gibraltar to Greenland Emissions and use of hazardous chemicals consti- and is common all along the Norwegian tute one of the most serious threats to biological coast. Photo: Erling Svensen. diversity worldwide. Hazardous chemicals enter the Norwegian environment both as a result of direct releases to air, water and soil from Norwe- gian sources and as a result of long-range transport pollution are therefore important in relation to the via the atmosphere and ocean currents. The large conservation and sustainable use of biological di- volume of international trade in products that con- versity. One important task in this field is to docu- tain hazardous chemicals is also an important ment the impacts of pollution. Changes in the pol- cause of their dispersal across national borders. lution load can be used as an indicator for changes During the last 50 years, the numbers and quanti- in biological diversity. All inputs of pollutants have ties of chemicals used have risen alarmingly. some biological effect, and efforts to combat pollu- There are now 8 000 – 10 000 chemical substances tion have been given high priority for many years. in about 50 000 chemical products on the Norwe- Municipal discharges and emissions from industry gian market. Many of these substances are harm- and agriculture are well-known: much has already ful to health and the environment, and most end up been done to reduce pollution from these sources, in the environment sooner or later and may thus and they are followed up continuously. Other pri- have an impact on the state of the environment. A ority areas of great importance for biodiversity are number of chemicals are only very slowly degrad- more complex to deal with and in their impacts. ed in the environment and can therefore accumu- The most important are acidification, emissions of late in food chains, thus representing a serious hazardous chemicals and emissions of greenhouse threat to biological diversity. The most dangerous gases. chemicals, including persistent organic pollutants

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Box 2.4 Polar bears and hazardous chemicals It has been shown that the long-range transport to their cubs via the placenta. Suppression of of pollutants to the Arctic via the atmosphere, immune function caused by PCBs has also been ocean currents and ice has negative effects on demonstrated in the glaucous gull. Indications polar bears in the Svalbard region. Special atten- of reduced survival rates have been found in tion is being paid to PCBs. An international sur- populations of both polar bear and glaucous gull. vey in 1998 showed that concentrations of PCBs Recent research on polar bears and persistent in polar bears in this area are up to six times the organic pollutants has also shown measurable levels found in Alaska and three times those in concentrations of brominated flame retardants Canada. PCBs can be traced back to emissions in and the pesticide toxaphene. North America and Europe. Experiments have shown that PCBs weaken the immune system of polar bears. The numbers of white blood cells and the amounts of antibodies they produce against diseases are reduced on exposure to the levels of PCBs found in Svalbard and the Barents Sea. Heavy loads of PCBs have also been shown to have a negative impact on the production of sex hormones, stress hormones, hormones that regulate metabolism, and Vitamin A. In recent years, 1.5 per cent of all polar bears that have been tagged have been females with abnormally developed male sexual organs. No such individuals have been registered in the American or Can- adian Arctic. One hypothesis is that the level of intersex or pseudohermaphroditism is caused by Figure 2.11 Adult female intersex polar bear high concentrations of PCBs. Cancer tumours in from south-eastern Svalbard with a partly- the adrenal cortex or ovaries of female bears se- developed male sexual organ. Photo: Andrew crete male sex hormones that can be transferred Derocher, Norwegian Polar Institute.

such as PCBs and dioxins, can cause damage even critical levels. In addition, acidification of the aq- at very low concentrations. Hazardous chemicals uatic environment releases hazardous metals. can reduce fertility or damage the immune system, High concentrations of lead have been found in the the nervous system and other internal organs and liver and kidneys of black grouse and willow thus threaten individuals, populations and species. grouse in southern parts of Norway. The lead orig- For example, earlier releases of heavy metals such inates largely from long-range transport of air pol- as lead, copper, cadmium, mercury and zinc from lutants. The levels are currently under those that mines and industry have harmed or wiped out liv- cause mortality or reproductive failure in these ing organisms in a number of lakes and streams. species. Residues of pesticides have been found in many There are very high concentrations of hazard- streams and rivers as a result of run-off from in- ous chemicals in bottom sediments and biological tensively farmed areas. In some cases, they have material from many fjords where substantial inputs been found at concentrations close to those that of pollution from land-based industry, mining and may have a negative impact on aquatic ecosys- built-up areas have persisted for long periods of tems. Some river systems that were previously un- time. Disruption of the hormonal system has also affected are now believed to be under constant been observed in animals such as dogwhelks that pressure from the deposition of hazardous chem- live in the marine environment (see Box 2.3 and icals as a result of long-range atmospheric trans- Figure 2.10). This is probably caused by exposure port. Such chemicals gradually accumulate in ani- to chemicals that mimic the effects of hormones, mals and plants and in bottom sediments, and can and can threaten populations of the species that damage the fauna and flora if concentrations reach are affected.

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Discharges of oil-contaminated drill cuttings sions. In addition to sequestration of CO2 by for- from offshore petroleum activities have resulted in ests, wood has a positive effect as regards climate the pollution of large areas of the sea floor around change when it is used to replace the use of fossil petroleum installations with oil and chemicals. As fuels. much as 100 km2 can be affected around a single In the Nordic countries, including Norway, installation. Organic compounds such as PCBs, more than half of all biological diversity and more which are only very slowly biodegraded, rapidly than half of all threatened and vulnerable species become concentrated in the short food chains of are associated with forests. The work of following the Arctic. The concentrations that have been reg- up the white paper will include a review of how istered in animals at the top of food chains, in- coordinated strategies can be drawn up to take cluding mammals such as polar bears (see Box 2.4 maximum advantage of synergies in the further and Figure 2.11) and seabirds, are well above the development of the two Rio conventions. levels at which damage is expected to appear. 2.2.7 Enhancing international cooperation Climate The Convention on Biological Diversity is to be The UN Framework Convention on Climate further developed on the basis of its provisions and Change, like the Convention on Biological Diversi- through new agreements in the form of protocols. ty, was adopted at the Rio conference in 1992. The The Ministry of the Environment is coordinating Convention on Climate Change laid the first vital this work in Norway. The parties to the Conven- foundation for international efforts to prevent an- tion have decided to develop the content of its thropogenic climate change caused by emissions provisions further by means of thematic work pro- of greenhouse gases. It entered into force in 1994, grammes addressing marine and coastal biodi- and in 1997 the Kyoto Protocol was adopted under versity, agricultural biodiversity, forest biodiversi- the convention. The protocol lays down specific ty and the biodiversity of inland waters, and a emission commitments and opens the way for programme of work on the implementation of Arti- emissions trading and other flexible mechanisms cle 8(j). Norway considers it important to ensure to achieve these commitments. that operational principles, criteria and indicators Climate change could have very serious nega- for the sustainable use of biological diversity are tive impacts on biological diversity. It is therefore developed in the work programmes. Norway is of crucial importance that the Convention on Cli- particularly well-qualified to contribute to the work mate Change is followed up effectively and that programmes on marine and coastal biodiversity work under this convention and the Convention on and the biodiversity of inland waters. Biological Diversity is well-coordinated at both na- It is of crucial importance to ensure that there tional and international level. Management of for- is a sound scientific basis for following up the Con- est resources offers one good example of the need vention. This is an essential basis for achieving for coordination. The Intergovernmental Panel on sustainable use of biodiversity. Sound knowledge Climate Change (IPCC) has calculated the global is needed to meet the challenges posed by the potential for carbon sequestration in forests for the Convention and to develop a joint understanding of period 1995–2050. About 80 per cent of the poten- the need to implement the right measures. It is a tial is in tropical forests, which also contain 50–90 weakness of the Convention on Biological Diversi- per cent of the world’s overall biological diversity. ty that it has no associated scientific body to serve Thus, the protection of these areas against defor- the same purpose as the IPCC does for the Climate estation and clearing for plantation-type forestry Change Convention. At the Fifth Conference of the should be a priority for both conventions as a Parties (COP 5) in 2000, Norway proposed the use means of avoiding developments that undermine of scientific panels, and received support for this. their objectives. Norway has also arranged three conferences and a The IPCC’s calculations also indicate that the workshop in Trondheim to provide a forum for Nordic forest areas as a whole will be of little im- scientific dialogue between representatives of in-

portance globally for CO2 sequestration, since they dustrial and developing countries on central topics only account for 0.04 per cent of the total potential. under the Convention. These have focused on ba-

Nevertheless, the annual uptake of CO2 by Norwe- sic knowledge, building up expertise, and formu- gian forests is substantial in relation to Norwegian lating recommendations that for further cooper- emissions. In 1995, uptake by forests was equiv- ation under the Convention. Norway plans to con-

alent to 37 per cent of total Norwegian CO2 emis- tinue this series of conferences, which have been

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jointly arranged by the Ministry of the Environ- able development in the Nordic region adopted by ment, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry the Nordic Council of Ministers. This is entitled of Agriculture, the Ministry of Fisheries and rele- New Bearings for the Nordic Countries, and covers vant UN bodies. the period 2001–2004. The plan is based on a strat- The commitments to national action under the egy with a 20-year perspective for the development Convention lay heavy burdens on developing coun- of a sustainable Nordic region. The strategy in- tries, which are stewards of a substantial propor- volves wide-ranging commitments for the Nordic tion of the world’s biological diversity. To ensure countries at both national and Nordic level. The equitable distribution of benefits and burdens, the following priority areas will be important: strength- industrial countries have undertaken to help devel- ening Nordic participation in international proc- oping countries by contributing financing, trans- esses, following up the Cartagena Protocol, pro- fers of technology and appropriate action. The moting public access to the countryside, develop- Global Environment Facility (GEF) is the financial ing methods for monitoring biological diversity, mechanism for global action under the Conven- the importance of safeguarding cultural land- tion. The GEF has invested about USD 0.75 billion scapes, safeguarding the variation in Nordic land- in projects to address the loss of biodiversity, and scape types, intensifying work on the Arctic envi- by doing this has triggered co-financing from other ronment, continuing the development of a gene sources totalling almost USD1.25 billion. The Nor- bank for Atlantic salmon and developing hunting wegian government supports the use of GEF fund- within the framework of sustainable development. ing to encourage the implementation of the Con- Action within each of these priority areas is dis- vention in developing countries. The equitable discussed in the chapters of the white paper contrib- tribution of benefits and burdens is an important uted by individual ministries. It will also be very principle of the Convention, and also emphasizes important to cooperate more closely with the EU its development dimension. Support for the Con- on following up the Convention, for example on vention is therefore a central element of Norwe- EU directives that are related to biological diversi- gian environment and development programmes, ty. Cooperation on the Pan-European Biological based on developing countries’ own priorities in and Landscape Diversity Strategy will also be con- their national strategies and action plans for imple- tinued. The strategy is sponsored by the Council of mentation of the Convention. Norway seeks to en- Europe and UNEP’s Regional Office for Europe, sure that projects on conservation and sustainable and is an important element in implementation of use of biological diversity within the framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity. its environmental assistance focus on the imple- The content and provisions of the Convention mentation of developing countries’ national strate- on Biological Diversity must be taken into account gies and action plans for following up the Conven- and promoted in all relevant international fora tion. There is special emphasis on institutional de- within nature management, industry, trade, Eu- velopment, capacity-building and local participa- ropean cooperation, human rights, democracy- tion. building and development cooperation. If Norway Norway will focus particularly on cooperation is to play its part here, all the country’s internation- in the Nordic region and in Europe to follow up and al activities must be coordinated effectively. All develop the Convention. This is important for Nor- sectors must therefore ensure that the importance way because of the close economic and political of the Convention is recognized in their interna- ties within the region, and because biological ditional activities, in consultation with the Ministry versity and many of the most important environ- of the Environment and the Ministry of Foreign mental pressures are transboundary in nature. Affairs. Norway will follow up the action plan for sustain-

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3 A new policy: towards knowledge-based management of biological diversity

An analysis of the seven main tasks discussed in Work is already in progress on the legislative Chapter 2 and the contributions by individual mini- instruments. A committee has been appointed to stries shows that joint efforts are needed in three evaluate the legislation on biological diversity and areas: relevant sectoral legislation. Another committee is 1. Surveys and monitoring programmes to identi- evaluating amendments to the Planning and Buil- fy and classify the value of biodiversity. ding Act to ensure that it takes biodiversity con- 2. Coordination of legal and economic instru- cerns more fully into account. ments to provide a better basis for joint mana- A review of all economic instruments that may gement of biodiversity. have an impact on biological diversity will also be 3. Coordination of information, research and ex- initiated. The review will consider changes in exis- pertise as a scientific basis for management of ting policy instruments and the need for new ones biodiversity by all sectors. that clearly target areas of great value for biological diversity. The most important conclusion drawn by the go- The government’s new management system is vernment in the white paper is that it is necessary to be knowledge-based. Information, research and to establish a new management system for biologi- expertise will constitute the scientific basis for the cal diversity. This conclusion is the result of a joint development of the new system, which is to be process involving all Norway’s 17 ministries. The built up in the period 2001–2005 (Figure 3.2). new system is discussed in more detail in section 3.1, and the joint action that is to be taken as part of each of the seven main tasks listed in Chapter 2 is described in section 3.2.

3.1 Main conclusion of the white paper: a new management system for biodiversity is needed

A new management system needs to be established in Norway to prevent unnecessary loss of biological diversity. The new system will require the identification of areas that are of great value for biodiversity. To obtain this information, surveys and monitoring programmes must be initiated, including the establishment of a species data bank (see Figure 3.2). Information on areas of great value for biodiversity must be readily available. This will provide the factual basis for management at central, regional and local level. Figure 3.1 The topshell Gibbula tumida is found To ensure the conservation and sustainable all along the Norwegian coastline. It is common management of biological diversity, legislative and from the littoral zone and down to a depth of economic instruments must be coordinated. They about 130 m. It lives on small algae and dead must also focus on areas that are of great value for algal material. Water-colour by Annegi Eide. biodiversity (Figure 3.2).

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Figure 3.2 Areas of great value for biological diversity are to be identified. This is to be done by means of surveys, monitoring programmes and the development of a species data bank. Legislative and economic instruments are to be adapted to protect the most valuable areas. Information, research and expertise are to be used for quality assurance of the system and to develop it into a useful tool for all parts of the central government and local administration.

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3.2 Joint action forming part of the seven main tasks in the period Box 3.1 Coordination of legislative 2001–2005 instruments The government has appointed a committee to 3.2.1 Identifying cross-sectoral and sectoral review a new legislative basis for coordinated responsibilities and coordinating the management of biodiversity. The committee is use of policy instruments to evaluate the legislation that should be in- 3.2.1.1 Cross-sectoral and sectoral corporated into a single act relating to biodi- responsibilities versity. It will also consider the relationship between this and existing acts. The mandate The Storting and the government have clearly laid of the committee also includes a review of the down the responsibility of all sectors for sustai- legislation governing the introduction of alien nable management in relation to both biodiversity invasive species and the legislation governing and consumption. This responsibility has been es- access to and the use of naturally occurring tablished in various official documents, including: genetic resources. Other issues within the – Act of 16 July 1999 No. 69 relating to public mandate of the committee are described in procurement, Chapter 2. – Report No. 46 (1988–1989) to the Storting on The Planning and Building Act is not being environment and development, considered by this committee, but by a sepa- – Report No. 58 (1996–1997) to the Storting on rate committee appointed to review the plan- an environmental policy for sustainable deve- ning legislation. lopment, The government will consider whether na- – Report No. 40 (1998–1999) to the Storting on tional policy guidelines for biodiversity should consumer policy, be drawn up. These should be coordinated – White papers on the government’s environ- with other relevant policy instruments, inclu- mental policy and the state of the environment ding the national programme to survey and in Norway (Reports No. 8 (1999–2000) and No. monitor biological diversity. A high level of 24 (2000–2001) to the Storting). precision can be achieved by linking the national policy guidelines to GIS-based data sets. This chapter contains the government’s proposals for measures that require joint action, based on the description of cross-sectoral and sectoral responsibilities in Chapter 2 (section 2.2.1.1). The evaluation of new legislation on biological diversity is to include a review of general principles 3.2.1.2 Coordinating the use of policy for the conservation and sustainable use of biologi- instruments cal diversity, which are to apply to all sectors. This is to be based on the current distribution of re- Legislative instruments sponsibility and authority between the Ministry of A committee appointed by the government is to the Environment and other ministries. Legislation consider whether a separate act relating to biodi- for the various sectors will be retained: this in- versity should be proposed, and if so how its scope cludes the Forestry Act, the Land Act, the water is to be delimited in relation to that of sectoral acts resources and energy legislation, the Aquaculture dealing with this field (box 3.1). The committee is Act, the Act relating to sea-water fisheries, the Act also to consider whether the existing Nature Con- relating to seeds and other propagative material, servation Act should be incorporated into a new the Act relating to plant health, the Act relating to biodiversity act. Moreover, the committee will revi- animal health and the Act relating to pesticides. ew the ways in which it would be appropriate to One desire expressed by several ministries is link a new biodiversity act to other legislation un- for work to be started on the regulation of access to der the Ministry of the Environment, particularly and the equitable sharing of the benefits arising the Wildlife Act, the Act relating to salmonids and from the utilization of genetic resources, partly as a fresh-water fish, the Cultural Heritage Act, the way of following up the report from the interminis- Outdoor Recreation Act and the Act relating to terial working group on the EU biotech patents motor traffic on uncultivated land and in water- directive. This will be another of the tasks of the courses. committee reviewing legislation on biodiversity.

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The ministries involved have also asked for steps to be taken to strengthen the legislation and Box 3.2 Coordination of economic control routines relating to the introduction of ali- instruments en species. This is another of the committee’s The Ministry of Finance and other ministries tasks, but immediate action may also be needed that are involved are to start a review of the where there is a risk of damage to biological diver- use of economic instruments in 2001 and put sity. Under the existing legislation, it is already forward any proposals that are formulated in possible to ensure that the deliberate release of the course of 2003. alien species is based on comprehensive risk ana- The tasks included in the review are as lyses that include adverse effects on biodiversity, follows: and to require monitoring programmes to be carri- – To identify state-level financial arrange- ed out. The government will also establish control ments, grants, subsidies, transfers, and fi- routines and satisfactory coordination between the nancing, loan, guarantee and compensa- authorities in this field, so that the undesirable tion schemes that have an impact on bi- import and spread of alien species can be more odiversity. effectively prevented and detected at an early sta- – To review all these arrangements to evalu- ge. In order to do this, expertise in the field must ate what impact they have on biodiversity, be strengthened, and advisory material will be de- and to consider how they can be altered to veloped for subordinate agencies and relevant take into account biodiversity concerns or branches. incorporate criteria or conditions to avoid The Planning and Building Act governs deci- damage to or loss of biodiversity. sions on land use and the use of natural resources, – To propose amendments on the basis of and is therefore an important legislative instru- the review, including a time schedule gi- ment for safeguarding biological diversity. In all, ving an order of priority and specifying about 80 per cent of the total area of Norway has who is to be responsible for further work. been designated as agricultural areas, areas of na- – To review the possibility of introducing a tural environment and outdoor recreation areas in land use tax. This review will take into ac- approved municipal master plans. The government count the review of legislative instruments will consider possible changes in the rules that and other green taxes. apply to areas in these categories. – To take steps to ensure that the use of The Planning and Building Act is also a tool for economic instruments by the various sec- weighing up the importance of different user inter- tors to conserve biological diversity is re- ests and purposes in lakes, rivers and in relation to flected in their budgets. coastal areas. The management of marine resources is largely governed by sectoral legislation. Open and democratic planning processes pursuant to the Planning and Building Act help to maintain a balance between business and indu- vation and sustainable use of biological diversity. strial activities, conservation, and compensatory This means that it is necessary to consider chan- measures, so that integrated solutions can be ges in economic schemes for those areas that are found for society as a whole and developments are identified as being particularly important for bio- based on the sustainable use of resources. diversity (see Figure 3.2). A similar review will be necessary in connection with the incorporation of biodiversity con- Economic instruments cerns into the criteria for the official eco-labelling The state administers many different economic systems and into consumer policy measures rela- schemes including grants, subsidies, taxes, and ting to sustainable production and consumption. loan and guarantee schemes. The primary purpose Many development projects can have irrever- of all of these arrangements is to stimulate deve- sible effects on biological diversity. In such cases, lopments in specific fields that will benefit society the developer uses up or depletes assets of value to as a whole, in accordance with the government’s society as a whole, and benefits from this in finan- policies. However, it is important to ensure that cial terms. This is why it is relevant to consider a these arrangements are administered in such a separate land use tax that the state or municipal way that they do not unnecessarily conflict with authorities could, subject to further conditions, the government’s objective of ensuring the conser- levy on a developer to compensate for develop-

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the action plans for biological diversity produced Box 3.3 Coordination of information and by seven ministries in 1994 and from the sectoral expertise environmental action plans: The Ministry of the Environment will, in con- 1. It has been easier for each sector to identify sultation with the Ministry of Education and and carry out pollution-related measures than it Research, the Ministry of Labour and Govern- is to do the same in the fields of nature management Administration, the Norwegian Central ment and biodiversity. This is because pollu- Information Service and other relevant mini- tion control policy deals with measurable pro- stries, propose joint action to improve the flow blems, because of the way the legislation is of information and build up expertise. This will designed and because the required results can be important in the development of the new be quantified, whereas the value assigned to management system for biological diversity. areas and resources is largely based on qualita- One step should be to develop an interminis- tive assessments. terial information strategy for biological diver- 2. In pollution control policy, requirements rela- sity. ting to emissions, the use of chemicals and re-use are largely determined by standards that are the same for all administrative sectors. This makes cross-sectoral control possible. To achi- ments in areas of particular value for biological eve the same results for biodiversity, better diversity (Box 3.2). data must be obtained through surveys and monitoring programmes. This will form the basis for management by all sectors. Organizational instruments 3. The results of pollution control measures are The white paper makes it clear that there are wide generally immediately apparent to local com- variations in the information available in different munities. In contrast, measures to protect bio- sectors and the expertise they possess to take bi- logical diversity maintain the status quo and do odiversity concerns into account. A recurrent the- not have obvious short-term results. This af- me in the chapters by individual ministries is the fects the level of motivation for action and con- need for more information and to build up admini- trol measures to meet biodiversity concerns in strative capacity in the field of biological diversity the central and local authorities. It also influen- (Box 3.3). ces the reasoning that can be used in discus- The committee appointed by the government sions with business and industry and voluntary to review the legislation on environmental infor- organizations. mation presented a report on its recommendations in 2001. The committee recommended that stricter These conclusions are in general agreement with requirements should be introduced for all sectors those of the 17 ministries involved, and demonstra- to provide information on aspects of their activities te the need for greater joint efforts across sectors. that may have a significant impact on the environment. Provisions to this effect were included in a Cooperation with voluntary organizations draft act on the right to environmental information. They include a statutory requirement for the pu- Steps to follow up important action described in blic authorities to obtain information on the state this white paper will be greatly helped by the parti- of the environment and a duty to make such infor- cipation of voluntary organizations. It will be parti- mation available to the public. To fulfil the require- cularly important to support NGOs such as SABI- ments proposed by the committee, it will be essen- MA (the Norwegian Council for the Conservation tial for the ministries to cooperate more closely on of Biodiversity) and make use of their broad-ba- information and expertise in this field. sed, nationwide biological expertise and practical In order for Norway to follow up its commit- experience. The development of cooperation bet- ments under the Convention on Biological Diversi- ween voluntary organizations and the central go- ty satisfactorily, a high degree of coordination of vernment will be a priority in the period 2001– policy instruments and cooperation between sec- 2005. Funds will be earmarked for municipal sur- tors will be required. Three important conclusions veys of biodiversity by the organizations. can be drawn from experience gained during the development of the result monitoring system, from

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Box 3.4 National programme to survey and monitor biological diversity, including the establishment of a species data bank Aims of the programme 2003, these databases will be operational and A national programme is to be established to available to the public administration. survey and monitor biological diversity, inclu- – By 2005, all elements of the national pro- ding ecosystems, species and genetic resources. gramme are to be operative. Data collection The programme will provide a framework for will continue. coordinated efforts to obtain information on biological diversity and thus enable Norway to ma- Progress will depend on allocations in the annual nage its natural environment in accordance with budgets. the target of conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. Organization The aims of the programme are to obtain information on: The work is being headed by the Ministry of the – the location and value of areas that are im- Environment, which is responsible for coordina- portant for biological diversity tion and the progress of the programme. The Di- – changes in biological diversity over time rectorate for Nature Management is functioning – the causes of such changes and proposals for as the secretariat. The Ministry of Fisheries, Mi- action nistry of Agriculture, Ministry of Petroleum and – evaluation the effects of action that is taken. Energy, Ministry of Education and Research, Mi- nistry of Transport and Communications, Mini- It must also be possible to incorporate the results stry of Defence, Ministry of Local Government into the national system for result monitoring by and Regional Development, Ministry of Trade the various sectors. Furthermore, the results must and Industry and the Research Council of Norway document to extent to which the national targets are important participants. The Research Council and strategic objectives set by the government are is responsible for advice on the R&D component being achieved, and meet requirements for repor- of the programme. A committee consisting of re- ting at Nordic and European level and for other presentatives of the ministries involved will follow international reporting. Important results are to be up the work. Working groups at directorate level presented in the periodic white paper on the Go- will be appointed as needed, and may include vernment’s environmental policy and the state of representatives of other relevant institutions. A the environment in Norway and will be made av- working group to oversee the development of a ailable on the Internet. The results of the program- species data bank will be appointed as soon as me are to be available to the public. possible. International expertise will be drawn in- to the work as needed.

Progress plans The committee’s tasks – The cross-sectoral committee is to start its work in 2001. 1. Evaluation of current status and proposals for – The establishment of a species data bank is an integrated survey and monitoring programme to start in 2001. This work is to proceed rapid- When the Directorate for Nature Manage- ly, so that the data bank has been established ment was preparing its plan for monitoring of and is operative by 2003. biological diversity, a list was drawn up of cur- – By 2003, a coordinated system for surveying rent programmes of relevance to monitoring and and monitoring biological diversity is to be surveying biological diversity. The Directorate available, including agreed criteria for classi- also made proposals for which of these program- fying the value of habitats. Data for areas who- mes should be included in an integrated national se value has been classified are to be entered programme. The committee is to review and eva- in a GIS-based database linked to the AREAL- luate this material. Since the Directorate publis- IS project. A similar system should be develo- hed its report, several more survey and moni- ped for recording data from marine areas. By toring programmes have been started. In addition, the development of the result monitoring system has been started. Box 3.4 continues

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Box 3.4 continue The committee is therefore to: cross-sectoral accessibility. In this connec- – establish a species data bank tion, projects such as AREALIS, MAREA- – identify the projects and programmes in the NO, the species data bank, the reference various sectors that meet the recommenda- system for environmental information and tions of the plan for monitoring of biological State of the Environment Norway should be diversity drawn up by the Directorate for Na- evaluated ture Management – Ensure that the necessary links to relevant – obtain an overview of the resources and Nordic, European and global agreements costs currently involved in surveys and moni- and processes are in place. toring of biological diversity in various sectors 3. Responsibilities and funding – identify important gaps in the current surve- The six principles for the responsibilities of ys and monitoring programmes sectoral authorities in connection with surveys – put forward proposals for the expansion or and monitoring of the environment set out in alteration of existing activities and if appro- this chapter, and the principles and responsibili- priate propose new activities or programmes ties described in Chapter 2, must be used as a – suggest priorities for activities and program- basis for the proposed national programme. mes in order to create an integrated national The committee is to: programme to survey and monitor biological – propose specific tasks and allocate responsi- diversity. bilities to the various sectors. 2. Coordination and data management – make cost-benefit analyses of the program- To coordinate activities in the national pro- mes and activities that are proposed. gramme more closely and make it more cost- – within the financial framework that is defi- effective, the committee is to: ned, put forward proposals for funding for a – consider the scientific and administrative co- national programme to survey and monitor ordination of various surveys and monitoring biological diversity, and seek to find an agre- projects and put forward proposals for impro- ed model for contributions from each sec- vement tor. The committee should also make re- – clarify who owns the rights to the data collec- commendations for the distribution of re- ted, for example pursuant to the Copyright sponsibility for funding between the munici- Act palities and the state. – draw up guidelines for administration of the – develop annual budgeting and other routi- data from sectoral projects to improve their nes.

3.2.2 Coordinating and improving ding to their value for biological diversity and mea- knowledge of biological diversity suring these parameters quantitatively, and the data available are inadequate. The pollution con- 3.2.2.1 Surveying and monitoring biological trol authorities were in much the same position up diversity to the end of the 1980s, when a state pollution Knowledge of Norway’s biological diversity and its monitoring programme with a yearly financial geographical distribution is an essential basis for framework of NOK 40 million (ca EUR 5 million) national management of biodiversity. The Conven- was started up. Through this programme, it was tion on Biological Diversity also requires parties to possible to develop an overview that has enabled the convention to make overall surveys of their the Norwegian administration to work systemati- biological diversity and monitor its status and cally and effectively to reduce pollution. The Go- trends. vernment intends to use a similar system to deve- The government will therefore initiate a natio- lop the management of biodiversity. nal programme to survey and monitor biological To establish an integrated programme to sur- diversity. We still lack an agreed methodology for vey and monitor biological diversity, it will be ne- mapping ecosystems and land use. Standard met- cessary to start more systematic programmes to hods are also needed for classifying areas accor- collect data on groups such as threatened and vul-

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nerable species (Red List species), domestic speci- sible to develop existing registration and moni- es and alien species. The government will esta- toring systems to generate more complete data for blish a species data bank (see Box 3.4) as reques- these sectors as well. It is important to ensure that ted by the Storting (Recommendation S No. 256 the data are available to all authorities and to the (1999–2000)). The species data bank will also con- general public, which is a basic premise of the tain relevant information on mapped localities. draft act on the right to environmental information. The ministries involved have together drawn As regards agriculture, there is limited infor- up a mandate for a committee appointed to es- mation on biological diversity in cultural landsca- tablish a national programme to survey and moni- pes, including both cultivated and uncultivated are- tor biological diversity and a species data bank as. However, a monitoring programme has been (Box 3.4). The mandate can be elaborated as ne- started up in cooperation between the Ministry of cessary by the Ministry of the Environment in con- Agriculture and the Ministry of the Environment. sultation with the relevant ministries. This can be This deals with baseline monitoring and result mo- done if it is necessary to include more topics to nitoring of the agricultural landscape, and reveals ensure that the quality of the national programme changes in the landscape, but does not include is as high as possible. cultivated areas in the mountains. The programme The government will seek to ensure that the must be further developed to satisfy the require- environmental data collected are made publicly av- ments of an expanded survey and monitoring pro- ailable, in accordance with Article 110 of the Nor- gramme for all cultivated and uncultivated agricul- wegian Constitution and the objective of the Aar- tural areas. hus Convention. This is also a basic premise of the A rather similar programme has been started draft act on the right to environmental information. to survey and monitor the state of lichen grazing Data on biodiversity must therefore be collected resources in inland parts of western Finnmark using standardized methods. The government will county. This is financed through the reindeer hus- ensure that land use and environmental informa- bandry agreement. It is primarily concerned with tion is readily accessible by making spatially-re- reindeer grazing, but could be expanded. ferenced data from various surveys and monito- Forestry measures, either alone or in combi- ring programmes available, for example through nation, have an impact on biodiversity by altering AREALIS. This is a national project designed to the structure and age composition of the forest, the make land-use, environmental and planning infor- distribution of different types of forest and the ac- mation readily available to municipalities and cessibility of areas of forest. It is therefore im- counties. portant that valuable areas are registered and map- The provisions of the Planning and Building ped in a way that can be utilized by the forestry Act relating to environmental impact assessment industry. The «Living Forests» cooperation project include requirements to investigate whether a pro- and the forest certification schemes can provide ject is likely to have a negative impact on biodiver- momentum in this work. A major project to survey sity. One step that should be taken vis-à-vis all areas that are valuable for biological diversity is sectors is to ensure that all surveys of biodiversity already under way, organized by the Ministry of required by these provisions are compatible with Agriculture. The first phase, which included the and included in central databases. development of methodology, was completed in At present, surveys and monitoring program- 2000, and a registration scheme is now being put mes are being organized by a number of mini- into practice. Environmental information from stries. The chapters of the white paper written by schemes of this type, which receive public grants, individual ministries indicate that many of these will be made publicly available. programmes do not adequately meet sectoral and Surveys and monitoring of biological diversity cross-sectoral responsibilities relating to biological are one of the priority tasks of the Ministry of diversity. The programmes must therefore be Fisheries. The ministry and the Institute of Marine adapted or developed so that they contribute effec- Research have continuous time series of data from tively to the national programme to survey and surveys and monitoring programmes dating back monitor biological diversity. Some of the existing more than 100 years, particularly for oceanograp- programmes are discussed below. hy and commercial fisheries. The ecosystem ap- An important element of efforts to survey and proach and multi-species models are used in re- monitor biological diversity is to obtain data on source management and are continually updated. land use by the agricultural and forestry sectors in The Institute of Marine Research plays a central relation to biological diversity. It should be pos- role in surveys of fisheries, aquaculture, marine

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mammals and kelp harvesting, and is taking part in for a project to transfer data on the museums» data collection through the AREALIS project. Sur- collections to GIS-based databases. This makes in- veys and monitoring programmes include species, formation much more easily accessible for mana- their habitats and the impacts of harvesting and gement and decision-making processes centrally other environmental pressures. An inter-discipli- and locally. It is important for the ministry to take nary group has recently put forward a proposal for responsibility for the continuation of the project, a large-scale mapping project entitled «MAREANO which will contribute to the species data bank. – Marine Areal Database for the Norwegian Sea». The nationwide programme to survey biologi- The Ministry of Petroleum and Energy has ge- cal diversity and identify and classify its value, and neral responsibilities for natural resource manage- surveys and monitoring programmes under the ment, particularly as laid down by the new Water Ministry of the Environment are discussed in Resources Act, and is responsible for managing Chapter 2. about 340 permanently protected watercourses and for the development of hydropower plants and Principles for sectoral responsibilities for surveying the transmission grid. The Norwegian Water Re- and monitoring the environment sources and Energy Directorate has considerable expertise and a large volume of data that will make Surveying and monitoring the state of the environ- an important contribution to surveys and moni- ment and factors that have an impact on it is an toring of biological diversity in lakes, rivers and essential basis for the development of environmen- associated areas. Other responsibilities of the Mi- tal targets and policy instruments. When sectoral nistry of Petroleum and Energy include laying authorities and municipalities are given greater down requirements for monitoring the effects of and more independent responsibility for following oil-related activities on marine biodiversity and for up and implementing environmental policy, the en- ensuring that the results are made available to vironmental authorities must ensure that an ade- other sectors. quate knowledge base is available to them. Func- The Ministry of Education and Research has tioning systems for surveying and monitoring the administrative responsibility for the country’s four environment are essential for integration of en- universities and their natural history museums. vironmental policy into the various sectors and for The ministry has also provided part of the funding greater delegation of authority for environmental

Box 3.5 Coordination of research To strengthen research on biodiversity and im- – Should Norway carry out a national millen- prove cooperation across sectors, the Ministry nium ecosystem assessment? The forum of the Environment, in cooperation with the Mi- should also discuss what should be included nistry of Education and Research and the Rese- in the assessment. arch Council of Norway, is to arrange an open – Should a national assessment panel on the research forum for biological diversity in 2001 pattern of the IPCC be established, and if so, and again in 2003. The discussions should in- which tasks should be given priority? The clude participants from research institutions, panel could for example make scientific ana- the administration and NGOs, and the aim lyses of the action and types of development should be to achieve a common understanding that should be given priority in conserving and agree on recommendations relating to the biological diversity. At the Fifth Conference topics below. The first forum should propose of the Parties to the Convention on Biologi- measures to be initiated and the second should cal Diversity, the parties decided to start sci- evaluate how these have been followed up. The entific assessments relating to diversity. three central topics should be as follows: – What can be done to ensure better inte- The forum itself will discuss further details of gration of biological diversity concern into the topics to be discussed. research in different sectors, thus strengthening sectoral responsibilities for the management of biological diversity?

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protection to the municipalities. Good data from surveys and monitoring programmes will become Box 3.6 Avoiding the undesirable increasingly important, and such data are there- introduction of alien species fore given high priority in the result monitoring – Review proposals for amendments to the system for environmental policy. legislation to improve the way Norway res- The general principles set out below are to be ponds to introduced alien species and the used as a basis in developing the national program- spread of such species, see Box 3.1. me to survey and monitor biological diversity. – Improve border controls to deal with introduced species, and establish a permanent Principles for the sectoral authorities’ reception facility for these species. responsibilities for surveys and monitoring of the environment 1. The sectoral authorities are responsible for surveying and monitoring their own share of press the opinion that research on biological diver- environmental pressures, including the im- sity should be strengthened across sectoral and pacts of harvesting on ecosystems. institutional boundaries (Box 3.5). 2. The sectoral authorities are responsible for car- This will be an important task for the Research rying out surveys and monitoring the state of Council of Norway in cooperation with the mini- the environment in areas where they are re- stries, as laid down in the national programme to sponsible for a substantial share of environ- survey and monitor biological diversity. The Rese- mental pressures. arch Council is expected to contribute to the deve- 3. The sectoral authorities are responsible for lopment of knowledge related to environment and identifying the effects and costs of environmen- development. In addition, it plays a central role in tal protection measures that are implemented. coordinating research policy. The Research Coun- 4. Each sector is responsible for quality assuran- cil should therefore evaluate methods and rese- ce of data collected during surveys and moni- arch topics that can further improve integration in toring programmes and for ensuring that they fields such as surveys and monitoring of biological are accessible. diversity and the development of expertise. At so- 5. The environmental authorities are responsible me of Norway’s universities and colleges, more for ensuring satisfactory monitoring of the sta- capacity is needed for field work in certain areas. te of the environment in Norway. They have a Expertise in these areas is required to obtain infor- special responsibility for maintaining a broad mation on biological diversity as required by the overview of the state of the environment and draft act on the right to environmental information. cultural heritage in Norway, and for monitoring The Ministry of Education and Research has environmental trends. The environmental auth- stated that Norway’s research effort is to be ex- orities also have a general responsibility vis-à- panded and that long-term basic research will be vis other sectors for coordination of surveys given priority. The government also wishes the and monitoring, and for ensuring that other focus on environmental research to be continued sectors carry out quality assurance of their en- and strengthened by means of a special research vironmental data. effort in areas involving both environment and 6. Comprehensive surveys and monitoring of the energy issues. This will also have a positive effect environment require extensive resources and on research on biological diversity. good coordination of activities to ensure that funds and expertise are used effectively and duplication of effort is avoided. Extensive coo- 3.2.3 Ensuring sustainable use of biological peration between the sectoral authorities and resources the environmental authorities is therefore es- Principles sential. A country’s national wealth depends on the state of its natural environment, supplies of natural resour- 3.2.2.2 Research and development ces, its production capital, human resources, and In their individual chapters, the ministries descri- foreign trade and the balance of payments. If they be both single-sector and cross-sectoral research are well managed, the components of the national programmes on biodiversity. Several ministries ex- wealth give a return on capital and are a source of

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programmes, is intended to bring us a step closer Box 3.7 Sustainable land use to more comprehensive and sustainable manage- One important measure in connection with ment of this element of our national wealth. This is sustainable land use is delegation of authority also in accordance with the duty of the parties to to the municipal level. The new management the Convention on Biological Diversity to use the system for biological diversity, cf. Figure 3.2, precautionary principle in following up the con- will facilitate delegation by coordinating sig- vention. nals from central government agencies better. This follows up the principle that authority 3.2.4 Avoiding the undesirable introduction should be delegated to the lowest possible of alien species level, as set out in the convention, and the government’s objective of simplifying the pu- Globally, the anthropogenic introduction and esta- blic administration. To make it possible to blishment of new species is now considered to be delegate authority to the local level and ensure one of the greatest threats to the maintenance of efficient local management of biological diver- biological diversity. Introduced species often re- sity, the new management system must be es- place or wipe out local species or populations. The tablished and put into operation. introduction of invasive alien species to the marine The work of the committee appointed to environment via shipping and aquaculture is a gro- review the planning legislation will also be im- wing problem. There are larger numbers of bigger portant in ensuring that biodiversity concerns and faster ships sailing the world’s oceans than are taken into account when authority is dele- ever before, and this increases the probability that gated to municipal level. organisms will survive and be moved to new areas with ballast water and as fouling organisms on ships’ hulls. It is estimated that on a global basis, about 3000 different marine species are being moved from one sea to another at any given time. welfare. Degradation of natural resources reduces Norway has many different types of species- opportunities for production and consumption. poor ecosystems that are vulnerable to new, alien The objective of sustainable management of bio- species. Norway also forms part of the north-wes- diversity also entails seeking a path of economic tern coast of Europe, and still has large continuous development which avoids pressures on the en- areas of distinctive and varied natural habitat that vironment in excess of nature’s carrying capacity are important to preserve for future generations. or that reduce biological diversity. Activities that As a result of the growth in trade, tourism and damage biodiversity either directly or indirectly travel and the elimination of border controls bet- are generally intended to obtain short-term econo- ween Norway and the rest of Europe, Norway may mic benefits for varying numbers of people. Such find that the introduction of alien species causes activities have long-term costs that are impossible growing environmental problems. The rising num- to calculate, but the losses affect all of us. We can ber of cases where alien species are detected by see examples of this on a limited scale if a farmer customs stations is already giving an indication of cuts down the entire forest capital belonging to a a rise in the number of introductions. farm before handing it on to the next generation, in In most cases, the deliberate introduction of the overfishing of herring and capelin stocks and alien species today is associated with agriculture, the subsequent closure of the fisheries, or in the horticulture, fisheries and hobby activities. These failure of those responsible for salmon manage- cases are dealt with under legislation for the appro- ment to prevent the loss of salmon stocks in cer- priate sectors. However, Norway’s legislation does tain rivers. not contain adequate provisions regulating the in- Because of the lack of a comprehensive over- troduction of plants and invertebrates. There is a view and of ways of calculating the annual losses of pressing need for comprehensive legislation to economic and other values associated with biologi- prevent the introduction and spread of alien speci- cal diversity, we have traditionally assessed deve- es. One of the main challenges will be to devise a lopments individually and on the basis of the im- joint central government strategy for the use of mediate economic benefits they can offer. Cross- policy instruments, so that gaps in the legislation sectoral cooperation on the actions proposed in the are closed and impact assessment is required be- white paper, particularly surveying and classifying fore any introductions of new species to the en- the value of biological diversity and monitoring vironment. This work will be included in the deve-

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vironment. The municipalities used the program- Box 3.8 Avoiding pollution me and organized activities under it in many diffe- Biodiversity concerns will be given greater rent ways, as would be expected given the wide weight in pollution control policy. One mea- variations in size, tasks and priorities from one sure will be to use pollution monitoring pro- municipality to another. However, a general result grammes to reveal the impact of pollution on of the programme was that municipalities provided biological diversity. This can for example be more resources for and gave higher priority to done by using suitable biological indicators to nature management. The Local Agenda 21 pro- clarify the impact of pollution. This has already cess, with its emphasis on public participation, has been done in the case of acid rain, where the provided further impetus in this direction, and so geographical distribution of acidification, criti- has the higher priority that many municipalities cal loads and the impacts on different ecosys- have given to environmental and biodiversity con- tems have been surveyed and changes have cerns in their application of the Planning and Buil- been followed through pollution monitoring ding Act. So far, about 170 municipalities have cho- programmes. In the government’s view, this sen to take part in the nationwide programme to should be evaluated in the national program- survey biological diversity and identify and classify me to survey and monitor biological diversity. its value. Local Agenda 21 and the participation of NGOs are important and necessary elements of the management of biological diversity at national level. FRIFO, an umbrella organization for Norway’s lar- lopment of coordinated legislation for biological gest outdoor recreation associations, organizes co- diversity. operation between these associations at county Together with the review of the legislation, the level, particularly to deal with developments in- activities of the authorities with responsibilities in volving major changes in land use. There are also this area must be coordinated. It will be natural for many other organizations that are active in areas the Ministry of the Environment to be responsible such as outdoor recreation, protection of the cul- for coordination until improved legislation for this tural heritage and conservation of biological diver- field has been adopted. sity. Examples include the Norwegian Society for In this connection, more knowledge of the the Conservation of Nature/Friends of the Earth sources of introductions and clarification of the Norway, Nature & Youth, Inky Arms Eco-detec- responsibilities of the competent authorities in this tives, WWF-Norway, the Environmental Home Gu- field is needed. Information to the various sectoral ard and SABIMA (the Norwegian Council for the authorities will also be important. The customs Conservation of Biodiversity). However, small mu- authorities are often in the first line in such cases, nicipalities have only limited resources, and 70 per and they urgently need to improve their knowled- cent of all Norwegian municipalities use less than ge in this field to meet growing internationaliza- the equivalent of one full-time position on land use tion. management and other matters that come within Contingency planning in this field must also be the scope of the Planning and Building Act. Steps improved: how do we deal with the illegal import of to strengthen Local Agenda 21 efforts, especially alien species, and how do we deal with accidental the participation and assistance of NGOs, should introductions and limit the damage caused by in- therefore continue to be given priority in the pe- troduced species? Quarantine and facilities for kee- riod covered by the white paper. ping species that have been introduced illegally The committee appointed to review the plan- are two problems that arise in connection with the ning legislation has already submitted the first part introduction of alien species (see Box 3.6). of its report. The final report, including proposals for amendments to the Planning and Building Act, will be submitted at the end of 2002. The commit- 3.2.5 Ensuring sustainable land use tee is considering a number of issues related to Report No. 34 (1990–1991) to the Storting on en- special statutes and to the planning legislation. vironmental protection at local level set out ex- These include strengthening the legal authority tensive plans for improving municipal expertise in for national policy guidelines and decisions, for the field of nature management, and resulted in designating areas for particular purposes (as agri- the local environmental development programme cultural areas, areas of natural environment and that was implemented by the Ministry of the En- outdoor recreation areas) in municipal master

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which some form of protection is proposed (new Box 3.9 Enhancing international national parks and large protected areas, areas in- cooperation cluded in regional protection plans for coniferous In international efforts to conserve biological forest and the remaining county protection plans) diversity, Norway will give special priority to and the remaining large areas of undisturbed natu- the following: ral environment. The Ministry of the Environment, – contributing to the harmonization, coordi- in cooperation with the Ministry of Fisheries, is nation and simplification of international now starting to develop a similar network of pro- environmental agreements tected areas in marine and coastal waters, and the – contributing to further development of the protection plans for watercourses provide extensi- Convention on Biological Diversity, for ex- ve protection for river systems. Nevertheless, most ample by negotiating protocols of the area of Norway will always be outside protec- – helping to arrange global and regional ex- ted areas, and this is also where most human ac- pert meetings tivity will take place. To avoid disturbance in areas – intensifying scientific cooperation between of particular value for biological diversity, these the various environmental conventions areas must be clearly identified and it must be – seeking to ensure that the WTO system possible to take steps to ensure that, wherever and the environmental agreements toget- possible, they are sheltered from land-use changes her promote the objective of sustainable that reduce biodiversity. development – ensuring that the WTO system and the en- 3.2.6 Avoiding pollution vironmental agreements are mutually sup- portive Pollution control policy is important in relation to – reviewing the relationship between the management of biodiversity, and several of the mi- Convention on Biological Diversity and the nistries emphasize this in their chapters. This poli- TRIPS Agreement and working to ensure cy area is also thoroughly dealt with in the sectoral that environmental considerations are bet- environmental action plans. The white paper does ter integrated into multilateral trading ru- not deal with pollution control policy as such, but les with the links between this and biological diversity. – supporting the developing countries in Chapter 2 identifies acidification, climate change their efforts to take part in and implement and emissions of hazardous chemicals as particu- the Convention on Biological Diversity larly important in relation to biodiversity because of – continuing to host the Trondheim confe- their widespread and long-lasting impacts. They rences on biodiversity dealing with impor- are also more complex to deal with and require tant issues relevant to the Convention on more closely coordinated management than other Biological Diversity. This is part of Nor- problems. There are close relationships between way’s assistance to capacity-building under the international agreements on long-range trans- the convention. port of pollutants, the Climate Change Convention and the Convention on Biological Diversity.

3.2.7 Enhancing international cooperation plans, and for soil conservation and the protection of beaches, cultural landscapes and biodiversity. All Norwegian public authorities share the respon- The report also proposes amendments to streng- sibility for following up the Convention on Biologi- then provisions relating to particularly valuable un- cal Diversity. This responsibility also applies in all cultivated areas in the Planning and Building Act forms of international cooperation in which they and link them to county plans and municipal mas- are engaged. This is discussed in the chapter by ter plans. Coordination with the municipal land-use the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which is respon- planning process and appropriate legal authority sible for coordination of foreign and development will be an essential basis for safeguarding areas policy. that have been surveyed and classified on the basis Further development of the Convention on Bio- of their value for biological diversity. logical Diversity is a major task, and will involve The core areas for the conservation of biologi- important matters that are the subject of discus- cal diversity are areas that are already protected sion in international environmental policy, such as under the Nature Conservation Act, those for better coordination between the global environ-

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mental agreements and between environmental financial, trade and industrial sectors. One reason and trade agreements. for this is that they lack stronger and more uni- fying international organizations and instruments. The strength and authority of the WTO must be 3.2.7.1 Coordination of environmental seen against the background of its long history and agreements fundamental features of its development. Nevert- The development of a stronger institutional struc- heless, there appears to be a need to strengthen ture for international environmental governance the international architecture of environmental ag- was a central topic at the informal ministerial mee- reements and coordinate them better. ting of environment ministers held in Bergen in To improve the coordination of environment 2000. The meeting pointed to the need to coordina- and trade agreements, they must be considered te existing international structures and agree- together to a greater degree as multilateral agreements in the environmental field. This will involve ments are further developed. For example, the in- many challenging tasks, including the following: ternational trade regime is to a large degree based – evaluation of possible gaps in binding inter- on standards set by experts in the appropriate fi- national agreements that need to be closed in elds. One way of ensuring that environmental con- order to solve high-priority international envi- siderations are given higher priority is therefore to ronmental problems develop standards that incorporate fundamental – harmonization, coordination and simplification environmental requirements, either by giving the of international agreements environmental agreements a role in the develop- – mechanisms for compliance, control and effec- ment of standards or by recognizing the environ- tive implementation mental conventions as competent to set standards – organizational coordination and improvements under the WTO system. – practical cooperation on follow-up (research, Norway has an administrative system where reporting, analyses of the state of the environ- coordination between the environment and trade ment). sectors functions well, and is therefore in a good position to work actively towards the above deve- Norway is giving priority to this work, and believes lopments internationally. To start with, we will try that enhanced synergy and better coordination of to cooperate with organizations that are accepted conventions and agreements related to biological as competent to set standards within the WTO diversity will make it possible to find better solu- system. One interesting initiative in this context is tions to environmental problems in this field. It is the proposal from the International Plant Protec- natural to consider drawing up a new system using tion Convention (IPPC) for collaboration with the the Convention on Biological Diversity as a basis Convention on Biological Diversity as regards ali- and including the most important substance of all en species and GMOs (genetically modified orga- these agreements. Norway has maintained a high nisms). In the long run, this may result in the profile in work under the Convention and intends Convention on Biological Diversity becoming re- to continue this approach in efforts to coordinate sponsible for setting standards within the WTO the Convention on Biological Diversity with other system (see Box 3.9). important environmental conventions. Experience gained from work under the en- 3.2.7.3 Development cooperation vironmental conventions will also be used in broa- der-based efforts to strengthen international en- The fundamental goals of Norwegian development vironmental governance that have been started un- cooperation coincide with the main objectives of der the UN Environment Programme (UNEP). the Convention on Biological Diversity: sustainable use and conservation of biological diversity and equitable distribution of benefits. One priority in 3.2.7.2 The relationship between environment Norwegian development cooperation will be to ob- and trade agreements tain more information on the economic and direct Within the UNEP system, a clear need has been and indirect use value of biodiversity in relation to identified for a body to act as a counterweight to both ecosystem services and products. Other pri- the World Trade Organization (WTO) in environ- orities will be training and education, advisory ser- mental matters. The multilateral environment ag- vices, capacity-building and institutional coopera- reements are too weak in relation to the system of tion in the administrative systems of partner coun- agreements in the economic sectors, including the tries.

SIDE 52 Cyan Magenta Yellow Sort 2000–2001 Summary in English: Report No. 42 to the Storting 53 Norwegian biodiversity policy and action plan – cross-sectoral responsibilities and coordination

Norway has an indigenous population, the Sa- 3.2.7.4 Marine resources, the Arctic and mi. Articles 8 and 10 of the Convention require the indigenous peoples parties to respect the rights of indigenous peoples Marine resources, the Arctic and indigenous pe- and encourage their participation in the manage- oples are particularly relevant fields of cooperation ment of biodiversity. These matters are being dealt for Norway. High priority will be given to promo- with at national level through the work of the Sami ting sound management of marine resources in Rights Council and other initiatives. In addition, international waters and further developing inter- the Ministry of Foreign Affairs will seek to ensure national law in this field. Sustainable use with a that Norway actively supports indigenous peoples sound scientific basis is not in conflict with the through its international participation in the Con- conservation of biological diversity. This is an im- vention. The programme of work on the implemen- portant principle that will primarily be used in rela- tation of Article 8(j) adopted at the Fifth Meeting of tion to decisions in the International Whaling Com- the Conference of the Parties (COP 5) in May 2000 mission (IWC) and the Convention on Internatio- will be particularly relevant for Norway’s interna- nal Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna tional participation, which must also include parti- and Flora (the CITES Convention). The principle cipation by the Sami population. is already laid down in the Convention on Biologi- cal Diversity. 3.2.7.5 Other fora There are four main issues that should receive attention in relation to Arctic ecosystems. The first The Convention on Biological Diversity is being is the transport of pollutants that accumulate in followed up in various international fora in addition food chains, which in recent years has been recog- to work within the system of the Convention itself. nized as a problem for certain marine mammals For example, regional cooperation has been orga- and Arctic bird species. Secondly, there is the en- nized in the form of the Pan-European Biological vironmental pressure caused by harvesting of na- and Landscape Diversity Strategy, which is spon- tural resources, especially marine resources, in sored by the Council of Europe and UNEP’s Regio- northern areas. The third problem, which has also nal Office for Europe. This work has been continu- become more urgent in recent years, is the intro- ed in the form of a strategy for biological diversity duction of alien species that may cause environ- for the EU and the Nordic Council of Ministers. mental damage or injury to health. Finally, explora- The Nordic Council has published a report on Nor- tion for oil and gas is in progress in both the Nor- dic implementation of the Convention on Biologi- wegian and the Russian sectors of the Barents Sea. cal Diversity. Large deposits have already been found in Russian The fundamental principles and directions set waters. Oil and gas activities may become a se- out in the report from the Nordic Council of Minis- rious threat to Arctic ecosystems. These areas will ters are followed in the white papers on the Go- be addressed in Norwegian foreign policy. In addi- vernment’s environmental policy and the state of tion, Norway is involved in a programme for the the environment in Norway (Reports No. 8 (1999– conservation of Arctic flora and fauna through the 2000) and 24 (2000–2001) to the Storting) and are cooperation the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is coor- being further followed up through the action listed dinating in the Arctic Council and other relevant in the white paper. fora.

Side 53 Cyan Magenta Yellow Sort Ministry of the Environment

Summary in English: Report No. 42 to the Storting (2000-2001)

Publication number: T-1414 responsibilities and coordination Translation: Alison Coulthard Coverdesign: Seedesign as

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